sociology chps 6, 8, and 13

sense of self

An individual's unique sense of identity that has been influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences; your sense of who you are in relation to other people. - "Cooley's concept of the looking glass self is part of a symbolic interactionist perspective on social development. Can you think of a "looking glass" moment in your own life when you felt either pride or embarassment about something you had done based on your perception of how other people perceived you?"

formal socialization

An intentional process with associated clearly identifiable goals and indicators that can be assessed for effectiveness. - a structured socialization process conducted outside of the work setting using specifically designed activities and materials

Social Theory

An overarching framework that suggests certain assumptions and assertions about the way the world works. These frameworks are used for posing research questions and evaluating evidence related to those questions. "As part of a broader symbolic interactionist approach, Arnold van Gennep theorized that rites of passage are a feature of the socialization process in all societies. What events in your own life would you describe as rites of passage? Did your position in your community change after those events? Did you feel different? Did people treat you differently?"

conflict approach

Assumes that the elite use their power to enact and enforce laws that support their own economic interests and go against the interests of the lower classes - "According to the conflict approach,groups with more power in a society have an advantage in acquiring good jobs. Think of the job you eventually hope to obtain. What factors determine that job's prestige and earnings?"

deviance

Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society - lines between normal and abnormal are flexible even with a societal understanding

3 dimensions of school conformity

Brint (2006) identified 3 dimensions by which schools evaluate students with specific long for describing students who conform 1) behavior conformity: daily life is full of informal instruction on proper behavior 2) moral conformity: student train students to internalize values about what is morally right 3) cultural conformity: schools instruct students on what is culturally desirable and on perspectives - on avg, those with more edu get more money. males make more than females

Cyberbullying

Bullying using technology, such as computers and mobile phones. - repetitive actions : hostile/insulting texts, inappropriate photos, rumors on social media (victims are typically teens)

collective conscience

Emile Durkheim's term for systems of cultural symbols that people in a society share and use to regulate their affairs ; the shared morals and beliefs that are common to a group and which foster social solidarity

Homophily

tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, religion, race, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar

status attainment

the process by which people come to occupy a certain level in a social hierarchy - the process by which people end up in a given position in the stratification system

urban foraging

the process of 'reclaiming' other peoples waste (clothing, household goods, books, games, artwork) in order to minimize what people consumer and discard

melanie matchett wood

"16-year-old Melanie Matchett Wood became the first American woman to make the U.S. International Mathematical Olympiad Team. Wood won a silver medal, went on to earn a PhD in math, and is now a leading scholar in her field" "Wood had to overcome the cultural norms of a society in which girls rarely pursue high-level math, but she had support along her way to prominence." "Through socialization we also forge a sense of self—a sense of who we are as individuals in relation to the people with whom we interact personally as well as to society as a whole. Like Melanie Wood, we can even challenge traditional socialization messages and, in the process, become role models who help open new possibilities for the next generation"

nate mandel and parolee outreach to reduce recidivism

"As an outreach specialist, Mandel assists people coming home from prison to find paying jobs. He might help to place people in short-term transitional work or to connect formerly incarcerated men and women with employers who are seeking to hire full-time employees. "

kate corrigan

"Teaching at a School for Blind Children and Young Adults" "Corrigan worked with 12- to 18-year-olds at the residential school, spending much of her time with students in the cot-tages where they live, rather than in a traditional classroom. Her teaching stressed developing students' communication proficiency, as well as their social and daily living skills. As part of the program's focus on negotiating everyday life inter-actions, Corrigan took her students on trips to the local com-munity where they could practice communication in public settings, such as stores and restaurants. Community field trips help students learn independence and how to advocate for themselves in a range of social settings"

Karl Mannheim (1893-1947)

"The German sociologist Karl Mannheim ([1928] 1952) argued that because the shared historical experiences of a group shape its general attitudes and behaviors, the major events that occur during adolescence become key to identifying a specific generation. A summary of the research and theory on the significance of major events suggests that our identity is "stamped by the historically significant events and changes" occurring during adolescence and young adulthood " - vietnam war and political turmoil in 1960s influences many baby boomers (gen z)

body weight study

"the body size of average Americans does not match this culturally approved definition. The conflict between the widely accepted norm of thin-as-attractive and the actual size of most people is a source of substantial strain, especially for women (Bordo 1993)." "Sociologist Katherine Mason (2012) analyzed a national survey of young adults in the United States and found that obese adults have lower incomes than their thinner counterparts. However, the income deficit for obese women is different than it is for obese men. Women defined as obese—those with BMI greater than 30—have "lower incomes than women with BMI less than 30. For men, the income differential emerges only for very obese men (BMI > 35). Mason summarizes the results of her research, noting that "these findings provide evidence that weight-based income penalties begin at lower weights for women than for men . . . , but that very obese . . . men are heavily penalized relative to nonobese men""

Total Institutions (Erving Goffman)

