Social Psychology Exam 1 Review

4 theories of prosocial behavior

Instinct - inborn for humans to have empathy (concern for one another) Religions talk about good and evil and human beings are capable of good We are born with inborn tendencies Christianity - humans are flawed & imperfect, but we have capability to overcome that Sociobiology - behavior is due to evolution (Edward Osborne Wilson) • Any group that lacks prosocial behavior dies out because people have to help each other • Prosocial behavior is inborn Empathy • Hoffman, 1981: empathy is natural in all species • Ex) mother protecting offspring across species • If young child will cry if hears another child cry • Hepach, 2012 studied 2 year-olds were intrinsically motivated to help • Felt better when they saw another being helped • Dog wanted other dog to be helped and since no one else around was helping, dog helped

Developmental (Kohlberg)

Moral development -when a child is born, child is not prosocial (born blank slate) 6 levels Level 5 or 6 = extreme - people who sacrifice themselves (heroic, unusual) At first children are punished for bad behavior (biting nipple, toilet training) Learn morality from being punished, rather than rewarded People internalize morality over time

1884: Sir Francis Galton

Proposes the first social psychology experiment Study on body language- measuring how much people like each other based on how much they are inclined toward each other (ex: leaning toward each other or leaning away) Didn't actually do the experiment

o 1897: Normal Triplett actually publishes the first social psychology experiment

Social facilitation: increase in one's behavior due to the presence of others • Observed that people do more when observed by others in a group • Scenario 1: Child alone with kite string, instructed to wind kite string • Scenario 2: Children together with kite string instructed to wind the kite string • Children see others working to wind the string, reinforcing that behavior for the individual • Found that children wound 50% more when in a group than individually • Presence of other's energizes us • When this was tested in labs, same results found over and over (note: not just a human phenomenon, also found with animals) Basis of social psychology

Environmental Psych Talk 10/2

Use behavioral research to make buildings better Mostly engineers are used in building buildings, not so much architects

law

We're not responsible for each others' misfortunes Duty to aid - law requires people to intervene 46 out of 50 states don't require people to intervene Other countries have duty to aid law Good Samaritan laws 50 states have good Samaritan law If you do intervene, you're not liable Bad Samaritans are people who don't want to intervene

muson 78 how did two cbs funded studies differ in their findings about media violence?

"long term exposure to tv violence increases degree of serious violent behavior in boys. same for less serious. swearing and aggressiveness in sports. the critique by cbs: only correlational. there's a relationship between tv and violent behavior but doesn't look into cause and effect. milgram says its not proven. charity box people didnt respond differently (breaking in) after watching antisocial tv. .. later study. qualifiers had much more violent acts than controls because of tv exposure. (could it be envrionmental/social/home factor? switched groups and found same thing (wanted to make sure kids who watch violent shows didnt watch because they're already violent) most likely an effect over time due to progression reduction

NSF 15 In the behavioral sciences today, what are some spec challenges in our methods?

-Must have real findings. Not a final conclusion. Some findings may be intentionally fraudulent. Confirmation bias. Replication. Sample size/quality of sample etc What are some specific challenges in our methods? Wrote report about "replication crisis". "crisis in confidence" - criticism = small samples. Question: Can these studies be replicated? With small samples, studies often hard to replicate. "QRPs" - questionable research practices -- whenever a person is collecting data, there are little decisions that affect outcome. Milgram suggested taping research for review. Conclusion of NSF report is that social psychologists need to strengthen research practices.

aggression studies

darns - abusive husband put 2 bullets in gun and pulled trigger at wiFE but didn't fire. charged with attempted murder football player- not rough or aggressive w an intent to harm more a=of a mean to an ends - instrumental aggression us surgeon general was concerned w the effect of violence on children -99% of american homes have a tv -96% had a telephone -average tv was on 6 hours per day -boy age 12 children spent more time watching tv as opposed to being in the classroom -children were more likely to watch violent tv cartoons -surgeon general concluded hat they did not know if violent tv affected children -nimh looked at same research and found a positive correlation -harold nyson found that there was a correlation received funding from cps belson- found violent tv affected childhood behavior . also received cps funding the genetic theory looks at individual variations or pre disposition towards aggression wh

aronson 3 facets of aggression

emotional - anger -intentional - intent to harm one self or others behavioral - actually harming someone

IRB 13 How does a researcher apply for IRB approval to do a study?

fill out IRB form. Explain methods/details of experiment . how subjects will be selected/recruited. . incentives. What will be done. Possible risks . informed consent.

milgram how can experiments take us out of our everyday experiences?

How social psychology is related to everyday life. How social psych can take us "out of our comfort zone." Point of social psych is not to "master" other people, but rather understand why people behave the way they do. If there was something Milgram didn't understand, he wanted to conduct an experiment/or design a test for the behavior in order to better understand. -naivete and skepticism. Naïve in that you believe in your view but skeptical that it has to be right and of other suggestions. -taking your own experience and questioning it in the context of a larger picture. Challenge what you take for granted/happens in daily life. Watching people behave in front of you. Gives insight into typical social behavior. Atypical.

social psychology in cities

Humans have been in cities for a very short time compared to their existence as a species ● As time passes on, size of cities and density of human population increases (London first city to reach 1 million population) ● Why cities are so important to humans? ○ Plato (320 BC) - they provide utility ○ Aristotle (300 BC) - based on human instinct; humans need to be with each other... they are social animals ○ Newton's apple - 2 bodies were attracted to each other (apple to ground/earth... mass attracts mass); reason cities grow larger is because people are attracted to each other ● Urban paradox - the gap between attitude and behavior ○ People don't necessarily have the best attitudes towards cities (i.e. think pollution, crime, crowdedness)

Four main differences (between SSP and PSP)

Individual v group • People • Experiments v aggregate o Sociology: large data sets, no lab o Psychologist: small samples in a lab • Advocacy (no more) o Sociology: trying to change society, strong views and opinions o Psychologists historically were not advocates (not seen as scientific) now this is changing

Link between social psychology and abnormal psychology

JASP- 1966 Journal of Social and - JPSP replaced the JASP - Historically, social psychologists felt that abnormal behavior is caused by family, group relations, etc. - Today, we longer hold this view

Levine 03 Did cross-national helping experiments link civility with GDP , density, or population size?

