SOCIOLOGY CHAP. 1

Reliability:

Consistency in measurement

How is applying sociological prospective useful?

First, sociology is at work guiding many of the laws and policies that shape our lives (public policy). Second, on an individual level, making use of the sociological perspective leads to important personal growth and expanded awareness. Third, studying sociology is excellent preparation for the world of work.

Define theory.

Theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The job of sociological theory is to explain social behavior in the real world.

Value-relevant research topics (See also: value-free)

Topics they care about. But once their work is under way, he cautioned, researchers should try to be value-free. That is, we must be dedicated to finding truth as it is rather than as we think it should be. For Weber, this difference sets science apart from politics. Researchers (unlike politicians) must stay open-minded and be willing to accept whatever results come from their work, whether they personally agree with them or not.

Mills used the term "sociological imagination" to mean the samething as the term "sociological perspective" used by Peter Berger & others.T or F.

True

Latent functions:

Unrecognized & unintended consequences of any social pattern.

Use of existing sources:

...

Research method:

A systematic plan for doing research

Validity:

Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure

Define theoretical approach.

Think of a theoretical approach as a basic image of society that guides thinking and research. Sociologists make use of three theoretical approaches: 1. the structural-functional approach 2. the social-conflict approach 3. the symbolic-interaction approach

Symbolic-interaction approach:

This approach also looks for each structure's social functions, the consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole. All social patterns, from a simple handshake to complex religious rituals, function to tie people together and to keep society going, at least in its present form.

Macro-level orientation: (structural-functional approach; social-conflict approach) (p.11-12)

a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole The structural-functional and social-conflict approaches share a macro-level orientation, meaning a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole.

Micro-level orientation:

a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations

As the new industrial ___________, enormous _______, and fresh ___________ _____ combined to draw attention to society, the new discipline known as sociology developed in France, Germany, and England, the countries where these changes were greatest.

economy, cities, political ideas.

Four widely used methods of sociological investigation are...

experiments, surveys, participant observation, and the use of existing sources.

What does ("Global Stratification") explain?

explains the causes & consequences of global wealth and poverty.

Empirical evidence:

information we can verify with our senses

Three ways to do sociological research:

positivist, interpretive, and critical sociology.

Operationalize a variable:

stating exactly what they are measuring.

Feminism: (example of social-conflict theory)

support for social equality for women & men

Positivist sociology:

the study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior Positivist research discovers facts through the use of science, a logical system that develops knowledge from direct, systematic observation. Positivist sociology is sometimes called empirical sociology because it is based on empirical evidence, which is information we can verify with our senses.

Sociology is...

the systematic study of human society.

The Ideal of Objectivity

A guiding principle of science is objectivity, or personal neutrality, in conducting research. Ideally, objective research allows the facts to speak for themselves and not be influenced by the personal values and biases of the researcher. In reality, of course, achieving total neutrality is impossible for anyone.

Correlation:

A relationship in which 2 (or more) variables change together

Experiment:

A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions

Stereotype:

A simplified description applied to every person in some category

Structural-functional approach:

Approach is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. The structural-functional approach owes much to Auguste Comte, who pointed out the need to keep society unified when many traditions were breaking down. Emile Durkheim, who helped establish sociology in French universities, also based his work on this approach. A third structural-functional pioneer was the English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Spencer compared society to the human body: Just as the structural parts of the human body—the skeleton, muscles, and internal organs—function together to help the entire organism survive, social structures work together to preserve society. The structural-functional approach, then, leads sociologists to identify various structures of society and investigate their functions.

The story "Turning Personal Problems into Public Issues" suggests that C. Wright Mills hoped the sociological imagination would spark social change toward a more equal society. Explain.

As he saw it, society—not people's personal failings—is the main cause of poverty and other social problems. By turning personal problems into public issues, the sociological imagination is also the key to bringing people together to create needed change.