(1961) an institution in which one is totally immersed and that controls all the basics of day-to-day life; no barriers exist between the usual spheres of daily life, and all activity occurs in the same place and under the same single authority 1. institutions set up to care for ppl who cant care for themselves and who may rep unintentional threat to communities 2. care for ppl who are defined as incapable or harmless 3. set up to protect a community from those whom authorities define as a significant danger 4) pursue a specific task requiring total commitment of participant 5) institutions intended as escapes or retreat from the world - members live in groups and supposed o be treated the same - authorities impose specific schedules with formal rules - not always successful

internal influences : socialization

- French social theorist Michel Foucault painted an idea of our roles as agents of self-control - described contemporary society - we constantly are under surveillance, monitored by authorities who police the boundaries of what is normal - panopticon, type of prison surveillance example

structure

- In transmitting fundamental social norms and role expectations from one generation to another, socialization helps reproduce social structure. - Changes in social structure can require new forms of socialization as new roles emerge. - We learn norms and expectations about appropriate behavior through interactions in the small groups that form the basis for social structure. Through their actions, people can either reinforce or challenge norms about deviance. - Merton's strain theory suggests that barriers posed by social structure can result in deviance when a conflict exists between the dominant goals of a society and legitimate means of achieving these goals. The strain on those who lack the means to achieve culturally defined goals leads them to pursue deviant routes to success. - Schools reinforce social and economic inequality through various, often unintended, means. Since existing inequalities are built into the structure of the educational system, schools reflect and reaffirm these inequalities. - Mapping the patterns in work-life reveals the contours of the occupational structure in the United States. Research shows that the circumstances that lead some people into high-status or high-paying jobs, and others into low-status or low-paying jobs, are not based primarily on merit but on factors such as parents' education, race, and community of residence

role expectations

- cultural expectations established the consent of a social rule - we often take it for granted (the experiences) but significance becomes obvious when violated - socially defines and an individ must actively play their role

rethinking the disabled body

- some ppl are automatically labeled as deviant since they are born with / develop disabilities - Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability - stigma as a result of disability

comparable worth

- the issue raised when women who hold traditionally female jobs are paid less than men for working at jobs requiring comparable skill a commitment to setting salaries for different job titles based on their value to an employer, regardless of the typical gender of those working in such jobs - Women should be paid salaries equal to men for equivalent job responsibilities &skills - women median annual earning percentage of men (US 1960 - 2017) 60.7% - 81.8%

brief social education history

- until the 19th centry mosy children in the US did not attend school - late 1700s and early 1800s education in US largely excluded women, AA, natives - early 1830s "common schools" emerged ; advocated emophaszed civic value of edu - by 1918, all 48 states had alws that required childrn o attend school, usually through the 8th grade - public edu continued to ruse in first half of the 20th cenyruy - transfer of knwoldge, job preparion, occupational sortung, child care, social intergration, and socialization

Power and Deviance

1) Power is connected to our basic assumptions about what's normal and what's deviant. 2) Power determines whether and how authorities enforce norms and punish deviance. 3) Access to power enables some privileged groups to engage in distinct forms of deviant behavior. 4) Power allows some people to escape being branded or punished as deviant. - issue of power is a factor of not only for those who socity has traditonally favored but for everyone who is labeled as deviangt - inequlaity fostered from unequal share of power

Deviance as Illness: Medicalization

1) a. behavior or condition is defined as deviant 2) medical explanation is discovered 3) organized interest adv claims for applying medial label 4) same interests appeal to gov officials to leg. medical label 5) medical label institutionalized - with homosexuality, 1960s LGBT activists pressured US Psychiatric Association to change its classification of it from a "sexual deviation" in 1968 edition in the DSM-II - 19060s activists argued that the classification was demeaning o gay men and women and had no scientific basis - 1974 US psychiatric association renamed it an "illness" to people who were unhappy with their sexuality

3 assets to understanding power in the workplace

1) ownership - 1 form of occupational power is the ability to influebce broad decision about opertaion of a partical company or organization 2) Control - managers have the ability to make deciion abotu daily activities in a workplace 3) credentials - preofessionals involve a class of workers who have high levels of edu and have jobs that requrie expertise. they have a great deal of control over conditions of their work

industrialization of adolescence

1. "Industrialization produced affluence that created a new middle class and enabled middle-class young people to stay out of the full-time workforce, separating them from adult workers." 2. "Because schooling became an increasingly important requirement for employment, middle-class young people continued their education, completing high school and sometimes even going to college. 3. Because they were not working full time, young people had more leisure time and began to be consumers of youth-oriented products, eventually resulting in the formation of a distinct youth subculture. 4.In the United States, massive immigration created what we might now call a "generation gap" between young people who were socialized into the culture and customs of the new country and their older immigrant parents who had grown up in the old country. - All these factors helped separate young people from adults and helped make ado-lescence a distinct period of life.

conformity

A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people ; Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

socioeconomic status

A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors 1. doctor, 2. scientist, 3. firefighter, 4. military officer, 5. engineer, 6. nurse, 7. architect, 8. EMT, 9. vet, 10. police

ascribed status

A social position assigned to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics.