Many wished they could be good Samaritans like they used to. But people fake illness or get angry for offerings of help. Helping behavior has to do with current location. Population size impact of diffusion of responsibility. Knowing each others name etc can help. 95% of those who agreed to watch radio stopped snatcher. 23 nations: 281 blind./281 helped. 424 pens. 493 leg. 493. The higher the income, the less helpful . Population/crime rate not related. Less density, more helpfulness

Question to Milgram:​ Your advice to be a great scientist?

Milgram's Answer:​ 3 things, Courage, Courage, Courage. If you do behavioral research on social issues, you need courage especially in 2018.

Bodinger 82 How did witnesses in NYC and other cities react, when witnessing possible antisocial behavior?

Most antisocial behavior in nyc. 9/10 cases where no one does anything about suspicious behavior. Breaking into cars. Some people helped the suspect. only 3 pedestrians intervened . other 3 were cops . 214 manhattan breakins result in low rate of interference w suspect action. 20% other helping behavior. 44% ignore. 32% notice. 2.9% intervene. 3000 passerby in 214 situations. 6 questioned the suspect.

Chief! By Albert Seedman 1974

No diffusion of responsibility - Genovese case research studied facts that weren't accurate 2004 - 40th anniversary forum Twisted Confessions by prosecutor Charles E. Skoller Explained what actually happened in the case Man sitting at a window, saw what happened, and when she passed by, he went to sleep and forgot about it Milkman drove by and saw what was happening & accelerated

Robinson 91 - What is the special value of this 1991 book of scales?

gist is that very often in social psychology we use scales to measure behavior. Robinson & Shaver is classic because of its scope (source of good scales). This is an essential reference book for any social scientist or student who uses measures of attitude or personality in his or her research. • Serves as an update and extension of a highly useful book published twenty years ago • Employs a systematic standardized evaluation of 150 scales • Chapters on specific types of scales are written by experts in those subfields Social psychologists, personality psychologists, and sociologists interested in measures of individual differences in attitudes, opinions and beliefs. Depression and loneliness/self wellbeing/social anxiety, etc

o hara 12 can sexy movies really impact teens "sexual debut" and risky behaviors?

This finding provides further evidence that exposure to movies with sexual content may accelerate the normal rise in sensation seeking during adolescence. MSE also predicted sexual debut indirectly through an increase in sensation seeking. can impact into adulthood

Cacciola 80 With a fainted child, how did NYers and non NYers compare, quantitatively and qualitatively?

Those who helped the child immediately ran over. Those who did not either kept walking or said they had no time. Results support the "urban adaptation" theory. In a city like NY is that residents develop a diminished sensitivity to their environment. People block out anything that does not have to do with their own needs or survival. 36% of new Yorkers helped. 68% of new jersey residents helped.

Apa 99 Why and how was apa criticized for its journals relabeling pedophilia as simply "adult child sex"

critique say : apa would a legal defense for those charged with pedophilia and the article's was advocacy masquerades as science. also says it was using doctoral theses and therefore not peer reviewed

Social Psychology Research Methods

"The observer listens to nature, but the experimenter questions her and forces her to reveal her secrets" - G. Cuvier 50% of social psych studies are lab experiments, field experiments are 2.4% of studies. Observation is a very rare method. Couldn't find any subjective experiments. Surveys are 38.4% of social psych research. Norm violation is 0% of social psych research. Having "tight" research surpasses all other methods

Kitty Genovese 1964

38 bystanders while she was being stabbed 3 hours later someone finally called the police (police got there in less than 90 seconds) 38 witnesses book by Rosenthal (editor of NYT) Ms. Genovese could have been saved Interviewed New Yorkers, sociologists, anthropologists, behavioral scientists - experts realized they don't know why people do helpful things The challenge: Rosenthal knew something was going on Behavioral scientists were flummoxed Theologian: people no longer see each other as people Sociologist: TV generation - people didn't want to stop the screaming because they wanted to see what was going to happen Milgram: Genovese had a lot of friends, but her neighbors were not her friends • Friends would have helped, but not neighbors because they were strangers "I knew they would not do anything. People never do" -sociopath killer

Social learning

Albert Bandora Observation of others' experiences: peers, friends, parents Moss, 1972: study if helpfulness is subject to social learning Virtually 100% of people gave directions when asked for directions • Positive: "Thank you so much. You really helped me out." • Negative: "That's confusing. I don't think you know where the location is. Never mind, forget it." • Neutral: "Alright." Momentarily after - asked if they could provide change for $1 • How person asking for directions reacted affected if helper would help again • Rate of helping was 90% when person reacted positively and 40% when person reacted negative • Neutral response was 85% when person reacted neutrally (neither positive or negative, so assumed appreciative)

