Sociology Chapters 3 and 4

Sociobiology

a branch of science that uses biological and evolutionary explanations for social behavior (page 100)

Subculture

a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle (page 87)

Counterculture

a group within society that openly rejects or actively opposes society's values and norms (page 87)

Taboo

a norm ingrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion (page 83)

Multiculturalism

a policy that values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and so encourages the retention of cultural differences within the larger society (page 85)

Status

a position in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations (page 115)

Saturated self

a postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources (page 119)

Moral holiday

a specified time period during which some norm violations are allowed (page 83)

Achieved status

a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others (page 115)

Embodied status

a status generated by physical characteristics (page 115)

Master status

a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess (page 115)

Ascribed status

a status that is inborn; usually difficult or impossible to change (page 115)

Language

a system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, or written symbols; the basis of symbolic culture and the primary means through which we communicate with one another and perpetuate our culture (page 80)

Definition of the situation

an agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance; this consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with others and realize goals (page 106)

Dramaturgy

an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance (page 107)

Cooling the mark out

behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact (page 108)

Culture wars

clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld (page 88)

Thomas theorem

classic formulation of the way individuals determine reality, whereby "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences" (page 106)

Id

ego

Role-taking emotions

emotions such as sympathy, embarrassment, or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or group and respond accordingly (page 116)

Role strain

experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role (page 115)

Role conflict

experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations (page 115)

Expressions given

expressions that are intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances (page 106)

Copresence

face-to-face interaction or being in the presence of others (page 116)

Psychosexual stages of development

four distinct stages of the development of the self between birth and adulthood, according to Freud; personality quirks are a result of being fixated, or stuck, at any stage (page 103)

Values

ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or worthy in a particular group; they express what the group cherishes and honors (page 81)

Feral children

in myths and rare real-world cases, children who have had little human contact and may have lived in social isolation from a young age (page 101)

Front

in the dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation (page 107)

Total institutions

institutions in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that they can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones (page 113)

Stereotyping

judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people (page 115)

Folkways

loosely enforced norms involving common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance (page 81)

Technology

material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them (page 90)

Feeling rules

norms regarding the expression and display of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation (page 116)

Mores

norms that carry great moral significance, are closely related to the core values of a cultural group, and often involve severe repercussions for violators (page 83)

Expressions given off

observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal (page 107)

Sanctions

positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for violations (page 83)

Norms

rules or guidelines regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a particular culture; these typically emanate from the group's values (page 81)

Expressions of behavior

small actions such as an eye roll or head nod that serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others (page 106)

Agents of socialization

social groups, institutions, and individuals (especially the family, schools, peers, and the mass media) that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place (page 109)

Signs

symbols that stand for or convey an idea (page 79)

Hegemony

term developed by Antonio Gramsci to describe the cultural aspects of social control, whereby the ideas of the dominant group are accepted by all (page 85)

Agency

the ability of the individual to act freely and independently (page 119)

Region

the context in which the performance takes place, including location, decor, and props (page 107)

Cultural diffusion

the dissemination of material and symbolic culture (tools and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another (page 90)

Impression management

the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics (page 107)

Culture

the entire way of life of a group of people (including both material and symbolic elements) that acts as a lens through which one views the world and that is passed from one generation to the next (page 75)

Preparatory stage

the first stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children mimic or imitate others (page 105)

Social control

the formal and informal mechanisms used to elicit conformity to values and norms and thus promote social cohesion (page 83)

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language (page 80)

Dual nature of the self

the idea that we experience the self as both subject and object, the "I" and the "me" (page 105)

Symbolic culture

the ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication) (page 79)

Cultural imperialism

the imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force (page 91)

Self

the individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from others (page 102)

Real culture

the norms, values, and patterns of behavior that actually exist within a society (which may or may not correspond to the society's ideals) (page 88)

Ideal culture

the norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed in principle (page 88)

Looking-glass self

the notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us (page 104)

Material culture

the objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork; any physical object to which we give social meaning (page 78)

Nature vs. nurture debate

the ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits (page 99)

Personal front

the performance tactics we use to present ourselves to others, including appearance, costume, and manner (page 107)

Generalized other

the perspectives and expectations of a network of others (or of society in general) that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior (page 105)

Particular or significant other

the perspectives and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes (page 105)

Frontstage

the places where we deliver our performances to an audience of others (page 107)

Backstage

the places where we rehearse and prepare for our performances (page 107)

Cultural relativism

the principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one's own culture (page 76)

Ethnocentrism

the principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal or inferior (page 76)

Social construction

the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists (page 108)

Cultural leveling

the process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar (page 91)

Emotion work (emotional labor)

the process of evoking, suppressing, or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion (page 116)

Socialization

the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of society (page 99)

Role exit

the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy (page 116)

Resocialization

the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life (page 113)

Play stage

the second stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children pretend to play the role of the particular or significant other (page 105)

Role

the set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status (page 115)

Game stage

the third stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children play organized games and take on the perspective of the generalized other (page 105)

Dominant culture

the values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (in terms of wealth, prestige, status, influence, etc.) (page 85)

Gestures

the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate without words; actions that have symbolic meaning (page 80)

Laws

types of norms that are formally codified to provide an explicit statement about what is permissible or forbidden, legal or illegal in a given society (page 81)

Hidden curriculum

values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling (page 110)