Stratification

A structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society. - slavery, castes, estates, and social classes

control theory

A view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society's norms. - suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society's norms

deviant subculture

A way of living that differs from the dominant culture, in which members share a particular form of deviance. ; a group in which membership is based on a shared commitment to specific nonconformist beliefs or behaviors

reference groups

Groups against which we compare ourselves, thereby influencing our self-concept and self-esteem. - according to Georg Simmel, the size of a group has important effects on the internal group dynamics

peer group

Groups consisting of members sharing common social characteristics. These groups play an important part in the socialization process, helping to shape attitudes and beliefs ; A social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common

radicalized organization - Victor Rios

His research examines how racism, inequality, and class play a role in determining if a person will be successful in education. - race matters in all organizations - race is a way that organizations engage with ppl and other orgs - schemas both existing and created in organizations to provide templates to how org distrib their resources 1) radicalized org enhance/diminish the agency of radical groups 2) radicalized org leg the unequal distrib of resources 3) whiteness is a credential 4) decoupling of formal rules from org practice is radicalized

bilingual education

Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English.

George Herbert Mead's Identity Development

Mead's I the part of the self that is spontaneous, impulsive, creative, and unpredictable. (non-reflective and consists only in the present - imitation stage (pre-play) , play stage, game stage, generalized other - the self is made up of 'i' and 'me' Mead's Me the sense of self that been learned from the interaction with others

white collar crime

Nonviolent crime committed by individuals or corporations to obtain a personal or business advantage. ; crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations

Online Classes

Online classes meet via computer, through an online learning management system, like Blackboard. Online students log in to attend class. There they access course lectures, receive assignments, and correspond with classmates and instructors.

credentialing

Process whereby an individual or a professional preparation program meets the specified standards established by the credentialing body, and is thus recognized for having done so (inequality)

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Sociology as a separate science on the grounds that it has both an object (patterned regularities as a group distinct from that of individuals) and a substratum (society as a whole). - argued that crime (deviance) could be defines only in relation to social norms of criminal act - pointed out that deviant behavior ui a feature of all human societies - deviance can be functional, playing a positive role in society and reinforces social structures by : 1) deviance helps define group boundaries 2) helps create social solidarity 3) a source of innovation

Shop-floor culture

The attitudes and behaviour of workers in factories and similar places of work, particularly behavior by men - scientific occupation ave own norsm and reules that help define behavior

brain plasticity

The capacity for the brain to alter its structure and function. - as we socialize and learn about our culture, we are also shaping our brains - left = language, logic, linear thinking - right = holistic and non linear reasoning - Australian aborigine children rely more on the right brain and Euro - Australian children rely on the left brain

Normalization

The process of applying rules to a database design to ensure that information is divided into the appropriate tables - previously deviant behaviors become accepted as conventional

challenging the structure of school financing

The public school system in Syosset, New York, a wealthy community in Long Island, offers students an incredibly rich curriculum: courses in seven foreign languages as well as American Sign Language, almost 30 advanced placement (AP) classes, and a nationally recognized arts education program. Public school students in Ilion, New York, an economically depressed community in upstate New York, by contrast, have far fewer curricular opportunities: courses in only one foreign language (Spanish), just four AP classes, and a financial situation that makes it difficult to purchase necessary equipment for science classes Since she joined the Schott Foundation in 1997, Schwerner has worked to organize and fund the Fair Funding Initiative, which seeks to bring racial and fiscal equity to public schools in New York State. She was a prominent participant in the Campaign for Fiscal Equity (CFE), a grassroots New York City organization dedicated to ensuring that adequate resources and opportunities are available for all school-children, regardless of their place of residence or their parents' income

Globalization

The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas.

Mississippi Freedom Summer

This took place in the summer of 1964 when thousands of black and white students went into the South to register voters. Three of these people, Chaney, Schwerner, and Goodman, disappeared and their dead bodies were not found for over a month. - sociologist Doug McAdam (1989) - "Twenty years after Freedom Summer, McAdam (1989) sur-veyed more than 200 campaign participants. As a comparison group, he also surveyed more than 100 people who had applied and been accepted to take part in Freedom Summer but had decided not to participate. McAdam found that, in several important respects, the Freedom Summer volunteers were differ-ent from those who had dropped out of the project: volunteers were far more involved in political activism, began their careers at a later age, had lower incomes, and were less likely to be mar-ried. Although the two groups may have been somewhat differ-ent to begin with, the experience of participating in Freedom Summer likely had long-term consequences"

criminal group embeddedness and the adverse effects of arresting a gangs leader - Robert Vargas