Prosocial Behavior

Aronson overlooked this topic SonnyRadio.com video on one dog saving another dog who was trying to cross the road & was hit by a car on the highway Why did he do it? Dog risked its life to save the other dog More likely to save the other dog if they knew each other vs. strangers More likely if there was a human involved Combination of instinct and past experiences Would humans do it? Group would be less likely to intervene Cases where average people help someone in need even when they don't get compensation In early 70s, pro social behavior became a major topic

UN Habitat hires you, its science advisor, to test if it is true that urbanites are more aggressive than villagers, using Aronson's definition of aggression? In a maximum of TWO pages, briefly underline and describe how you would use 5 of these 7 methods: lab experiment, field experiment, objective observation, subjective observation, survey, archival, norm violation

Aronson's definition of aggression is in the appendix of the book No need for outside references 7 essay topics to choose from: definition of social psych, urban/city life, research methods, challenges to research, forum, pro & anti social behavior

prosocial behavior - any behavior that benefits others

Concept did not exist before 1964 • Because psychology is interested in studying negative behaviors (not positive) • Doesn't fit into theories of psychologists • Freud believes we do things selfishly • BF Skinner - rewards & punishment Good deeds without rewards

Philip Zimbardo - everyday heroism

His whole life is about evil (Stanford prison experiment, etc) and he wanted to go beyond evil Action research, positive psychology www.heroicimagination.org kidney donation: Save someone's life! Illegal to be paid for it and people do donate kidney

altruism

philosophical term that predates psychology (ancient Greeks: good life is helping others) Helping others is a good thing & a goal in our lives Opposite: take care of ourselves first Helping behavior - any behavior that benefits the recipient more than the donor, but too hard to measure benefits (internal, external)

Shweder 17 what is a major reform of US IRB processes in 2017?

the new regulations state " we acknolwedge guidance may be useful. for interpreting some terms . however there be times research activities will fit exemption and should be allowed to proceed w/o irb review exempted: surveys, interviews, & other forms of free comm bt researchers/human adults , aptitude testing, the observation and recording of verbal and nonverbal behavior in schools public places (ie courtrooms) and benign behavioral interventions

Mueller 07 What are some problems with the IRB regulation of behavioral research?

torture and interrogation. Censorship and irb's. monitoring the monitors. --> the drift of irb evaluations from protecting humans to micromanagement of all research aspects --> the 1st amendment/academic freedom challenge of having non gov funded res evaluated according to gov directives --> lack of either appeal provisions from decisions of IRBs and compliance officers or any accountability -- > potential for abuse in research ethics program --> deficiencies in training program

Prosocial behavior - Latane & Darley, 1968: The unresponsive Bystander, Why doesn't he help?

• Crisis/Emergency - an unusual, unexpected even that requires immediate, appropriate action to avert harm to self or others • 5 step intervention model • 1. Notice event Urban overload - Milgram - people in the city are less likely to notice because there is so much going on • 2. Interpret event as an emergency Misinterpret event Pluralistic ignorance - more likely to interpret an emergency as a non-emergency to make life more convenient Hear woman screaming she's been drinking, she's rehearsing for a play, trying to create a fuss non emergency • 3. Decide one's responsibility Diffusion of responsibility - the more people during a crisis, the less any one person will intervene "Am I the one who should do something?" • 4. Implement the decision Concerned confusion (Takooshian) - while stealing motorcycles, woman screamed that someone stole her purse (thief was not making a quick getaway) During crisis, people don't function properly People wanted to do something but didn't know what to do • 5. Act • If you're alone during crisis, you have 100% responsibility • 38 people = less than 3% responsibility • Helpfulness is situational, not because of relationship with victim but relationship with other bystanders (if they think someone else already helped) Lab social psych - tested the 5 steps • Smoke filling into room while people are filling out a questionnaire Presence of passive bystanders = less likely to help • Lady in distress - pluralistic ignorance 1 passive bystander drops helping percentage Friends react quicker than strangers, more helpful • Epileptic seizure People cannot see each other Student comes into lab where they are alone, with a microphone, and told they are connected to other people with microphones "person" with epilepsy says they need help 1 participant = 100% help, 52 sec 2 participants = 85%, 93 sec 5 participants = 62%, 166 sec • Didn't test outside the laboratory, didn't do a field experiment

Law & morality - Harry Kaufman: field of law & cognition - how law and morality interact (law/morality/punishment)

• Gave people a survey describing Genovese experiment • ½ people are told this is legal in the state (no law for people to intervene) • ½ people are told this is illegal in the state (if you see an emergency you have to intervene) • Asked was inaction immoral? When people were told it is against the law, more likely to judge behavior as illegal • Law shapes morality Just existence of law has an effect • Marijuana - not legalized, people are deterred from using it & if it is legalized, more people will use it

● Urban Life: How does city life impact the individual?

○ How long have homosapiens been on earth: 100,000 years ○ 1st city: London (1 million people in 1800) ○ Powerpoint: (number indicates slide) 1. Overview: Trends in cities (see powerpoint) 2. Origins of cities 3. Origins of cities: 2 differences - very tiny, disappeared (e.g., Constantinople/Istanbul) 4. Growth of cities of 100,000 (see powerpoint or handout) - Table tells you 4 things: cities are increasing in number, cities that exist are becoming larger, density increasing, percentage of people in cities sharply increasing 5. Density: e.g., Flatiron (1902) - first building to be called a skyscraper (see powerpoint for subsequent skyscrapers 5b-f), now a world-wide competition.

o 1908: Two first social psychology textbooks appears

First written by William McDougall (Psychology, Harvard) Second written by Edward Alsworth Ross (Sociology, Stanford/Wisconsin)

tak 03a based on behavioral research, how effective are sonic car alarms in 3 ways to reduce auto theft?

