Sociology exam 2 (chapters 9-16)

The agricultural revolution

agriculture lead to a surplus which lead to more time on people's hands which lead to specialization which lead to permanent settlement and trade.

Culture Theory

although extreme prejudice may be found in some people, some prejudice is found in everyone. Because prejudice is part of the culture in which we all live and learn. The social distance studies help prove the point.

retribution

an act of moral vengeance by which society makes the offender suffer as much as the suffering caused by the crime. Retribution rests on a view of society as a moral balance. The weight of the crime has to have the same weight in punishment to restore the moral order.

State Capitalism

an economic and political system in which companies are privately owned but cooperate closely with the government. Governments work in partnership with large companies, supplying financial assistance and controlling foreign imports to help their business compete in world markets.

Welfare Capitalism

an economic and political system that combines a mostly market-based economy with extensive social welfare programs. Under welfare capitalism, the government owns some of the largest industries and services, such as transportation, the mass media, and health care.

Socialism

an economic system in which natural resources and the means of producing goods and services are collectively owned. Socialists reject each of the three characteristics of capitalism, and instead accept the opposite: 1. Collective ownership of property—they limit rights to private property, especially property used to generate income. Government controls such property and makes housing and other goods available to all, not just the people with the most money. 2. Pursuit of collective goals—The individualistic pursuit of profit goes against the collective orientation of socialism. Individuals are expected to work for the common good of all. 3. Government control of the economy—they are in favor of a centrally controlled or command economy operated by the government. Commercial advertising plays little role in socialist economies. Not competing to gain wealth but meeting everyone's basic needs in a roughly equal manner. They don't want to put profit before people.

Hate crimes

are crimes motivated by racial or other bias; they target people who are already disadvantaged based on race, gender, or sexual orientation. In the US and elsewhere, societies control the behavior of women more closely than that of men

Social control

attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior. Often this process is informal, as when parents praise or scold their children or when friends make fun of our choice of music or style of dress.

Gender roles

attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex. - The female world revolves around cooperation and emotion, and the male world puts a premium on independence and action. - We always ask if the baby is a girl or a boy. Categorize them as pink or blue. And treat them differently as a baby - kissing and caressing baby girls and throwing and bouncing baby boys.

Integrated personalities

coping well with the challenges of growing old. Keeping personal dignity and self-confidence while accepting growing old.

Scapegoat theory

holds that prejudice springs from frustration among people who are themselves disadvantaged.

Social distance (measuring prejudice)

how closely people are willing to interact with members of some category. Research shows: 1. The long-term trend is that students are more accepting of all minorities. 2. Today's students see less difference between various minorities. 3. The climate of concern over terrorism in the world probably has increased prejudice toward Arabs and Muslims.

Defended personalities

living independently but fearful of aging. They try to shield themselves from the reality of old age by fighting to stay youthful and physically fit. Although it is good to be concerned about health, setting unrealistic standards breeds stress and disappointment.

disintegrated and disorganized personalities

marked by despair. People who can't come to terms with aging. Many of these people end up as passive

Hyper-segregation

having little contact of any kind with people outside the local community

Child Slavery

in which desperately poor families send their children out into the streets to beg or steal or do whatever they can to survive. (10 million children are forced to labor daily in production)

chattel slavery

in which one person owns another

Intragenerational social mobility

is a change in social position occurring during a person's lifetime

Multinational corporation

is a large business that operates in many countries.

Dependency Theory

is a model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of the historical exploitation of poor nations by rich ones.

Scapegoat

is a person or category of people, typically with little power, whom people unfairly blame for their own troubles.

parole

is a policy of releasing inmates from prison to serve the remainder of their sentences in the local community under the supervision of a parole officer.

Professions

o A prestigious white-collar occupation that requires extensive formal education.

Biological Changes of old age

o Aging consists of gradual, ongoing changes in the body. o US culture takes a positive view of biological changes that occur early in life. - People look forward to expanding their experiences and responsibilities. o Lower income and stress linked to prejudice and discrimination also explain why only 63 percent of older African Americans assess their health in positive terms, compared to 79 percent of elderly white people.

Corporation

o An organization with a legal existence, including rights and liabilities, separate from that of its members. Incorporating makes an organization a legal entity, able to enter into contracts and own property.

Passive-dependent personalities

little confidence in their abilities to cope with daily events, seeking help if they do not need it. Always in danger of social withdrawal, their life satisfaction level is relatively low.

Self Employment

o Earning a living without being on the payroll of a large organization—was once common in the United States. Self-employed are more likely to have blue collar jobs.

Underground Economy

o Economic activity involving income not reported to the government as required by law.

Aging and Poverty

o Elders usually have their house and college expenses paid off, but it costs a lot for medical needs, household help, and home utilities. Retirement has a significant decline in income. Poverty rate for the elders has gone down a lot.