Vargas started by surveying 60 randomly selected blocks in Chicago to get a sense of how local residents perceived gang violence. Some believed it was the worst in recent memory, and many who felt this way attributed it to the recent arrest of a gang leader. The residents thought this encouraged rival groups to fight over the newly vacant territory. - used to target gang leaders (incarcerated) - 2 gangs: one newer and one older - violence increased - older gang had instant new leadership and continued business as usual - new gang had no new leader and was targeted

individual immortality

We, as individuals, somehow survive death and enjoy, if "saved" life in a paradise of glory and bliss. - some fundamentalists religions see the world in this way

professionals

a class of workers who are highly educated, hold degrees to certify their education, and have jobs that require a particular form of expertise

social group

a collection of people who regularly interact with one another on the basis of shared expectations concerning behavior and who share a sense of common identity

status set

a collection of social statuses that a person occupies at a given time

Nature vs. Nurture

a disagreement about the relative importance of biology ("nature") and the social environment ("nurture") in influencing human behavior ; name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

secondary group

a formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding ; a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity (peers, co workers)

status hierarchy

a ranking of social desirability in terms of consumers' access to resources such as money, education, and luxury goods

recidivism

a repetition of or return to criminal behavior - the rate is increasing. the rates among men are higher than among women - these high rates are evidence to the inability of penal policies to prevent chronic crime - more than 40% of released prisoners are arrested again during the first year and 4/5 after 9 years

primary group

a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships ; a small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation (family, best friends)

in-group

a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty (us)

out-group

a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition (them)

triad

a social group with three members

dyad

a social group with two members

achieved status

a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort

master status

a social position that is overwhelmingly significant, powerfully influences a person's social experience, and typically overshadows all the other social positions that person may occupy

status category

a status that people can hold in common

Buracracy

a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives. - hierarchies admin system with formal rules and procedures used for managing - division of labor, hierarchy of authority, accountability, records - organizations such as these resist change - can be inefficient - defined culture and influence how they organize, how they value, and esposue -AOL and Time Warner

looking-glass self

a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us - humans are self-conscious beings and we make ourselves the object of our own thoughts and attention - important aspect of socialization

differential association theory

a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance. suggests that deviance is learned through interaction with other ppl involved in that behavior. - "Differential association theory explains deviance as a learned behavior. Can you think of a time when you or someone you knew felt pressured to engage in deviant behavior?" - 2 other social approaches explain deviance by focusing on socialization - first one focuses on inadequate socialization. from this perspective, ppl engage in deviant behavior have failed to internalize social norms and are regulated by moral frameworks of society -alternate approach views deviance as a result of social connections

positive deviance

actions considered deviant within a given context but are later reinterpreted as appropriate or even heroic

rites of passage

acts, customs, practices, or procedures that recognize key transitions in human life ; Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood. - Western societies tend to view childhood as a natural condition linked to children's physical immaturity. Children are considered innocent, with limited capacities, and in need of intensive care and protection by adults. " - " Parents introduced their children to the adult world early and abruptly. Given the cramped living quarters of the day, by necessity parents routinely exposed their children to the full range of adult activity; children were served alcohol and some-times shared the same room as adults having sex. " - "By the eighteenth century, children in Western society were increasingly seen as innocent, weak, and in need of protection rather than as hardy "little adults." Parents socialized their children to behave differ-ently than adults and often punished transgressions with severe beatings."

labeling theory

argues that when we confront an age-related stereotype, older adults are more likely to integrate it into their self-perception ; theory that society creates deviance by identifying particular members as deviant - "Labeling theory, associated with the symbolic interactionist approach, emphasizes the power of groups within society to designate a given behavior as deviant. Can you think of an example of behavior that is labeled deviant in U.S. society and normal in another society?"

industrialization with adulthood

as adults enter different stages of life, they take on new roles and responsibilities for which they learn to adopt appropriate ideas and practices - "Adult life-course trajectories in the United States became increasingly standardized in the twentieth century, but they varied by gender (MacMillan 2005; Shanahan 2000). - A classic study of men born in the United States between 1907 and 1952 identified a sequence of transitions experienced by roughly half to three-quarters of them—completion of high school, entry into first job, marriage, and parenthood (Hogan 1978; Hogan and Astone 1986). - However, this typical sequence could be interrupted by various factors, including military service and college. This life course—finish school, get a job, get married, have children—was never a universal experience, but it became a broad cultural ideal and a widespread aspiration among boys and young men of the twentieth century. - The life-course sequence for women of the same generation differed from that of their male counter-parts. For example, women in the mid to late twentieth century were far more likely than men to marry before starting their first job" - ppl learn dominant parent norms of their culture through socialization and through childhood experience - retirement is socially constructed (until social security in the 1940s)

labor unions

associations of employees that join together for the purpose of improving their working conditions - An organization formed by workers to strive for better wages and working conditions - basic power that employers need employees

sorting by class

bowles and Gints (1976) argued that apart of a schools job is to sort student by class, preparing them for diff jobs - teaching styles and subject matter curricula are likley to vary according to class status - "For instance, students in working-class communities are more likely to be taught about the importance of obedience and following directions. This emphasis prepares them for working at the lower levels of an organization, in jobs that encourage compliance and often permit little autonomy. In con-trast, children from more privileged communities generally attend high schools (and, later, colleges) that encourage creativ-ity, innovation, and independent-mindedness. This educational focus trains students to deal with authority in ways that are more suited to future managers and executives"

organizations

collections of people who work together and coordinate their actions to achieve a wide variety of goals or desired future outcomes - secondary groups that have a degree of formal structure and are formed to accomplish particular tasks (more complex and more formal than most groups)

hidden curriculum

consisting of implicit lessons about how children should behave ; Standards of behavior that are deemed proper by society and are taught subtly in schools. - in US most schools teach children to be quit, respectful, and attentive to authority - also tend to encourage competition and individ achievement - site for lesson about class and gender

biological determinism

contends that biology, specifically our genetic makeup, almost completely shapes human behavior

social determinism

contends that culture and the social environment almost completely shape human behavior