- deterrence : of a thief before pouncing on car -interruption: of thief who has pounced on car -apprehension : of thief after break in . could impair concentration. contribute to stimulus overload where people ignore alarm since many can be so used to it accidentally going off. not much info on effectiveness

Cognitive-situational

- helpfulness is related to how we interpret the specific situation Genovese situation - bystanders interpreted the situation as begin at the time

Voitko 2018 Why is it useful to use a 360 degree survey to compare students' views across nations?

Found Fordham law students school more satisfied after law school building renovation. Measuring student satisfaction in different areas can help schools determine what impacts students most.

Rieber 96 How and why does PC flourish in universities? How does it distort behavioral research?

- Firing of people who make mistakes/have different opinions -faculty who disagree with one's research may set out to sabotage PC is new challenge to academic freedom

history of social psychology

- First written by Gordon W. Allport - Psychology originally based on scientific methods, but questions had been asked since antiquity o Plato and Aristotle- philosophers raising questions, but without scientific answers o Giving opinions- considered the past of social psychology o 1600s, 1700s- much literature written about human nature o Declaration of Independence: Franklin- "If we don't hang together, we'll hang separately" o 1776: American Revolution is based on the idea that humans are not good Developed checks and balances to regulate the "bad" humans that are attracted to power Worked based on the idea that people are not capable of self governing o 1789: French Revolution is based on the idea that humans are good Unsuccessful - Field arose in late 1800s when people started using science to answer these questions

o 1965: Robert Zajonc

Addressing findings of social inhibition social facilitation Social Inhibition: decrease in one's behavior due to the presence of others Social facilitation occurs with simple, well learned behaviors- presence of an audience increases the behavior When the behavior is advanced or poorly learned, the affect of others will reduce or inhibit the behavior

Darley 73 How well do internal dispositions and external situations predict helpful behavior?

-a person in a hurry is not likely to offer help. A person who is not in a hurry will. (this does not matter regardless of whether one claims to be a good Samaritan or is giving the talk).may not process someone as a victim until after one stops feeling hurried. Some chose not to stop. Someone may be in a hurry bc someone ELSE requires their help. Personality had no effect. : Situational and dispositional factors impact on helping behavior. Darley article concluded that situational factors largely impact helping behavior. 3 part experiment: 1st part - questionnaire about level of religiosity 2nd part - divided into two groups to give speech (parable or vocational opportunities), 3rd part - divided into three groups according to level of "hurry" (high, moderate, low). Results: (Dependent variable - whether people helped victim or not.) 40% of people helped overall. 63% helped with low hurry, 45% helped with moderate hurry, 10% helped with high hurry. Topic did not make "statistically significant difference"; however people giving Samaritan message did help more (made slight difference). Flaws of study: homogenous sample, small sample. What someone is thinking about is not necessarily dispositional.

Abdolian 03 What did post 911 2001 survey reveal about public attitudes on terrorism?

-people were not uniformly opposed to terrorism. Viewed of terrorism are mixed. Some oppose, some accept as a political tactic.- - Overall leans towards nonacceptance. 53% said terrorists have some legitimate anger at Americans. 50 percent oppose torturing terrorists but in favor of increased security was over 50 percent. -Mixed on liberties/security. People more supportive of individual liberties were less authoritarian in personality, more accepting of terrorism in general, and of al quaeda . opposite is true for those supportive of increased security. *Found that you can measure people's attitudes toward terrorism. Two things study found, not everyone is opposed to terrorism; 10% thought terrorism a valid tactic in politics. 2nd thing study found - country divided: 40% of Americans felt we shouldn't be critical of people capable of terrorism. 40% felt necessary to be critical of terrorism.

M 11-20: what are 5 behaviors produced by stimulus overload?

1) More superficial relationship to acquaintances/anonymity. 2) Spending less time on each input. 3) Disregard of low priority inputs. 4) Boundaries are redrawn. Cab drivers no longer make exact change for client. Client must come up with exact change. 5) Keeping telephone off hook/having unlisted numbers so people cannot call them. Trying to appear unfriendly 6) Intensity of inputs is filtered. Only weak and superficial forms of involvements with others are allowed. 7) Creation of specialized institutions to absorb that would otherwise swamp the individual. (welfare departments handle millions of issues. Interposition of institutions bt individual and social world.

genovese 14 since the 1964 genovese tragedy, what are the 4 lessons we have learnt about this tragedy?

1- known yet unknown - much about this case is known but a lot is unknown and new info is always coming out 2- common yet unique- this particular case isn't common to the extreme. but people do this with strangers who are injured all the time. many cases. she wasn't famous. more known than her killer. 3. behavioral sciences- milgram at cuny introduces urban psychology, harry kaufman studied cognitive forensic psychology to see impact of law on moral reasoning , at nyu study prosocial behavior, zimbardos research on heroism and the heroic imagination 4- truth- would she have survived if neighbors intervened? 1) Initial bystander reports typically contained inaccuracies that were tweaked in later editions. (2) Such reports were used as filler that rarely appeared in more than one paper. (3) When they did, reports in the two papers varied greatly. The Genovese case was no exception. So we ask, "

latane 70 in their 5 step c-s model of intervention, how might bystanders become inactive at each step?

1- not notice event 2-not interpret as emergency 3- diffusion of responsibility 4- concerned confusion 5- not act being alone increases helpful behavior less likely to help when with stranger, likely with friend

Takooshian 93 What are the 2 types of student research? The 5 steps for students to publish their research?