The importance of colonialism

political liberation has not transformed into economic independence. Far from it - the economic relationship between poor and rich nations continues the colonial pattern of domination. Colonialism is still prevalent today.

victimless crimes

violations of the law in which there are no obvious victims. - 63% of people arrested for property crimes and 80% of people arrested for violent crimes are male

Multicultural and Global Feminism

while all women have a common position of oppression in relation to men, the life experiences of women differ according to their race, ethnicity, and class position. In the same way, global feminism attempts to recognize the common oppression in the lives of all the world's women, while also paying attention to their different positions within the world of nations set apart from one another by the system of global stratification.

Debt bondage

people can't afford to pay off their debts

Ageism

prejudice and discrimination against older people. Elders face this, but also middle-aged people do too.

Caregiving

refers to informal and unpaid care provided to a dependent person by family members, other relatives, or friends.

meritocracy

refers to social stratification based on personal merit (earned). This personal earning includes personal knowledge, abilities, and effort. A person's job and how well it is done.

Gender

refers to the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female or male. Gender is a dimension of social organization, shaping how we think about ourselves. Gender also involves hierarchy.

civil law

regulates business dealings between private parties

Societal protection

rendering (make) an offender incapable of further offenses temporarily through imprisonment or permanently by execution. - The death penalty is legal in 33 states, but only 7 have gone through with the act. Opponents of capital punishment point to research suggesting that the death penalty has limited value as a crime deterrent. There is also public concern that the death penalty may be applied unjustly—many people were wrongly convicted of a crime.

Class system

social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement. To attract people to work in many occupations other than farming. More open than caste systems. People experience social mobility through education and skills.

Economic Equality

the distribution of resources within a population is another important measure of how well an economic system works. • Societies with capitalist economies had an income ratio of about 10 to 1; the ratio for socialist countries was about 5 to 1. In other words, capitalist economies support a higher overall standard of living, but with greater income inequality; socialist economies create more economic equality but with a lower overall living standard.

Oligopoly

the domination of a market by a few producers, is both legal and common.

sexism

the justification for patriarchy. The belief that one sex is innately superior to the other

Relative poverty

the lack of resources of some people in relation to those who have more

Human trafficking

the moving of men, women, and children from one place to another for the purpose of performing forced labor.

Segregation

the physical and social separation of categories of people. Segregation still is prevalent today. Segregation can be expressed through exclusion, or voluntary segregation like the Amish folk.

Assimilation

the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture. Assimilation can involve changing modes of dress, values, religion, language, and friends. - For racial traits to diminish over generations, Miscegenation or biological reproduction by partners of different categories, must occur.

general deterrence

the punishment of one person serves an example to others.

Deviance

the recognized violation of cultural norms. Norms guide almost all human activities, so the concept of deviance is quite broad.

Economy

the social institution that organizes a society's production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Gerontology

the study of aging and the elderly. They work with many disciples such as medicine, psychology, and sociology to see not only how people change as they grow old but also the different ways societies around the world define old age.

Genocide

the systematic killing of one category of people by another. This deadly form of racism and ethnocentrism violates nearly every recognized moral standard, yet it has occurred time and time again in human history.

Sectors of the Economy

the three revolutions just described reflect a shifting balance among the three sectors of society's economy. 1. Primary Sector—the part of the economy that draws raw materials from the natural environment. Agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry, and mining. 2. Secondary Sector—the part of the economy that transforms raw materials into manufactured goods. 3. Tertiary Sector—the part of the economy that involves services rather than goods.

Socialism and Communism

Many people think that communism and socialism is the same thing, but they are not. Communism is a hypothetical economic and political system in which all members of a society are socially equal (a complete abolishment of class divisions). Socialism, said my Marx, is a step towards communism, but no country has actually reached that point.

Patriarchy

(rule by fathers) a form of social organization in which males dominate females.

Matriarchy

(rule by mothers) a form of social organization in which females dominate males, which has only rarely been documented un human history.

White Anglo-Saxon Protestants

(English, Scottish, and Welsh ancestry) were not the first people to inhabit the US, but they soon dominated after European settlement began. They held a high social standing and were protestants. Because of a high social standing, many people wanted to become more like them. Today we mostly speak English and Protestant religion mostly reflects in ours, our legal system reflects them too. They were hostile, rich, and the terms "race" and "ethnicity" didn't apply to them.

Global Stratification (Worlds)

- "1st world" - rich and industrialized countries - "2nd world" - less industrialized and socialist countries - "3rd world" - nonindustrialized and poor countries - These terms are less useful today. These terms ignore the striking differences within each label. - These invalid terms call for a modestly revised system of classification: - The 76 high income countries are defined as the nations with the highest overall standards of living (per gross capita of $15,000). - The world's 70 middle income countries are not as rich: they are the nations with a standard of living about average for the world as a whole. (per gross capita: 15,000 < x > 3,500) - The 48 low income countries are nations with a low standard of living in which most people are poor. (per gross capita is less than 3,500).