Taylorism/Scientific Management

developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor: organization of production by subdividing tasks, which would speed up production, make workers more interchangeable, and decrease dependence on any particular employee or on skilled workers. (workers=less independent and manager has more control)

gender division of labor

differences between men and women in access to jobs. historically, men monopolized higher paying jobs nd earned more money 1) allocative discrimination 2) within a job wage discrimination 3) valuative discrimination

moral education

emile durkheim coined the term the role of schools in teaching children the central values and beliefs of their societya curricular approach - to teaching morality that emphasizes the development of students' moral reasoning

Merton's Strain Theory of Deviance

emphasizes that the strain or pressure on those who lack means to achieve culturally defined goals leads to them pursuing deviant routes to success - deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals (Accept: conformity and innovation, Reject: Ritualism and retreatism, New goals, new means: rebellion) - Robert Mertin suggested that deviance results from conflict between dominant norms and goals of society and legitimate means of achieving them 1) innovation: socially unacceptable routes to success 2) ritualism: going through motions while rejecting culturally valued norms 3) retreatism: isolation and withdrawal without access to means of success and rejects goals 4) rebellion: creation of new goal and adoption of new mean of attaining them (greater good of society)

Equity vs. Equality

equity means each person gets what they contributed, equality means each person gets the same no matter what they contributed

stereotype

exaggerated or oversimplified beliefs about people who belong to a certain group. can have serious consequences

Michel Foucault (1926-1984)

explored the relationship between power and knowledge, in part by analyzing institutions such as prisons and schools as instruments of social control. Regimes of Power - power relations within a society and who does(not) hold power with developing a sense of self - maintaining that power in a modern worlds is embodied in various types of knowledge that are connected to particular social sites (schools, hospitals, prisons, work places) - connection of power and knowledge produces the regimes of power - Foucault saw power as decentralized within many social institutions that we encounter - there is 'no real self'

overconformity

following cultural expectations to an excessive degree

life course perspective

looks at how age, time, and place shape social identities and experiences over a lifetime ; the study of changes in individuals' lives over time, and how those changes are related to historical events

structure of adolescent romantic and sexual networks model

high school dating networks from the past year - no dating an ex's ex's ex - mostly heterosexual couples reported - ppl thought teens were having sex with everyone

Thomas Theorem

how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality - by socialized in a particular culture, we learn to see our world from a particular perspective (socially constructed reality) - take ur definition of reality for granted cause us to resist seeing society in all its complexity - the idea that if people define situation as real, they are real in their consequences (subjective interpretation) - can help us understand stereotypes

secondary deviance

in labeling theory, the subsequent deviant identity or career that develops as a result of being labeled deviant; deviance in which an individual's life and identity are organized around breaking society's norms

emotional labor

jobs in which workers are expected to display certain feelings in order to satisfy organizational role expectations - a situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work - may differ between male and female - highest levels of emotional labor in jobs: policing, EMT, health, education, and service work

surveillance

monitoring by authorities who police the boundaries of what is normal

outsourcing

moving jobs out of the country to take adv of cheaper labor costs - A decision by a corporation to turn over much of the responsibility for production to independent suppliers. - some scholars argue that the contemporary employment climate in the US is characterized by precarious work. there are 5 components 1) worker attachment to employers decreased 2) long term unemployment increased 3) US workers are more concerned about security of their own jobs 4) growing sector of the jobs market consists of jobs that diverge from standard, full-time... 5) employers continue to transfer risk of workers - "Most important, however, as sociologist Edward Walker (2015) points out, is the impermanence of this kind of employment. Workers i n the shar i ng economy are essentially freelance workers, temporary contractors who do not receive the benefits of tradi-tional full-time employees. Although these workers may enjoy flexible schedules, they do not receive health insurance, retire-ment benefits, or paid vacations, and they have little jobsecurity"

collective baragaining

negotiations between employers and employees concerning wages, working conditions, and other terms of employment (higher wages and better conditions)

role strain

occurs when a person has difficulty meeting the role expectations of a single status

role conflict

occurs when fulfilling the role expectations of one status makes it difficult to fulfill the role expectations of another status

schooling

organized instruction by trained teachers " one widely cited study, education scholars Valerie Lee and Julia Smith (1995) distinguished between schools organized as a bureaucracy and those orga-nized as a community, and they show that these two structural forms are related to school size. Large schools are typically bureaucratic organizations structured along traditional, hierar-chical lines, with teachers reporting to administrators. They usually have a uniform curriculum, and information is sent home to parents about how best to help their children. " "In contrast, small schools are more likely to have a communal organization that gives teachers time to plan lessons together, emphasizes curricular flexibility and cooperative learning, and actively involves parents"