1. Faculty centered. The og project is the professor's. the student serves as an assistant. Entitled to at most junior authorship of the product. 2. Student centered: the og project is the students. The professor serves as an assistant or sounding board. Student is entitled to sole authorship of product. 1. Which student and which professor? Professor finds promising students and suggests topic/course. Student finds list of professors and one who has same research interests. Competence/record/responsibility should be considered. One who is student and research oriented. 2. Preliminary study. First study is sample and professor critiques/gives feedback. 3. Expand study. Enroll in upper level research course offered by school. Contribute to weightier and more advanced report that can contribute to scientific literature. 4. Presentation: present at professional conference. 5. Publication: some universities or national jouornals can publish possibly after a presentation .

APA 09 What are the 5 sections + appendices in an APA format research report?

1. Problem states the question asked and the importance of asking it. (a) in question form, (b) relating at least two variables, and (c) empirically testable. The hypothesis is a tentative answer to the question, which the scientist offers as an educated guess before beginning to test. clearly define for the reader all terms in the problem, summarize previous literature on it, and enumerate current hypotheses. 2. Method describes how the problem was tested, in enough detail for a reader to repeat the study by reading this section, in 3 parts: (a) Participants: number, type, source of the sample. (b) Materials: any apparatus or survey (with a copy appended). (c) Procedure: how each variable was measured, any comparison groups, etc. 3. Results are the data once the study has been done, closely following the hypotheses to either accept or reject them. This typically involves statistics, expressed in tables or graphs. 4. Discussion. This is where the researcher injects personal thoughts, frankly discusses: how the findings compare with previous research, any limitations of the study, alternate explanation for the findings, unexpected findings or events, suggestions for future research. 5. Conclusion (or Abstract) is one paragraph, summarizing each of the four sections above in one sentence, including a bit of data. (It is easiest to write this summary paragraph last, then place it the page before the Problem above, to give the reader an overview of the whole study.) Also, appendices: (6) A page of references(7) A sample questionnaire or interview (8) Statistical calculations

Stuart 83 As an example of APA format, how much do ethnic women vary in their views of feminism?

233 New York City women . 5 groups: polish. italian. armenian. cuban. irish. proved equally feminist. x= 11, 12, 12,12, 12,. but nonethnic woman: x=17 which shows they are less supportive of feminism

Vardi 08 Comparing the lost child in 1976 and 2008, how did pedestrians react to debriefing?

55% were positive in 1977. Felt intrigued and wanted to know what their response meant. 11% were unhappy, feeling deceived . the more helpful the behavior, the more positive the reaction. Although there were exceptions. Foreigners had best reactions. Some thought the child would steal their phone.

Luo 04 When asking for a subway seat in 1971 + 2004 how did quantitative and qualitative results compare?

68 percent when asked directly gave up the seat. New Yorkers are much more accommodating now than in 1971. 13/15 agreed to give up their seat. Specifics such as reading book/asking partner first dropped percentages a lot. Varied reactions/ elderly woman yelling//man feeling sorry/others preaching

Li 23 How common are the 7 research methods in US social psychology journals?

72% of journal articles are based on lab research. hypothetical research is the most common type (87%) although exploratory types are increasing. lab experiments dominate the field 50% students are primary participants (67%) (although large variety based on journal) 64% are from U.S. (see percent break downs above)

Richard 03: How can meta analysis measure the strength of trends in social psychology findings?

A meta-analyst uncovers a number of studies on the same topic and then converts the effect observed in each study to a common metric, such as a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r). Each of the effect sizes is weighted by a term that reflects its precision, and a weighted mean effect size is computed to estimate the typical magnitude of the effect. By making statistical comparisons of different research literatures, we assess these possibilities. Meta-analyses, 302 articles that tried to summarize social psychology as related to certain topics. Gist: Social psychology can try to get a "crisp overview" of human behavior and can be captured in meta-analyses.

Tak 97 Why have dance schools become so popular in US cities?

A way of fulfilling emotional and physical needs when living alone in busy city . city friendships are based more on psychological needs not geographical/more close knit ties. Allows people to get to know each other in safe way. Even good for shy people. Nonverbal way to meet 50+ strangers with different opportunities. Noncommittal. Come alone or with a partner. Physiological arousal increases interpersonal interaction.

Research Methods (RMs)