Explaining poverty

- 1 reason: poor are responsible for their own poverty—In United states: capable--- should get work, high cultural value on self-reliance, etc. Many poor become trapped in a culture of poverty, a lower-class subculture that can destroy people's ambition to improve their lives. In 1996 congress changed the welfare system, to assist poor people for no more than two years and a lifetime total of five years as an individual moves in and out of the welfare system. - 2nd reason: society is mostly responsible for poverty. They think there is little opportunity (not enough jobs to support a family).

Working class

- 1/3 of the population falls within the working class. - Marxist terms- the working class forms the core of the industrial proletariat. (29,000-51,000 a year). Have little to no wealth and are vulnerable to financial problems caused by unemployment or illness. - Many working-class jobs provide little personal satisfaction—because the work requires discipline but rarely imagination—and jobs subject workers to continual supervision. Offers fewer benefits. Earning a 4-year college degree becomes a reality for only about one-fifth of working-class children.

Middle Class

- 40-45% of US population. The large middle class has a tremendous influence on our culture. - Middle class contains far more racial and ethnic diversity than the upper class.

The Upper Class

- 5% of the US population earn at least $217,000 and some earn ten times that much or more. - Karl Marx describes them as the capitalists.

Who are the poor? (AGE)

- 9.3% (4.2 million) of the poor are elderly. - Today the burden of poverty falls more heavily on children. 19.9% of people under the age of eighteen (14.7 million) and 19.4% of people are eighteen to twenty-four (5.8 million) were poor. 45.2 percent of the US poor are young people no older than 24

Gender and victimization and Crime

- 90% of all rape cases, the victim knew the offender. 10-20% of women experience rape or attempted rape in college. The number is even greater for women who aren't in college. Apart from the police and the military, family is the most violent organization in the US, and where women suffer the most injuries. The risk of violence is greater for low-income women living in families that face a great deal of stress; women have fewer options to get out of a dangerous home. Rape often happens with men you know and trust. Sexual violence is about power, not sex. This desire for dominance in this world of Cat calls or any intimidating sexual harassment creates our society to be a rape culture. Women in other parts of the world and in one case in California practice genital mutilation which is very dangerous and painful. People claim to do this because they say it promotes "morality" - this is a case of violence against women. - 78% of murder victims are male. Our culture tends to define masculinity in terms of aggression and violence. A higher crime rate is a result of this. But even when no laws are broken, men's lives involve more stress and isolation than women's lives, which is one reason that the suicide rate for men is almost four times higher than for women. Violence is not simply based on the individual's actions, it is a cultural that results in harm for both men and women. The way society constructs gender plays an important part in how violence or peaceful that society will be.

Biological beliefs of deviance

- A century ago people assumed that human behavior was the result of biological instincts. Criminality therefore focused on biological causes. Cesare Lombroso theorized that criminals stand out physically, with low foreheads, prominent jaws and cheekbones, hairiness, and unusually long arms. In other words, they looked like our apelike ancestors. Which is obviously false considering these characteristics are common outside of the criminal population. - William Sheldon predicted and cross-checked hundreds of young men for body type and concluded that men with a stronger, athletic build deemed to be insensitive towards others, more aggressive when they were younger and have a higher chance of being a criminal. - In 2003, researchers from University of Wisconsin concluded genetic factors (defective genes that make too much of an enzyme) together with environmental factors (especially abuse early in life) were strong predictors of adult crime and violence. They noted, too, that these factors together were a better predicter of crime than either one alone.

Class impacts on Politics

- A desire to protect their wealth prompts most well-off people to be more conservative on economic issues, favoring, for example, taxes. But on social issues such as abortion and gay rights, highly educated, more affluent people are more liberal. People of lower social standing tend to be economic liberals, favoring government social programs that benefit them and hold more conservative views on social issues. - People who are well-off financially are involved in politics - Among the less well-off people tend to opt out of politics. Barely half of low-income people reported being registered to vote.

UPPER-UPPERS

- AKA bluebloods or society. (1% of the US population). Membership is almost always the result of birth. They mostly live in old exclusive neighborhoods, their kids go to prestigious private schools, and women volunteer to broaden this elite's power.

African Americans

- African Americans accompanied European explorers to the New World in the 15th century. Slavery. Dred Scott Case of 1857 US Supreme Court addressed the question "Are slaves Citizens?"

Work in the postindustrial US Economy

- Agricultural work is declining. Family farming is replaced with corporate agribusinesses - Factory work is becoming replaced with service work.