Inadequate socialization

people not exposed enough to function in certain roles - people engaged in deviant behavior and failed to internalize social norms

playful deviance

takes place a part from everyday life and is generlly a short term activity. (exciting and liberating by acting like someone else) - inappropriate ways of behaving (drinking, public nudity, raucous dancing)

agents of socialization

people or groups that affect our self concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life Family - primary agent and plays a crucial role in early develop of a child sense of self and identity - influence what nationality, religion, class, race, and gender a child identifies with - "Melvin Kohn (1977) found that in the United States, working-class parents tend to teach their children to value obedience, the expected attitude for most working-class jobs, whereas middle-class parents encourage their children to value self-direction, the attitude required for the kind of independent thinking expected in many middle-class occupations. " School - daycare, preschool, kindergarten is many of the kids first extended experience with ppl and outside world - teaches culturally knowledge, preparation for future roles (adv languages, basic skills and communication, history, science, respect) - lessons depend on school and change as children should behave Media - plays a crucial role in lives of young ppl (individualism) - on avg, teens (13-18) spend 9 hours a day on media/internet (more time than in a classroom and spent interacting with parents) - due to growth of tech and its popularity - media has become most influential agent of socialization in contemporary society - children socialized by companies whose primary interest is making money, selling products, gaining avid consumers - can make positive contributions to society (positive values for children, access to broader range of news, ideas, cultures, stories) - TV became a fixture in the US households in the 1950s = agent of socialization peer group - provide ppl with opportunity to experience values and beliefs - informal trends and structure environ (school, work, gangs) - as they approach adulthood, adolescents usually becomes increasingly independent of their families and peer groups can act as a surrogate family workplace -one of the most influential societal settings in which we experience socialization (a lot of influence from class) religion - socializing agent most explicitly focused on teaching values and beliefs - essential potent socializing agent because it bases prescriptions on texts

Tracking

placing students perceived to have similar intelligence and academic abilities in the same classroom - "Researchers have examined how the informal tracking struc-ture that persists in U.S. high schools might affect academic achievement. In general, they have found that students in "higher" tracks learn more than students with similar abilities in "lower" tracks. "

charter schools

public schools run by private entities to give parents greater control over their children's education ; Public schools that have been given the autonomy to establish their own curricula and teaching practices.

debates about punishment

punishment is an unambiguous and universal response to crime. 1) retribution 2) rehabilitation 3) deterrence 4) protection 5) restoration - in US prison pop has dramatically rose since the end of the 20th C (many nonviolent offenders are incarcerated) - AA more likely to be incarcerated than whites. (significant and ethnic disparities exist throughout the criminal court justice system)

fucntionalism

school of psychology concerned with how behavior and mental abilities help people adapt to their environments. emphasizes role of education - "The functionalist approach emphasizes consensus in social life and looks at the ways in which deviant behavior may benefit society. How might adherents of this approach view people or behaviors that many people currently consider deviant, such as the Freegans described at the beginning of this chapter?" - "The functionalist approach emphasizes consensus in social life and sees deviance as a means of reinforcing social structure. According to strain theory, which is associated with this approach, some people for whom conventional opportunities are blocked will use illegitimate means to achieve success. What examples of this behavior—other than the street crime—can you think of?"

small world

social networks that consist of a small number of people (family, workplace, ) and can be mapped in a diagram. - reveals that ate networks are more likely to include people similar to us

informal socialization

socialization in which peers and more experienced members train newcomers as they carry out their roles - an unstructured, on-the-job socialization process conducted by a new hire's coworkers

conformity (asch experiments)

sociologists have long been interested in how groups promote conformity. - Solomon Asch (1952, 1955) conducted experiments to test individual conformity - found that actions of others often promote conformity - some cultures are more conformist than other, especially when anxious about safety and well being - Nearly 75% of the participants in the conformity experiments went along with the rest of the group at least one time. After combining the trials, the results indicated that participants conformed to the incorrect group answer approximately one-third of the time.

capital punishment/death penalty

state sanctioned execution of persons convicted of serious crime "In 2018, 31 states had capital punishment statutes. Between 1977 and mid-2018, there were 1,474 executions in the United States, including 23 executions in 2017. Public support for capital punishment surged in the 1980s, reached a peak in the 1990s, and has remained above 60 percent throughout the 2000s."

crime rates

statistics that measure the incidence of crime in relation to population size (reported to law officials) 1) improved econ that produced less poverty and unemployment 2) rise in stable family structure and nontraditional family norms 3) relative decline in number of young ppl and victims involved in crimes 4) decrease in crack and drug trade 5) new and more effective policing strategies

Dramaturgy

study of social interaction as theater, in which people ("actors") project images ("play roles") in front of others ("the audience") ; an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance

Obedience (Milgram Experiment)

the "game of death" The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. - Milgram's research has had profound implications for the study of individual behavior that results in harm to others, demonstrated by events like the Holocaust and the My Lai massacre, showing that obedience to authority figures stems from the construction of a situation or context of authority, within which various - not ethical to test today

Women's Prison Association

the WPA seeks to build bridges between policymakers, police, prison officials, service providers, and researchers to reform the criminal justice system so that it will better serve women and their families. The WPA draws upon sociological research to build a pub-lic conversation about women in the criminal justice system, no small task since most public discussion about the criminal justice system neglects questions of gender. The organiza-tion focuses on prison life, the experiences of recently released women as they reenter family and work life, and the impact on families and communities of incarcerating women.