Experiment-Lab: dominates the field of psychology ○ Experiments in this setting are easier to manipulate as opposed to other methods ○ Aronson has an entire chapter on RMs and only lists Experimental-Lab studies ○ Li*2012 reviewed the 3 leading Social Psychology journals (JSP, SPQ, JPSP) and categorized them based on research methods used and type of research. ○ Lab Experiment: Researcher creates the situation, it is a highly controlled situation (e.g. control lighting), and predicts the resulting behavior. ● Lab-Experiments​ are artificial, not generalizable, highly susceptible to demand characteristics ○ Example: Tripletts Kite experiment ● Field-Experiments​ are more natural, people do not realize they are a part of an experiment ○ Overall Experiment-Lab are more frequently used in studies. ○ Example: Darley Study ● Observational ○ Observation-Objective: observe without using feelings ■ Example: Video-Are Russian people happy? ● Weakness of observational research is that it is very superficial. In order to really measure happiness we would need a stronger measure (e.g survey) ○ Observation-Subjective: observe using feelings ■ You have to get a sense/feel for what is going on. ■ Ex: Going into a hospital and analyzing the atmosphere. ● Survey ○ Today these are used more frequently due to IRB approval. ○ Can gather a lot of data quickly. ○ The issue is the results would look different compared to actual behavior. ■ Example: Asking people on a survey whether they would give electric shocks would probably give us very different results than the actual experiment did. ■ Interviews: time consuming, not used as frequently 2. Archival ○ Reanalyzing existing data to test a theory ■ Example: Li*2012 ■ Weakness: Someone else collected the data you are not as familiar with it in terms of reliability. 3. Norm Violation: ○ Researcher violates some unwritten social rule (norm), to see how the system readjusts itself. ■ Allows you to study culture ■ Example: Allen felt the term Hello was awkward. Picked up the phone and said "What do you want?" ● Concluded that Hello is a useful term, it is friendly and people respond well to it. People were annoyed by "What do you want?" ● Example: Milgram-asking for a seat on the subway. It was very difficult to ask, but why? ○ Milgram preferred field experiments Sampling ● Representative Sampling: ​Random Sampling, representative of the group ○ Very rare, small samples rarely represent the whole group ● Purposive Sampling: ​non-probability sample that is selected based on characteristics of a population and the objective of the study; also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling. ○ Psychology usually settles for this type, N=30 is normal distribution 3. Searching ● When doing research you want to look at what has been done in the past. ○ SocialPsychology.org and Google Scholar are very powerful tools ○ Forward tracking: allows you to see what has been done since the article has been published/how many articles have cited it. 4. Reporting:​ 5 step format a. Abstract b. Problem c. Method d. Results e. Discussion i. Ethnic women study great example of this format Peer-Review ● The idea that the quality of research is anonymously critiqued by others in the field before publishing ● Somewhat controversial ○ Example: APA*1999

o Present Day: we have two main organizations

American Psychological Association (APA)- 54 specialties, 80,000 members est. 1892 American Sociological Association (ASA)- 34 specialties, 12,000 members est. 1905 SSP v PSP CSP: Cultural Social Psychology • Culture is a factor • People may behave differently in different cultures/environments • We have to have diverse samples and should replicate studies across cultures

Tak 99 Why do population trends make it important to study the attitudes/behaviors of homo urbanus"

Cities are growing larger and larger which effects human behavior . less prosocial behavior in urban life. Less progressive/than conservative etc (specific traits) majority ignores crime. (antisocial behavior)

how external factors impact the individual

External factors: -other people -media (tv internet, news,etc) -weather (ex: hot temperature and murder rates) -law -income/economy -social class -religion "anything outside the skin that affects human behavior" **more broadly accepted definition

Pashler 12 as of 2012 why do some see a "Crisis of confidence" in psychological science?"

Delves into issue of small sample research. File drawer problem- Positive-results bias, a type of publication bias, occurs when authors are more likely to submit, or editors are more likely to accept, positive results than negative or inconclusive results. Doubt in reliability of findings. Psychologists can only report significant findings that represent their hypotheses. High rate of errors in findings.

Haber 77 With a lost child, how did urbanities and non urbanites compare, quantitatively and qualitatively?

Diffusion of responsibility 46% help in city. 72% help in suburb. In suburbs those who didn't help apologized/offered suggestions or gave excuses for the most part. In the cities, ignored, pulled away, or said no

Social Psychology Challenges:

PC ○ Judging the quality of behavioral research by the popularity of its findings rather than the soundness of its method. ■ In other words you are judging the result as opposed to the method. ■ Unpopular findings are less likely to get published ■ Example: Professor received death threats for conducting study on left-handed people. ■ The point is you will not be funded, hired, promoted, or published if your findings are unpopular. ■ Chemists and physicists are not subjected to this, but behavioral scientists are. IRBs ○ In theory, protects people from unethical research. ○ 1945 Nuremberg ■ Though no laws were broke, IRB argued that it was unethical ○ 1976 Belmont ○ In practice ■ Prior restraint: IRB tells you that you cannot pursue study ("guilty until proven innocent")-IRB doesn't really have to give you a reason ● This is unheard of in Journalism, but happens frequently in Behavioral Science. ■ May take weeks to receive feedback ■ Unelected Confidential Committee ■ No appeals for denials-IRB has the last word ■ Annual Changes- Even if study is approved this year, may not be approved next year ■ Punish Researchers- They will send comments ■ The first Amendment: freedom of speech/press ● IRB does not adhere to it to some extent. They have complete authority of what can be researched. ● Shweder, 2017: 99% of Social Psychology studies are harmless. The government no longer requires IRB to do approval for exempt studies which are: 1) Anonymous studies 2) ● Adversarial IRB:​ limits research (rejects proposals), Collaborative IRB: ​helps researcher do the research better ● Chilling Effect:​ Researchers will conduct less research ● Terms IRB use to describe research ○ Exempt:​ the IRB says the study does not need review, you can use survey forever ○ Expedited:​ proposal receives easier consideration, the local review board in your program reviews it-minimal risk involved ○ Excused:​ The researcher meets protocol, does not need to be reviewed, meets federal guidelines

Positive Social Psychology:

Push to study more positive subjects • Social psychologists tend to study more negative topics • Sean Lopez example of topics include: self esteem, love, courage, attachment, forgiveness, gratitude

Grimes 06 In a multicultural classroom, how can social psych reduce frictions, violence, expectations?