Ida Wells-Barnett (1862-1931)

Born to slave parents but rose to become a teacher and then a journalist & newspaper publisher. She campaigned tirelessly for racial equality and, especially, to put an end to the lynching of black people. She wrote and lectured about racial inequality throughout her life

Marginality and Crisis:

But two situations help people see clearly how society shapes individual lives: living on the margins of society & living thru a social crisis. To become better at using the sociological perspective, we must step back from our familiar routines and look at our lives with a new curiosity. Periods of change or crisis make everyone feel a little off balance, encouraging us to use the sociological perspective. The sociologist C. Wright Mills (1959) illustrated this idea using the Great Depression of the 1930s.As the unemployment rate soared to 25 percent, people w/o jobs could not help but see general social forces at work in their particular lives. Rather than saying, "Something is wrong with me; I can't find a job," they took a sociological approach and realized,"The economy has collapsed; there are no jobs to be found!"

STATISTICS...

In the Philippines, however, the "choice" is about three; in Guatemala, about four; in Ethiopia, about five; in Afghanistan, about six; and in Niger, about seven. What accounts for these striking differences? Because poor countries provide women with less schooling and fewer economic opportunities, women's lives are centered in the home, and they are less likely to use contraception. The strange truth is that society has much to do with the familiar decisions that women and men make about childbearing.

Descriptive Statistics:

Listing streams of numbers would carry little meaning and tell us nothing about the people as a whole. To solve this problem, sociologists use descriptive statistics to state what is "average" for a large population. The most commonly used descriptive statistics are: 1. the mean (the arithmetic average of all measures, which you calculate by adding all the values and dividing by the number of cases), 2. the median (the score at the halfway point in a listing of numbers from lowest to highest), and 3. the mode (the score that occurs most often).

C. Wright Mills (1959) (periods of change and crisis) Example...the Depression...

Rather than saying, "Something is wrong with me; I can't find a job," they took a sociological approach and realized,"The economy has collapsed; there are no jobs to be found!" Mills believed that using what he called the "sociological imagination" in this way helps people understand their society and how it affects their own lives. By turning personal problems into public issues, the sociological imagination is also the key to bringing people together to create needed change.

Jane Addams (1860-1935)

Sociological pioneer who in 1899 helped found Hull House, a Chicago settlement house that provided assistance to immigrant families.Although widely published—Addams wrote eleven books and hundreds of articles—she chose the life of a public activist over that of a university sociologist, speaking out on issues involving inequality, immigration, & the pursuit of peace. Though her pacifism during World War I was the subject of much controversy, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) & study on suicide...

White men are more than 12 times more likely than black women to commit suicide. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), one of sociology's pioneers, showed that social forces are at work even in such an intensely personal action as suicide. Applying Durkheim's logic, the higher suicide rate among white people and men reflects their greater wealth and freedom, just as the lower rate among women and people of color reflects their limited social choices. Just as Durkheim did a century ago, we can see general sociological patterns in the personal actions of particular individuals.

Science:

a logical system that develops knowledge from direct, systematic observation

What is positivism?

a scientific approach to knowledge based on "positive" facts as opposed to mere speculation. Comte's approach is called positivism. Comte thought that knowledge based on tradition or metaphysics was really only speculation. A positivist approach to knowledge, however, is based on science. As a positivist, Comte believed that society operates according to certain laws, just as the physical world operates according to gravity and other laws of nature. Comte believed that by using science, people could come to understand the laws not only of the physical world but of society as well.

Sociological Perspective is...

the special point of view of sociology that sees general patterns of society in the lives of particular people. Described as seeing the general in the particular. This means that sociology helps us see general patterns in the behavior of particular people. This text explores the power of society to guide our actions, thoughts, and feelings. Although every individual is unique, society shapes the lives of people in various categories (such as children and adults, women and men, the rich and the poor) very differently.We begin to see the world sociologically by realizing how the general categories into which we fall shape our particular life experiences.

An experimenter gathers the evidence needed to reject or not to reject the hypothesis in four steps:

(1) State which variable is the independent variable (the "cause" of the change) and which is the dependent variable (the "effect," the thing that is changed). (2) Measure the initial value of the dependent variable. (3) Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable (the "cause" or "treatment"). (4) Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place. If the expected change took place, the experiment supports the hypothesis; if not, the hypothesis must be modified.