Deviant and power (social conflict approach)

- Alexander Liazos points out that the people we tend to define as deviants—the ones we dismiss as "nuts" and "sluts" - are typically not as bad or harmful as they are powerless. People who look inferior are typically carry the stigma of deviance. 1. All norms—especially the laws of any society—generally reflect the interests of the rich and powerful. People who threaten the wealthy are likely to be labeled deviant, either for taking people's property or for advocating a more egalitarian (equal rights and equal opportunity) society ("political radicals"). 2. Even if their behavior is called into question, the powerful have the resources to resist deviant labels. Most of the executives involved in recent corporate scandals still need to get arrested. 3. The widespread belief that norms and laws are natural and good masks their political character. For this reason, although we may condemn the unequal application of the law, we give little thought to whether the laws themselves are really fair or not.

Gender (US stratification)

- All genders are found in each class, but on average women have less income, wealth, and occupational prestige than men.

Physical Challenges vs Mental challenges in Aging

- Physical decline in old age is less serious than most young people think. But even so, elders experience pain, limitations in activities, increase their dependency on others, lose dear friends and relatives, and face up to their own mortality. Because we place a high value on youthfulness, elders often face self-doubt and fear. - Elderly people spend more time reflecting on their past, remembering disappointments as well as accomplishments

Social foundations of deviance.

- Although we tend to view deviance as the free choice or personal failings of individuals, all behaviors (deviance as well as conformity) is shaped by society. 1. Deviance varies according to cultural norms. No thought or action is inherently deviant; it becomes deviant only in relation to particular norms. Because norms vary from place to place, deviance also varies. Different cultures or religions around the world, even different laws within each state of the US. 2. People become deviant as others define them that way. Everyone violates cultural norms at one time or another—whether such behavior defines us as mentally ill or a criminal depends on now others perceive, define, and respond to it 3. How societies set norms and how they define rule breaking both involve social power. Norms and how we apply them reflect social inequality.The law, declared Karl Marx, is the means by which powerful people protect their interests. A homeless man protesting something about the government risks disturbing the peace; while, a mayoral candidate during an election campaign who does the exact thing, gets police protection.

Arab Americans

- Arab Americans are a growing US minority. Because they come to the US from so many different nations, Arab Americans are a culturally diverse population, and they are represented in all social classes. They have been a target of prejudice and hate crimes in recent years as a result of a stereotype that links all Arab Americans with Terrorism.

Asian Americans

- Asian Americans have suffered both racial and ethnic hostility. Although some prejudice and discrimination continue, both Chinese and Japanese Americans now have above-average income and schooling.

History on social mobility

- Between 1980 and 2013, the richest 20% of US families enjoyed a 56% jump in annual income, while the 20% of families with the lowest income experienced a 7% decrease. - Historically, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and women have had less opportunity for upward mobility in US society than white men. - The American dream—the expectation of upward mobility—is deeply rooted in our culture. Although high-income families are earning more and more, many average families are struggling to hold on to what they have. - Marriage encourages upward social mobility. Divorce lowers social standing. - The global reorganization of work has created upward social mobility for educated people in the US but has hurt average workers, whose factory jobs have moved overseas and who are forced to take low-wage service work.

Class impacts on health

- Children born into poor families are twice as likely to die from disease, neglect, accidents, or violence during the first years of life. - The long-term consequence of not getting medical attention, typically coupled to a lower level of nutrition and living in a more stressful environment, is easy to guess: Average life expectancy for low-income people is five years less than for affluent people.

corporate crime

- Corporate Crime—The illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf. - Corporate crime ranges from: knowingly selling faulty or dangerous products to deliberately polluting the environment. - The annual death toll for all job-related hazards in the US runs into the thousands, and each year more than a million people are injured on the job seriously enough to take time away from work.

Social mobility

- Earning a college degree, landing a higher-paying job, or marrying someone who earns a good income contributes to upward social mobility; dropping out of school, losing a job, or becoming divorced may result in downward social mobility. - Over the long term, social mobility is not so much a matter of changes in individuals as changes in society itself. (Living standards).

Race-conflict theory and feminist theory

- Explain that what people consider deviant reflects the relative power and privilege of different categories of people.

Gender and social stratification

- Gender influences how society is organized, how our lives are affected by hierarchy. - The gap of female and male income and job differential is closing, but still prevalent. Men usually have the more prestigious jobs as executives for businesses or architecture and such, as where women are teachers or counselors, etc. - Women are kept away from these "manlier" jobs for being subject to labeling as "sexually loose" or lesbians. Women are then made as outcasts and presented a challenge to hold a job and made advancement all but impossible. - Men have slightly higher joblessness. - Men get paid more typically because of the type of work each men and women go into. - Women are labeled to stay at home with the kids, so men should get paid more to support women and hold higher jobs. Also, women with children may not be able to handle high-pace jobs. - Glass ceilings are held above women, making them unable to reach higher positions in the work force. - Taking care of the home and children is "women's work." Although this has gone down. They support women entering the workforce, but resist taking on an equal share of household duties. - There are more women on most campus universities and seem to value education more than men. In 1992, for the first time, there has been more women postgraduate degrees, which are often a springboard to high-prestigious jobs. Although men still dominate in professional fields. Women dominate in school - A century ago, almost no women held elected office in the US. Women were once legally barred from voting in national elections until the passage of the 9th amendment. Now more women are in congress and senate. - Women weren't always allowed to be in the military, because men thought they would be in harms way since they lack in physical strength and are seen as nurturers instead of killers. Now women are allowed to be in the military.