Reduce frictions: -research on damage segregation causes. Brown v board. However diversity alone does not increase intergroup harmony. Jigsaw classroom technique- a) Social psych can be used in the classroom. Multiculturalism not reserved for an urban classroom. Summarizes 3 areas: social psych in reducing frictions (e.g, jigsaw classroom - divided classroom into subgroups - deliberate groups made up of different cultures so that people who are different have to cooperate. Idea is turning competition into cooperation), social psych in reducing violence, social psych and expectations (e.g., Can a teacher's expectation influence the ability of students? Answer: Yes). Grimes' research discusses how expectations can be made positive. a) Equal status contact between groups b) aimed at a common goal c) supported by authority students are divided into problem solving groups of about six.

Does city life make people less concerned about other people's welfare?

Refer to urban psychology: studying homo urbanus ● Many studies after Takooshian's study continue to confirm that people from cities are less helpful than those from nonurban areas ● Levine (2003) ○ People's willingness to help someone during a chance encounter on a city street varies considerably around the world ○ Visited 23 cities and conducted the same 3 studies in each of the cities... blind man trying to cross the street; person dropping a pen while walking; person with a broken leg dropped something and was trying to pick it up ■ Big variation among the cities ■ Rate of helpfulness correlates with population density and GDP (gross domestic product) ● More dense a city was, the less helpful people were (negative correlation) ● Higher the GDP of a city/nation, the less helpful they were (negative correlation) ● Population size and crime rate had no correlation with helpfulness behavior ● 6 studies on friendship in the city Urban Relationships: Dancing in the City (Takooshian, 1997) Quantity - friendship is based on proximity... in villages people chose their neighbors while in the city this is not correct... how many people do not know their neighbors in the city? Two main friendships in the city are generally from job or school-related contexts ○ Quality - friendships are higher in quality based not on geography but based on similarity... friendships in cities, people have a much larger network and are able to pull out people who are similar to us from this larger network. People in cities can name more good friends due to this circumstance ○ Specialization - people in cities have more best friends and that people in cities have specialized friendships... we have so many friends that we are specialized. Best friends for certain things/tasks (i.e. best friend for gym, best friend for finances, etc) different friends for different occasions and very common for best friends of one person to never have met each other

social psychology and psychology

SP: the relationship between an individual and others. the individual is affected by others' actions and attitudes. (aronson) psychology: the

Woroschinski 18 why did environmental psychology originate in nyc in 1968?

Scientist Rachel carson writes book on 1) corporations poisoning the planet 2) the situation was urgent , causing many deaths within species 3) gov has moral obligation to become part of solution Apa starts its own division. Documents of environment on humans well being/psychology Cuny launches first 1968 doctoral program in environmental psych . phys surroundings impact behavior.

Tak 05 What are the origins and current status of urban psychology"

Simmel was one of a few contemporaneous European scholars who forged the modern discipline of sociology Simmel's essay raised his simple question, What impact has this new external environment on our inner life? In terms of population, it took all of human history to pass the 1 billion mark in 1804, which became 2 billion in 1927 (123 years), 3 billion in 1960 (33 years), 4 billion in 1974 (14 years), 5 billion in 1987 (13 years), and 6 billion in 1999 (12 years). So the world population more than tripled from 2 to 6 billions within the century since Simmel's essay. Current status: 1. Origins. Humans have lived in large cities for less than 0.4 percent of their history on the planet. 2. Growth. Even the largest ancient and medieval cities were small and fragile by modern standards. 3. Size. No insect or animal species collects in communities nearly as large as modern human cities that top one million. 4. Trends. Throughout modern history, cities have ineffably grown around the planet, and in every way--number, size, density, permanence, and the percentage of the population they contain. 5. Ubiquity. While the urban nations of the West become even more urbanized, the least urban nations of Africa and East Asia are the ones most rapidly urbanizing today, without exception. 6. Paradox. At the same time people voice negative views of city life (anti-urban attitudes), people are also pouring into cities in record numbers (pro-urban behavior). 7. Density. With the invention of light-weight new high-rise construction materials and other technologies (such as transportation, communications, elevators), cities are now shedding any past limits in size and density. 8. Urbanology. Though several behavioral sciences are part of modern urbanology, psychology is conspicuous by its near-total absence. 9. Homo urbanus. Though "Homo urbanus" is clearly the person of the future, what little behavioral research has been done on us urbanites to date finds cities strongly shaped us on all levels--our outward behavior, inner personality, personal values, interpersonal relations. 10. Urban psychology. Since 1970, systematic research and teaching on urban psychology is actually decreasing, not increasing.

Social Psychology is the opposite of personality psychology -

Social psychology: external factors - Personality psychology: what's inside the person

SPSSI 15 What is SPSSI NY and how does it promote scientific social psychology?

Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues - formed in 1936 to apply scientific social psychology to social problems, now numbers 3,000 members world-wide, about 400 of these in the active SPSSI-NY group. The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues is an organization of social scientists that has historically brought research to bear on a wide array of societal problems. SPSSI was organized during the Depression of the 1930s, in an attempt to bring together a "national group of socially minded psychologists" to address social and economic issues. While maintaining its status as an independently incorporated society, SPSSI also became an affiliated organization of the APA.

Example of sociology v psychology

Sociologist: group view of divorce o "Impact of law on divorce" • Psychologist: how divorce affects the individual o Same topic, different level

Research project questions

Some surveys will need approximately 30 participants ● Explore options on trying to gain survey participants (i.e. public settings such as train stations or parks)

M 166-174 When judging ethics of research, should we consider research participants reactions?

Sometimes deception is necessary. Depends on participant reaction likely to be elicited. Most say absolutely not ok. But what about lying about santa. Does person find it demeaning or intriguing? Ought to never be used unless indispensable to the conduct of an inquiry. Will it ultimately benefit society ? depends on intensity of stress/ Is it more than participant would experience in daily life? We can't say negative emotions are always wrong to elicit when that is a part of the human experience.