How does a micro-level analysis differ from a macro-level analysis? Provide an explanation of a social pattern at both levels.

...

Sociology teaches us that our social world ...

...guides our life choices in much the same way that the seasons influence our choice of clothing.

Examples of factors disrupting existing social patterns:

1. Globalization of the economy, 2. a rising flow of immigrants, and 3. increasing inequality of income These are all factors that—in the eyes of some people, disrupt existing social patterns.

Why are comparisons always made between the United States and other nations? (4 reasons)

1. Where we live shapes the lives we lead. 2. Societies throughout the world are increasingly inter-connected. 3. Many social problems that we face in the US are far more serious elsewhere. 4. Thinking globally helps us learn more about ourselves.

Variable:

A concept whose value changes from case to case

Concept:

A mental construct that represents some aspect of the world in a simplified form

Survey:

A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions on a questionnaire or in an interview

Social dysfunction:

Any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society

Society is at work on many levels when people get married...

Consider: (1) rules about same-sex and other sex marriage, (2) laws defining the number of people who may marry, (3) the importance of race and ethnicity, (4) the importance of social class, (5) the importance of age, and (6) the importance of social exchange (what each partner offers the other). All societies enforce various rules that state who should or should not marry whom.

From the article "Back to School..." it describes the recent surge in community college enrollments in North Carolina, and a similar trend is occurring all across the country. How does this rise in community college enrollments reflect not just personal choices by individuals but also larger changes in society?

Improving their skills or creating new skills for competition in a changing economy and environment...

Enclosure movement:

Landowners fenced off more and more farmland to create grazing areas for sheep, the source of wool for the thriving textile mills. Without land, countless tenant farmers had little choice but to head to the cities in search of work in the new factories.

SEE TABLE ON THEORY

P. 15

SPORTS AND THEORY

P. 16

CHART OF: Summing Up The Three Research Orientations in Sociology

P. 20

Sociology as Politics

Positivist sociologists object to taking sides in this way, claiming that critical sociology (whether feminist,Marxist, or of some other critical orientation) becomes political, lacks scientific objectivity, and cannot correct for its own biases. Critical sociologists respond that all research is political in that either it calls for change or it does not; sociologists thus have no choice about their work being political, but they can choose which positions to support. Critical sociology is an activist approach that ties knowledge to action and seeks not just to understand the world as it exists but also to improve it. In general, positivist sociology tends to appeal to researchers who try to be nonpolitical or who have more conservative political views; critical sociology appeals to those whose politics ranges from liberal to radical left.

Summing Up 4 Research Methods:

See Chart on P. 30

What is the importance of a key informant in field research?

Such people not only introduce a researcher to a community but often remain a source of information & help. But using a key informant also has its risks. Because any person has a particular circle of friends, a key informant's guidance is certain to "spin" the study in one way or another. Moreover, in the eyes of others, the reputation of the key informant, for better or worse, usually rubs off on the investigator. So although a key informant is helpful early on, a participant observer must seek a broader range of contacts.

Social functions: The U.S. sociologist Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) expanded our understanding of social function by pointing out that any social structure probably has many functions, some more obvious than others. See manifest and latent functions.

The consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole

Symbolic-interaction approach: (micro-level orientation)

a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals

Global awareness is...

a logical extension of the sociological perspective. Sociology shows us that our place in society shapes our life experiences. It stands to reason, then, that the position of our society in the larger world system affects everyone in the United States.

Gender-conflict approach: (example of social-conflict theory)

a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between women & men

Race-conflict approach: (example of social-conflict theory)

a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial & ethnic categories

Global perspective:

the study of the larger world and our society's place in it. In good times and bad, the power of the sociological perspective lies in making sense of our individual lives. We see that many of our particular problems (and our successes as well) are not unique to us but are the result of larger social trends.