Social conflict theories of Gender

- Gender is a societal structure that creates division and tension, with men seeking to protect their privileges as women challenge the status quo. As society has developed with surplus wealth to pass on to heirs, upper-class men needed to be sure that their sons were their own, which led them to control the sexuality of women. The desire to control both women's sexuality and private property brought about monogamous marriage and the family. Women were taught to remain virgins until marriage, to remain faithful to their husbands thereafter, and to build their lives around bearing and raising one man's children.

Hispanic Americans/latinos

- Hispanic Americans/Latinos the largest US minority, include many ethnicities sharing a Spanish heritage. Mexican Americans, the largest Hispanic minority, are concentrated in the southwestern region of the country and are the poorest Hispanic category. Cubans, concentrated in Miami, are the most affluent Hispanic category.

Global perspective of Social Stratification

- Hunting and gathering societies—sharing atmosphere in production - Horticultural, pastoral, and agrarian societies—creates a surplus and social inequality increases. A small elite group controls most of the surplus - Industrial societies - Industrial societies—This turns the tide. Need for education to go into specialized fields. This creates the divide between the rich and poor. Although required education reduces social inequality and lessening men's domination of women. Equal opportunity drives away from social inequality - The Kuznets Curve—technological advances first increase but then moderate the extent of social stratification. This trend fluctuates for each type of society and is shown on the Kuznets Curve.

The Extent of poverty

- In 2013, the government classified 45.3 million men, women and children—14.5 percent of the population—as poor. - A typical poor family had to get by on an income of about $14,000.

Gender and advertisements

- In advertisements men are portrayed as dominant and superior, as where women are portrayed as submissive, and sexual. - in favor of boys in society. Male actors are paid way more than female actors also.

Deviance and Capitalism

- In the Marxist tradition, Steven Spritzer argues that deviant labels are applied to people who interfere with the operation of capitalism. 1. Because capitalism is based on private control of wealth. People who threaten the property of others—especially the poor who steal from the rich—are prime candidates for being labeled deviant. The rich who take advantage of the poor are less likely to be labeled deviant. 2. Because capitalism depends on productive labor, people who cannot or will not work risk being labeled deviant. Many members of society of our society think people who are out of work, even through no fault of their own, are somehow deviant. 3. Capitalism depends on respect for authority figures, causing people who resist authority to be labeled deviant. Children who skip school or talk back to teachers and parents. 4. Anyone who directly challenges the capitalist status quo is likely to be defined as deviant. Such has been the case with labor organizers, radical environmentalists, and antiwar activists. - On the other side, society positively labels whatever supports the operation of capitalism. Such as winning athletes—achievement and competition, both vital to capitalism. Also, we condemn using drugs of escape as deviant but encourage drugs that promote adjustment to the status quo (caffeine and alcohol). - The capitalist system also tries to control people who are not economically productive. The elderly, people with mental or physical disabilities, and retreatists (drug heads and alcoholics) are subject to control by social welfare agencies. But people who openly challenge the capitalist system, the innovators, rebels, inner city underclass, and revolutionaries are controlled by the criminal justice system and military forces such as the national guard. - Both social welfare and criminal justice systems blame individuals, not the system, for social problems. Anyone who challenges the government is branded a radical or communists and those who try to gain illegally what they will never get legally are rounded up as common criminals.

Increasing Social Inequality

- Inequality of wealth and income has increased - Surveys show that most people think that income differences in the US are too large. - Many people are concerned that hard work may not be enough to get ahead. - Defenders of such high paying jobs claim that companies pay whatever it takes to attract the most talented people to top leadership, which helps companies perform better. Critics counter that paying a CEO a lot of money is no guarantee that the company will perform well.

Feminism

- Is a support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism. The first wave of feminism in the US began in the 1840s (Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott). 1920—right to vote. Second wave of feminism 1960 and continues on today.

Intersection Theory

- Is analysis of the interplay of race, class, and gender, which often results in multiple dimensions of disadvantage. Gender is not the only factor for social stratification, class position, race and ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation form a multilayered system that provides disadvantages for some and privileges for others.

Who are the poor? (Urban and Rural poverty)

- It is becoming more of a trend that people who are poor live in a community with other people who are poor. They are also becoming more socially segregated.

Social classes in the US (Marx and Weber views)

- Karl Marx sees two classes: Capitalists and proletarians. - Max Weber claims that stratification creates not clear-cut classes but a multidimensional status hierarchy.