Power

the ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first person's intentions - Power relations within a society are important factors in socialization and in the developing sense of self. - Power shapes our daily life and our sense of self. According to Foucault, our sense of self is produced through various regimes of power connected to particular social sites, such as schools and hospitals. Teachers tell us what is good; doctors tell us what is normal and healthy. We are socialized to internalize these definitions and create a self that originates outside of us - Often, powerful segments of society can promote and enforce their definition of deviance and effectively label less-powerful people as deviants. Access to power enables some privileged groups to engage in distinct forms of deviant behavior without being branded or punished as deviant. - Those in society with few resources—money, power, education, or leisure—sometimes engage in deviant behavior in pursuit of these socially valued goods. Those who are stigmatized as deviant often experience isolation or discrimination that can contribute further to social, economic, or political inequalities. - The criminal justice system, which is designed to prevent crime and apprehend and punish those who commit crimes, serves as a powerful agent of social control. It also reflects imbalances of power in society, since authorities can choose which norms to enforce and which forms of deviance to punish. - Education helps reproduce social and economic inequality. Schooling can be a source of power for privileged students—those who have educational advantages, make beneficial social connections, build their self-esteem, and are encouraged to see themselves as future leaders. - Workplace power is typically based on the possession of key organizational assets, which include ownership of capital (company owners), control of budgets and decision making (managers), and possession of valued credentials (professionals)

literacy

the ability to read and write - in 2016 global literacy was 86% and was 76% in 1990

loner deviance

the activities of individuals who commit deviant acts without the social support of other participants - deviance isn't always connected by subculture - can be intensely private with little - to - no connection among those who engage

Neurosociology

the application of findings from neuroscience to the study of socialization and the socialization process ; integrates findings from neuroscience with a sociological analysis of social behavior. - the brains role in infleuncing mnay of the things that mkae us human

Scientific Management

the application of scientific principles to increase efficiency in the workplace ; a management theory using efficiency experts to examine each work operations and find ways to minimize the time needed to complete it

division of labor

the assignment of different parts of a manufacturing process or task to different people in order to improve efficiency ; Division of work into a number of separate tasks to be performed by different workers

agents of social control

the authorities and social institutions that enforce norms and rules, attempt to prevent rule violations, and identify and punish rule violators - informal and formal groups that control the behavior of members of society

job satisfaction

the degree to which an individual feels positive about a job and work experience - A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next - "Biology helps set the stage for social life, but our cultural characteristics make us distinct. Our development into fully functioning human beings must be nurtured systematically through ongoing social interaction and socialization" - isabelle from Ohio documented case of isolation vs socialization - romanian orphanages 1990s - Socialization refers to the process through which we learn the basic norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors of our society's culture. As children we learn the language and symbols of our culture and what is expected of us in such social roles as child and sibling. Once we are socialized, culture becomes a part of who we are. It is embedded in how we think and view the world. - We are not born with a sense of self; rather, we develop it over time as a product of the culture in which we are socialized. In particular, we develop a sense of self through our experience of social interaction with others - Cultural norms and beliefs define what society views as normal or deviant. These norms are taught through socialization and vary over time and across cultures. - In some cases, deviance can result from inadequate or unsuccessful socialization. In such cases, people engaged in deviant behavior have not thoroughly internalized social norms and are not fully regulated by the moral framework of society. - Because it runs counter to the dominant culture, long-term deviance is likely to require the social support of a deviant subculture, which helps nurture deviant behavior. - Education plays a vital part in instructing children about the core values of their culture. - Each workplace has its own distinctive culture, which shapes people's everyday experiences at work. When people begin a new job, they typically undergo a process of socialization, learning the norms and rules of a new workplace culture

social control

the incentives and punishments that promote conformity in social life ; the techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society

group think

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives ; form of uncritical thinking which ppl reinforce a consensus rather than ask serious questions and contradicting ideas

status

the position that someone occupies in a social group ; person's condition or position in the eyes of the law; relative rank or standing, especially in society; prestige

Socialization

the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society - we learn who we are , whats expected of us, how society operates , where we stand within society world, and gain a sense of self - occurs through life in diff ways and contexts

anticipatory socialization

the process by which individuals practice for a future social role by adopting the norms or behaviors associated with a position they have not yet achieved ; learning that helps a person achieve a desired position

commercialization of deviance

the process by which nonconformist activities or styles turn into commercial products - often creates dilemmas for agents of social control - many cultures designate specific behavior as culturally acceptable (mardi gras, spring break, brazils carnival)

occupational socialization

the process of aligning the norms, values, and beliefs of a new worker with those of the organization or occupation in which he or she is employed ; the learning of the informal norms associated with a type of employment - "A classic study of students at Harvard Law School illustrates the powerful effects of occupational socialization into a profes-sion (Granfield 1992; Granfield and Koenig 1990)." "The research-ers found that many of these elite students entered law school intending to practice public interest law, such as by advocating for nonprofit organizations, representing poor clients, and "working to prevent government and corporate fraud and abuse. - However, during their three years of professional training at Harvard, they switched course. As they became socialized into their profession, many abandoned their commitment to public interest law and embraced the idea of entering a prestigious, high-paying corporate law firm."