Levels of economic development:

-high-income countries: nations w/ the highest overall standards of living. 67 nations in this category. Included are the United States and Canada, Argentina, the nations of Western Europe, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Japan, & Australia. Taken together, these nations generate most of the world's goods & services, and the people who live in them own most of the planet's wealth. -middle-income countries: nations with a standard of living about average for the world as a whole. 71 nations in this category. Included are many of the countries of Eastern Europe, South Africa & some other African nations, & almost all of Latin America and Asia—are as likely to live in rural villages as in cities and to walk or ride tractors, scooters, bicycles, or animals as to drive automobiles. On average, they receive 8-10 years of schooling. Most middle-income countries also have considerable social inequality within their borders, meaning that some people are extremely rich (members of the business elite in nations across North Africa, for example) but many more lack safe housing and adequate nutrition (people living in the shanty settlements that surround Lima, Peru, or Mumbai, India). -low-income countries: nations with a low standard of living in which most people are poor. 56 nations in this category. Most of the poorest countries in the world are in Africa, & a few are in Asia. Here again, a few people are very rich, but the majority struggle to get by with poor housing, unsafe water, too little food, and perhaps most serious of all, little chance to improve their lives.

In recent years, sociologists have become aware that research is affected by gender, the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female or male.Gender can affect sociological research in five ways:

1. Androcentricity. Androcentricity (literally, "focus on the male") means approaching an issue from a male perspective. Sometimes researchers act as if only men's activities are important, ignoring what women do. For years, sociologists studying occupations focused on the paid labor of men and overlooked the housework and child care traditionally performed by women. Research that tries to explain human behavior cannot ignore half of humanity. Gynocentricity—seeing the world from a female perspective—can also limit good sociological investigation. However, in our male-dominated society, this problem arises less often. 2. Overgeneralizing. This problem occurs when sociologists gather data only from men but then use that information to draw conclusions about all people. For example, a researcher might speak to a handful of male public officials and then form conclusions about an entire community. 3. Gender blindness. Failing to consider gender at all is called gender blindness. The lives of men and women differ in many ways. A study of growing old in the United States might suffer from gender blindness if it overlooked the fact that most elderly men live with spouses but elderly women generally live alone. 4. Double standards. Researchers must be careful not to judge men and women by different standards. For example, a family researcher who labels a couple "man and wife"may define the man as the "head of the household" and treat him as important while assuming that the woman simply engages in family "support work." 5. Interference. Another way gender can distort a study is if a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher, interfering with the research operation.

How does using sociology pay off? (4 ways)

1. The sociological perspective helps us assess the truth of "common sense." 2. The sociological perspective helps us see the opportunities & constraints in our lives. 3. The sociological perspective empowers us to be active participants in our society. 4. The sociological perspective helps us live in a diverse world.

Comte (1975) saw sociology as the product of three stages of historical development...what were they?

1. Theological Stage: During the earliest theological stage, from the beginning of human history up to the end of the European Middle Ages about 1350 C.E., people took the religious view that society expressed God's will. 2. Metaphysical Stage: With the dawn of the Renaissance in the 15th century, Comte explained, the theological stage gave way to a metaphysical stage in which people came to see society as a natural rather than supernatural phenomenon. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), for example, suggested that society reflected not the perfection of God so much as the failings of selfish human nature. 3. Scientific Stage: What Comte called the scientific stage began with the work of early scientists such as the Polish astronomer Copernicus (1473-1543), the Italian astronomer and physicist Galileo (1564-1642), and the English physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Comte's contribution came in applying the scientific approach, originally used to analyze the physical world, to the study of society.