Marx view of stratification

- Marx criticized capitalist societies for defending wealth and power in the hands of a few as "a law of the marketplace." - Marx concluded, culture and institutions combine to support a society's elite, which is why established hierarchies last such a long time.

Native Americans

- Native Americans were in the US in 1492, when Columbus came, he labeled them as passive and peaceful. In contrast as the Europeans who were competitive and materialistic. The Europeans justified their seizure of Native American land by calling their victims thieves and murders. After the Revolutionary war, the new US government seeked to gain more land through treaties, payment for the land was far from fair so they resisted the surrender. With our military power, we were able to evict them and put them in reservations and assimilating them to our culture—Christianity, English Language, and more. Now Native Americans are mostly poor.

Ancestry (US stratification)

- Nothing affects social standing in the US as much as being born into a particular family, which has a strong bearing on schooling, occupation, and income. Inherited Poverty shapes the future of tens of millions of others.

Social classes in the US

- Others cut society into 7 or 8 class structure. - Defining classes is hard because towards the middle of the hierarchy, people's standing in one dimension may be different in their standing in another. o Ex: A Government official may have the power to administer a multimillion-dollar budget yet may earn only a modest personal income. o Many members in a clergy may enjoy ample prestige but only moderate power and low pay. o Or a "card shark" a skillful gambler who hustles other people, winning little public respect but lots of money. - Social positions may change (social mobility).

Peer groups and gender

- Peer groups teach additional lessons about gender. Boys usually choose games to play that involve many rules and results in a loser and winner. Girls play sports too, but they also play jump rope and hopscotch, or simply talk or sing and dance. Boys define rightness as following the rules and girls consider morality a matter of responsibility to others. - Gender shapes our beliefs and interests about our own abilities, guiding areas of study and career choices.

The working poor

- People working at a minimum wage don't get paid enough to stay out of poverty. The wage to keep workers out of poverty, at minimum should be $11.47.

Personality factors of deviance

- Psychological explanations of deviance also focus on abnormality in the individual personality. - Some personality traits are inherited, but most psychologists think that personality is shaped primarily by social experience. Deviance, then, is viewed as the result of "unsuccessful" socialization.

Research on Social mobility

- Research points out 5 general conclusions about social mobility in the US 1. Social mobility over the past century has been fairly high 2. Within a single generation, social mobility is usually small. 3. The long-term trend in social mobility has been upward. - industrialization and the growth of white-collar work have raised living standards. 4. Since the 1970's, social mobility has been uneven. —real income has risen and fallen with overall smaller gains than was the case before. 5. The short-term trend in social mobility has been downward. Keeping the standard of living is becoming more difficult.

Percentage of All U.S. Income

- Richest 20% of families = 48.8% - Second 20% = 23% - Third 20% = 15.1% - Fourth 20% = 9.3% - Poorest 20% of families = 3.8%

Percentage of All U.S. Wealth

- Richest 20% of families = 88.9% - Second 20% = 9.3% - Third 20% = 2.7% - Fourth 20% = 0.5% - Poorest 20% of families = -1.4%

Class impacts on Gender and Family

- Social class also shapes family life. - Working class parents encourage children to conform to conventional norms and to respect authority figures. These parents set boundaries for their children, providing clear directives that are to be obeyed. - Higher income families, the parents pass along a different "cultural capital" to their children. These parents are more flexible with their kids, reasoning with them rather than telling them what to do. The goal here is to develop children's special talents, and parents do this by placing children in many organized activities and encouraging them to express their individuality and to use their imagination freely. - Low income kids will more than likely get involved in jobs that make them follow the rules and higher income kids will more than likely get involved in jobs that are more creative. - Lower-income couples divide their responsibilities according to gender roles, so that men and women live rather different lives, - More affluent couples are more egalitarian, sharing more activities and expressing greater intimacy. - Among less well-off people, friendships typically serve as sources of material assistance; among people with higher incomes, friendships are likely to involve shared interests and leisure pursuits.

Marx Social Conflict Theory of social inequality

- Social- conflict analysis argues that rather than benefiting society as a whole, social stratification benefits some people and disadvantages others. - Karl Marx explained that most people have one of two basic relationships to the means of production: They either own productive property or labor for others. Different productive roles arise from different social classes. - Marx explained that capitalist society reproduces the class structure in each new generation. Passing wealth down in families - He predicted oppression and misery would eventually drive the working majority to come together to overthrow capitalism in favor of a socialist system that would put an end to class difference.

Class impacts on values and attitudes

- Some cultural values vary from class to class. - "Old Rich"—have an unusually strong sense of family history because they have one or more ancestors who made a lot of money and their social position is based on wealth passed down from generation to generation. Secure in their birth-right privileges, upper-uppers also favor understated manners and tastes, as if to say "I don't need to 'show off' to prove who I am." - "new rich" - use expensive things to make a statement about their social position. - Affluent people with greater education and financial security are also more tolerant or controversial behavior such as homosexuality. - Working class people who grow up in an atmosphere of greater supervision and discipline and are less likely to attend college, tend to be less tolerant. - Social class has a great deal to do with self-concept. People with higher social standing experience more confidence in everyday interaction for the simple reason that others tend to view them as having greater importance.