Resocialization

the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors ; radically changing an inmate's personality by carefully controlling the environment

Decriminalization

the process of making an illegal action legal

racial school segregation

the separation of students into exclusively white and exclusively black public schools - "More than a half century later, however, U.S. public schools are still remarkably segregated. After desegregation efforts during the 1960s and 1970s, a process of resegregation began in the late 1980s that has continued into the 2000s. A 2016 report by the Civil Rights Project at UCLA highlights the deepening segregation in U.S. schools, finding that the number of intensely segregated schools, those with less than 10 percent white enroll-ment, has increased dramatically since the late 1980s, more than tripling from 5.7 percent to 18.6 percent of public schools."

organizational environment

the set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organization's boundaries but affect a manager's ability to acquire and utilize resources - strength of the econ, stability of political rule, demographic factors, other org, legal context, technology, and cultural environ influence operation

stigma

the shame attached to a behavior or status that is considered socially unacceptable or discrediting - can be a source of inequality

education

the social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values - a great equalizer

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change - gene expression is a complicated and subtle affair - social eviron affecting gene expression - some behaviors also reflect interaction of genes and social environ - "Factors such as malnutrition, pollution, trauma, and nurturing all appear to produce changes that affect the expression of genes, resulting in long-lasting health and behavioral effects. Environ-mental conditions to which infants are exposed appear to be especially influential. Perhaps the most startling finding from epi-genetics is that some of the changes in a person's genetic expres-sion that are produced by environmental factors can be passed on to the next generation—all without changing the underlying genes"

occupational prestige

the subjective evaluation people give to jobs as better or worse than others - measures based on surveys that ask people to rate their view of prestige of different job titles

social reproduction theory

the view that existing social, cultural, and economic arrangements work to reproduce in future generations the social class divisions of the present generation - theory that explores the ways that schools help to reproduce systems of inequality - inequality in schools due to unequal access to financial resources and unequal distributions of these resources - "a study using data from 90 nations found that people in wealthier countries with a highly educated population were more likely to raise their children to be indepen-dent than people in poorer countries with a less educated and less urban population, and that people in poorer countries, in contrast, were more likely to emphasize obedience. Likewise, within individual countries those of higher economic status were more likely than those of lower economic status to priori-tize independence in parenting "

impression management theory

the ways by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others have of them ; theory that we don't really change our attitudes, but report that we have so that our behaviors appear consistent with our attitudes

iron law of oligarchy

theory that power increasingly becomes concentrated in the hands of a few members of any organization - Robert Michels' term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite - argued that bureaucracies place too much power in hands of the top officials

medicalization of deviance

to make deviance a medical matter, a symptom of some underlying illness that needs to be treated by physicians. - an approach based on individual behavior that finds sources of deviant behavior with pathology and/or illness - from his perspective, individual who engage in deviant behavior are sick and suffering from a psych or biological disorder - treating deviance as a disorder can change the stigma of it

hidden curriculum in schools

values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling. schools also transmit fundamental social values connected to religious definition of national identity 1) teacher initiated interactions with students 2) everyday classroom routines 3) students participate in school-wide activities 4) visual display ad oral routines in public spaces 5) subject matter informal curriculum

school choice

various policies that give families options for deciding which school their children will attend

cultural capital

various types of knowledge, skills, and other cultural resources; the symbolic and interactional resources that people use to their advantage in various situations - parents with more education and cultural capital impact child's education (typically better and higher) - "Parental cultural capital—or lack of it—can also significantly shape younger children's early educational experiences. Education scholar Adrian Blackledge (2001) found that Bengali-speaking immigrant mothers in England did not have the cultural capital to meet teachers' expectations for appropriate parental involvement, so school officials concluded they were not committed to their children's education. In Blackledge's view, these mothers had the "wrong" kind of cultural capital—knowledge of Bengali but not English—to the disadvantage of their children's current educa-tional experiences and future job opportunities. Similarly, a recent study of Iraqi immigrant families in Australia found that mothers unfamiliar with Australian schools and with lim-ited knowledge of English found it difficult to support their children's education, even when they had earned college degrees in their home country. Al-deen and Windle (2017) argue that having the wrong kind of cultural capital can produce emotional distress for mothers, who see themselves as bad parents, and end up limiting their children's educational opportunities."

types of crimes

violent crime property crime public order crime white-collar crime organized crime hate crime

roles

where as statuses are positions in a social system, roles are actions and activities that a person in a particular position is supposed to perform based on expectations of the individual and surrounding persons

Front stage vs. backstage behavior

• Front- visible- part of the performance • Back- behaviors we engage in when no audience is present - all actors are familiar with distinction. actors performs their roles in front by the backstage they become themselves - social actions also behave differently depending on where they are - safety nets lessen the impact of the crisis. they promote a sense of belonging