Like all other scientific investigators, sociologists must be aware that their work can harm as well as help subjects and communities. For this reason, the American Sociological Association—the major professional organization of sociologists in North America—has established formal guidelines for conducting research (1997). Some points of these guidelines:

1. They must disclose all research findings without omitting significant data. They should make their results available to other sociologists who may want to conduct a similar study. 2. Sociologists must also make sure that subjects taking part in a research project are not harmed, and they must stop work right away if they suspect that any subject is at risk of harm. 3. Researchers are also required to protect the privacy of individuals involved in a research project, even if they come under pressure from authorities, such as the police or the courts, to release confidential information. 4. Researchers must also get the informed consent of participants, which means that the subjects must fully understand their responsibilities and the risks that the research involves and agree to take part before the work begins. 5. Another guideline concerns funding. Sociologists must include in their published reports all sources of financial support. They must avoid accepting money from a source if there is any question about a conflict of interest. Researchers must never accept funding from any organization that seeks to influence the research results for its own purposes. 6. The federal government also plays a part in research ethics. Every college & university that seeks federal funding for research involving human subjects must have an institutional review board (IRB) that examines grant applications and ensures that research will not violate ethical standards. 7. Finally, there are global dimensions to research ethics. Before beginning work in another country, an investigator must become familiar enough with that society to understand what people there are likely to regard as a violation of privacy or a source of personal danger. In a diverse society such as our own, the same rule applies to studying people whose cultural background differs from that of the researcher.

Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Research

1. What is your topic? Being curious and using the sociological perspective can generate ideas for social research at any time and in any place. Pick a topic you find interesting and that you think is important to study. 2. What have others already learned? You are probably not the first person with an interest in some issue.Visit the library and search the Internet to see what theories and methods other researchers have applied to your topic. In reviewing the existing research, note problems that have come up to avoid repeating past mistakes. 3. What, exactly, are your questions? Are you seeking to explore an unfamiliar setting? To describe some category of people? To investigate cause and effect between variables? Clearly state the goals of your research, and operationalize all variables. 4. What will you need to carry out research? How much time and money are available to you? What special equipment or skills does the research require? Can you do all the work yourself? 5. Are there ethical concerns? Might the research harm anyone? How can you minimize the chances for injury? Will you promise your subjects anonymity? If so, how will you ensure that anonymity will be maintained? 6. What method will you use? Consider all major research strategies and combinations of methods. The most suitable method will depend on the kinds of questions you are asking and the resources available to you. 7. How will you record the data? The research method you use guides your data collection. Be sure to record information accurately and in a way that will make sense to you later on (it may be months before you write up the results of your work). Watch out for any personal bias that may creep into your work. 8. What do the data tell you? Determine what the data say about your initial questions. If your study involves a specific hypothesis, you should be able to confirm, reject, or modify it on the basis of your findings. Keep in mind that there will be several ways to interpret your results, depending on the theoretical approach you apply, and you should consider them all. 9. What are your conclusions? Prepare a final report explaining what you have learned. Also, evaluate your own work. What problems arose during the research process? What questions were left unanswered? 10. How can you share what you have learned? Consider making a presentation to a class or maybe even to a meeting of professional sociologists. The important point is to share what you have learned with others and to let them respond to your work.

Name 3 research orientations:

1. positivist sociology: study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior 2. interpretive sociology: study of society that focuses on discovering the meanings people attach to their social world. Max Weber, the pioneer of this framework, argued that the proper focus of sociology is interpretation, or understanding the meanings people create in their everyday lives. 3. critical sociology: study of society that focuses on the need for social change. Karl Marx, who founded the critical orientation, rejected the idea that society exists as a "natural" system. To assume that society is somehow "fixed," he claimed, is the same as saying that society cannot be changed.

What were the 3 kinds of change especially important in the development of sociology?

1. the rise of a factory-based economy, 2. the explosive growth of cities, and 3. new ideas about democracy and political rights.

Measurement:

A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case

Cause and effect: To be sure of a real cause-and-effect relationship, we must show that (1) variables are correlated, (2) the independent (causal) variable occurs before dependent variable, and (3) there is no evidence that a third variable has been overlooked, causing a spurious correlation.

A relationship in which change in one variable (the independent variable) causes change in another (the dependent variable) Scientists refer to the cause as the independent variable and the effect as the dependent variable. Understanding cause and effect is valuable because it allows researchers to predict how one pattern of behavior will produce another.