Street Crime vs. White Collar Crime

- Street crime is more common among people of lower social position. Although a lot of the criminal activity recorded in the poor communities are committed by repeat offenders. The majority of people who live in those poor communities have no criminal record at all. - If we expand our definition of crime beyond street offenses to include white-collar crime and corporate crime, the "common criminal" suddenly looks much more affluent and may live in a $100 million home. - More whites than African Americans are arrested more often than whites in relation to their population size. Asian Americans have a lower-than-average rate of arrest. - The rates of violent and property crime in the US are several times higher than in Europe.

US Stratification: Merit and Caste

- The US class system is partly a meritocracy in that social position reflects individual talent and effort. But also has caste elements, because birth socially locates you in a particular family, as well as assigning traits such as race, ethnicity, and gender all plays a role in what we become later in life.

Homelessness

- The familiar stereotypes of homeless people—men sleeping in doorways and women carrying everything they own in a shopping bag—have been replaced by new homeless: people thrown out of work because of plant closings, women who take their children and leave home to escape domestic violence, women and men forced out of apartments by rent increases, and others unable to meet mortgage or rent payments because of low wages or no work at all. - Some (more conservative) people blame the personal traits of the homeless themselves. One-third of homeless people are substance abusers and others seem to struggle coping with our complex and highly competitive society. - Other (more liberal) people see homelessness as resulting form societal factors, including low wages and a lack of low-income housing.

The graying of the United States

- The graying of the United States means that the average age of the US population is steadily going up. - In 1900, the median age was 23, and elderly people were 4% of the population. - By 2060, the median age will be more than 40, and elderly people will represent 24% of the US population. - In high-income countries like the US, the share of elderly people has been increasing for two reasons: 1. Birth rates have been falling as families choose to have fewer children. 2. Life expectancy has been rising as living standards improve and medical advances reduce deaths from infectious diseases.

The Lower Class

- The remaining 20%. - Low income makes their lives insecure and difficult. - Fed gov labeled 45.3 million people poor. Millions more—called the "working poor"—are slightly better off, holding low-wage jobs that provide little satisfaction and minimal income. - 76% of lower-class children complete HS, but less than 15% ever complete a four-year college degree. - Society segregates the lower class, especially when the poor are racial or ethnic minorities. 43% of lower-class families own their own homes typically in the least desirable neighborhoods.

who are the poor? (race/ethnicity)

- Two-thirds of all poor people are white (including Hispanics); 24% of the poor are African Americans. - People of color have especially high rates of child poverty. Among African American children, 38.3% percent are poor; the comparable figures are 30.4 percent among Hispanic children and 10.7% among non-Hispanic white children.

power

- Wealth is an important source of power. - Some sociologists argue that such concentrated wealth weakens democracy because the political system serves the interests of the super-rich. - Occupational Prestige—Work is also an important source of social prestige (power). We commonly evaluate each other according to the kind of work we do, giving greater respect to those who do what we consider important work and less respect to others with modest jobs. - Schooling—The better paying white-collar jobs (although not all) require more schooling than blue-collar jobs.

Weber social-conflict Theory of social inequality

- Weber claimed that social stratification involves three distinct dimensions of inequality: Economic inequality— 1. Class position, low to high and not well-defined categories. 2. Status, social prestige 3. Power - Weber's socioeconomic status hierarchy—He viewed social prestige and power as simple reflections of economic position and did not treat them as distinct dimensions of inequality. - He noted that status consistency is low in modern society. For example—a local official might exercise great power yet have little wealth or social prestige

White Ethnic Americans

- White ethnic Americans are non-WASPs whose ancestors emigrated from Europe in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In response to prejudice and discrimination, many white ethnics formed supportive residential enclaves (a portion of territory within or surrounded by a larger territory whose inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct).

New Information Technology and work:

1. Computers are deskilling labor. 2. Computers are making work more abstract 3. Computers limit workplace interaction 4. Computers increase employers' control of workers—computers allow supervisors to monitor workers 5. Computers allow companies to relocate work. Wages may be lower due to location of work. 16.4 Corporations

Why was there not a Marxist Revolution?

1. Fragmentation of the capitalist class—With wide stock widely held, more and more people have a direct stake in the capital system. 2. A higher standard of living—It allows social mobility. One result of this rising standard of living is that more people are content with the status quo and less likely to press for change. Blue collar occupations - lower prestige jobs that involve mostly manual labor White- collar occupations - higher prestige jobs that involve mostly mental activity. 3. More worker organizations—workers today have the right to form labor unions, to make demands of management, and to back up their demands of management, and to back up their demands with threats of work slowdowns and strikes. 4. Greater legal protections—over the past century, the government passed laws to make workplaces safer. Insurance, disability protection, etc.