Salzinger 04 Why are some scientists increasingly critical of IRB goals and processes?

Sometimes too much PC and unfair IRBS.. young researchers may have future research suffer if they disagree with IRBs.

origins of urban psychology

Urban psychology is interdisciplinary - sociology, economics, culturology, history, political science ● Genovese - stabbed, cried for help but no one came out to do so ● Ferdinand Tonnies (1887) - "Gemeischaft und gesselscaft" ○ Village / town ○ Argued that people flocking to cities was not healthy and good for them... people in villages are joined by spirit... there is a sense of community /// when moving to a city, the spirit is lost and people don't care about each other... people are joined by reason (their motivations for going into the city) ○ Primary and secondary relations → primary are those such as the spirit while secondary are more inherent, personal reasons ● George Simmel (1903/1905) - "nervous energy" ○ The bigger cities get, the more nervous energy ○ Think how people talk faster, walk faster in cities ● Lewis Wirth (1938) - "urbanism as a way of life" & "anomic man" ○ In cities, people lose their identities, becoming superficial ○ Rather than seeing each other as individuals, they tend to see people more as a larger crowd ● Stanley Milgram (1970) - "stimulus overload" ○ All five of an individual's senses are overwhelmed when in a city first time study focuses on the individual ■ Evidence-based, where his claims are backed by data ● 5 theories of urban behavior (Takooshian, 2005) - city life affects people in five ways ○ Adaptation - inner change (Milgram, 1970) ■ City life produces long term internal changes on the individual → stimulus overload; anonymity, bystander behavior, selective and less concerned about others ○ Situation - outside factors - (Darley and Latane, 1970) ■ It's not the person but the situation... we behave differently because we are surrounded by lots of people ○ Selection - urban personality ■ Certain personality types are gravitated to city life ○ SOR - the person in the environment ■ Stimulus - O - response ■ City life has different effects on people ■ Women generally become more passive while men become more anxious and active in crowded situations (effect of crowding on gender is different) ○ Subcultural - sociological view (discher, 1984) ■ City life does not really affect people directly but indirectly through subcultures ■ Because a city is large, people find each other... think meet-ups

M 60-62 Why do cities create "familiar strangers?"

We often gain extreme familiarity yet never interact with them. Ie same people commuting each day. People are treated as a part of the environment. Similar to process like friendship. It's a covert process -> leads to frozen relationship. 1) person must be observed 2) repeatedly for certain time period 3) no interaction . the further away from the scene of their routine encounter, the more likely the interaction. A familiar stranger would rather request to a total stranger. Mutual ignoring. It is a response to overload.perceptual processing takes less time than social processing

tak 03g why did the 1964 genovese tragedy have such an immense impact on social psych

behavioral sciences want to know why someone would not help person in need. helping psychology/prosocial behavior topic created bad samaritan and social loafing had caused witnesses in groups to be less helpful

Kalayjian 01 Are post disaster symptoms different for children and adults? Can these be overcome?

good example of predicting and understanding human behavior. was able to advise people of 5 stages psychological phases Children: separation anxiety, refusing to sleep or be left alone, conduct disorder, regressive behaviors, thumb sucking, enuresis, clinging behaviors, hyperactivity ,withdrawal, somatic complaints, stomach ache, headache, join aches, sleep disturbances. Adults: uncertainty and fear, anger expressed toward builders and gov officials, feeling tense, edgy and jumpy, loss of appetite. Sleep disturbances and nightmares, withdrawal, loss of concentration, inability to make decisions, aggression/domestic violence, increased alcohol use Overcome: acceptance, of magnitude and addresses it. More hopeful and goal oriented w specific actions. Recovery: returned to functioining/ sense of adjustment Continuing pre disaster routine,, using supports, talking, know limits, ptg, find love/express love

M 3-5 What are some creative ways we can use handshaking to test the effects of urban overload?

incidence of reciprocated handshaking: towns: 67% city: 38.5% women: town: 56% city: 19% (varies a little)

history - antiquity 1972 1984 (aggression) 4 theories

instinct genetic drive social learning

hepach do 2 year olds care about others welfare? if so why?

it didn't matter if 2 year olds helped or saw others helping. 2 year old felt better when others distress was relieved. from early age empathy seems natural, not for personal gain. based on pupil dilation

Formozova: how does 360 deg feedback show differences bt us/Russian intl v domestic students?

measured student satisfaction. Measures services, professors, student relations, "other" (mixture of things). Formozova found that international students liked Fordham better than domestic students; in Russia international students were less satisfied than domestic students with the Russian university. In Russia, the longer the domestic students stayed at the school, the less they liked it, whereas the longer int'l students stayed the more they liked the school.

Lopez 03 What are some current "positive" sp topics?

measuring positive emotions, assessing self esteem, romantic love measuring cupids arrow PSP: ss

public policy

most New Yorkers favor duty to aid law (82%) 12% no - risking own welfare Psychologists see it as abnormal for people to not intervene Lawyers - normal: mind your own business

seville 90 is war inevitable what are the 5 conclusions of the seville group?

normal predatory feeding cannot be compared to intra species fighting. warfare is a particularly human phenomenon. war is bio possible but not inevitable . it is mostly culture/ language. "dominance" is about social status. 1) no war from animal ancestors 2) not purely biological 3) not a selection of aggressive behavior 4) we do not have a violent brain. 5) war is not caused by instinct or single motivation