Participant observation:

A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities

Hypothesis:

A statement of how two (or more) variables are related. A hypothesis is really an educated guess about how variables are linked, usually expressed as an if-then statement: If this particular thing were to happen, then that particular thing will result.

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963).

Born to a poor Massachusetts family, Du Bois enrolled at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, and then at Harvard University, where he earned the first doctorate awarded by that university to a person of color. *Du Bois then founded the Atlanta Sociological Laboratory, which was an important center of sociological research in the early decades of the last century. *Like most people who follow the social-conflict approach (whether focusing on class, gender, or race), Du Bois believed that scholars should not simply learn about society's problems but also try to solve them. *He therefore studied the black communities across the United States, pointing to numerous social problems ranging from educational inequality, a political system that denied people their right to vote, and the terrorist practice of lynching. *Du Bois spoke out against racial inequality and participated in the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

How does interpretive sociology differ from positivist sociology?

Interpretive sociology differs from positivist sociology in three ways: 1. First, positivist sociology focuses on action—on what people do—because this is what we can observe directly. Interpretive sociology, focuses on people's understanding of their actions and their surroundings. 2. Second, positivist sociology claims that objective reality exists "out there"; interpretive sociology counters that reality is subjective, constructed by people in the course of their everyday lives. 3. Third, positivist sociology tends to favor quantitative data, numerical measurements of outward behavior; interpretive sociology favors qualitative data, researchers' perceptions of how people understand their world. In sum, the positivist orientation, close to science, is well suited for research in a laboratory, where investigators stand back and take careful measurements of what people do. The interpretive orientation, while not rejecting science outright, claims that we learn more by interacting with people, focusing on subjective meaning, and learning how people make sense of their everyday lives. This type of research is best carried out in a natural setting.

Define the differences between the macro & micro levels.

Macro-level sociology takes in the big picture, rather like observing a city from a helicopter and seeing how highways help people move from place to place or how housing differs from rich to poor neighborhoods. Sociology also uses a micro-level orientation, a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations. Exploring city life in this way occurs at street level, where you might watch how children invent games on a school playground or observe how pedestrians respond to homeless people they pass on the street.

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

Martineau made her mark in 1853 by translating the writings of Auguste Comte from French into English. She later documented the evils of slavery and argued for laws to protect factory workers, defending workers' right to unionize. She was particularly concerned about the position of women in society and fought for changes in education policy so that women could look forward to more in life than marriage and raising children.

Weber's Concept of Verstehen

Max Weber claimed that the key to interpretive sociology lies in Verstehen (pronounced "fair-SHTAY-en"), the German word for "understanding." It is the interpretive sociologist's job not just to observe what people do but also to share in their world of meaning, coming to appreciate why they act as they do. Subjective thoughts and feelings, which scientists tend to dismiss because they are difficult to measure, are the focus of the interpretive sociologist's attention.

Using Available Data: Existing Sources:

Not all research requires that investigators collect new data. Sometimes sociologists make use of existing sources, data collected by others. The data most widely used by researchers are gathered by government agencies such as the U.S. Census Bureau. Data about other nations in the world are found in various publications of the United Nations and the World Bank. Using available information saves time and money. This method has special appeal to sociologists with low budgets. And in fact, government data are usually more extensive and more accurate than what researchers could obtain on their own.

Manifest functions:

Recognized & intended consequences of any social pattern

Social-conflict approach: Example: Sociologists using the social-conflict approach look at ongoing conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people— the rich in relation to the poor, white people in relation to people of color, and men in relation to women. Typically, people on top try to protect their privileges while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves.A conflict analysis of our educational system shows how schooling reproduces class inequality from one generation to the next.

The social-conflict approach is a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. Approach highlights how factors such as class, race, ethnicity, gender, & age are linked to inequality in terms of money, power, education, & social prestige. A conflict analysis rejects the idea that social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole, focusing instead on how any social pattern benefits some people while hurting others. As its name suggests, this approach points to social structure, any relatively stable pattern of social behavior. Social structure gives our lives shape in families, the workplace, or the college classroom.