Poor nations depend on rich ones because of the money Flow towards rich nations. This dependency involves three factors:

1. Narrow, export-oriented economies—poor nations produce only a few crops for export to rich countries. 2. Lack of industrial capacity—the poor make inexpensive goods for the rich to utilize and sell, so when the poor need to buy the goods they have to pay more for it. Ex: they raise cotton, but can't weave their own clothe, so they give it to the rich and they make clothes in which the poor have to buy from—which costs way more than they can afford given the inexpensive materials they produce. 3. Foreign debt—Unequal trade patterns have plunged poor countries into debt.

The vicious cycle of prejudice and discrimination

1. Stage 1 - Prejudice and discrimination 2. Stage 2 - Social disadvantage 3. Stage 3 - Belief in minority's innate inferiority. - These stages are cyclic like a cycle. - Situations that are defined as real become real in their consequences.

Basic Feminist Ideas

1. Taking action to increase equality. Feminist thinking is political; it links ideas to action. 2. Expanding human choice. Feminists propose a "reintegration of humanity" by which all individuals develop all human traits. (Ex: emotional and competitiveness). 3. Eliminating gender stratification throughout society. They oppose laws and cultural norms that limit the education, income, and job opportunities for women 4. Ending sexual violence. Me too movement. 5. Promoting sexual freedom. Feminism advocates women having control over their sexuality and reproduction. Birth control, abortion, or reproduction. Support gay people's efforts to end prejudice and discrimination in a largely heterosexual culture.

Explanations of Global poverty

1. Technology—about one-quarter of people in low-income countries farm the land using human muscle or animal power 2. Population growth—the poorest countries have the world's highest birth rates. Despite the death toll from poverty, the populations of poor countries in Africa double every twenty-five years. 3. Cultural patterns—poor societies are usually traditional. Holding on to long-established ways of life means resisting change—even change that promises a richer material life. 4. Social Stratification—Low income societies distribute their wealth very unequally. 5. Gender inequality—in poor societies keeps women from holding jobs, which typically means they have many children 6. Global power relationships—global poverty lies in the relationships between the nations of the world. Rich and poor flowed through colonialism.

An occupation is considered a profession to the extent that it demonstrates the following four basic characteristics:

1. Theoretical Knowledge—professionals have a theoretical understanding of their field rather than mere technical training. Physicians have a theoretical knowledge of human health. 2. Self-regulating practice—the typical professional is self-employed, "in private practice," rather than working for a company 3. Authority over clients—because of their expertise, professionals are sought out by clients, who value their advice and follow their directions. 4. Community orientation rather than self-interest—the traditional professing of duty states an intention to serve others rather than merely to seek income.

socioeconomic status (SES)

A division of population based on occupation, income, and education. --- to refer to a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality.

social stratification

A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Bases off of 4 important principles: 1. Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences. People aren't separated by talent, but power, wealth, and prestige. 2. Social stratification carries over from generation to generation. Parents pass on prestige and wealth to their children, although some people experience social mobility—a change in position within the social hierarchy, upward or downward. 3. Social stratification is universal but variable. Is found everywhere, but what and how inequality is defined varies from society to society. 4. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well. Just as the details of inequality vary, the explanations of why people should be unequal differ from society to society.

Elder abuse

Abuse of older people takes many forms, from passive neglect to active torment, including verbal, emotional, financial, and physical harm. At least 2 million people over the age of 65 suffer some abuse each year, and about one-third of these cases are life threatening.

Capitalism and Socialism

All countries have a mix of the two

Poverty's relationship with inequality

All systems of inequality create poverty

Minority (social meaning)

Any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates. Minorities have two important characteristics. First, they share a distinctive identity, which may be based on physical or cultural traits. Second, minorities experience subordination. US minorities typically have lower income, lower occupational prestige, and limited schooling.

Capitalist world economy

Because the world economy in based in the high-income countries, it is capitalist in character. Rich nations are the core of the world economy. Colonialism enriched this core by funneling raw materials from around the world to western Europe, where they fueled the industrial revolution. Low-income countries represent the periphery of the world economy. Poor nations provide inexpensive labor and a vast market for industrial products. The remaining countries are considered the semi periphery of the world economy, which have closer ties to the global economic core. Poor nations depend on rich ones because of the money flow towards rich nations.

Historical perspective

Before the industrial revolution there was little affluence, so the poor nowadays didn't have as such of a high standard of living. So, they were better off than they are now. The colonial process that helped develop rich nations also underdeveloped poor societies. Some nations became rich only because others became poor.

Personal Freedom

Capitalism emphasizes the freedom to pursue self-interest and depends on the ability of producers and consumers to interact with little interference by the state. Socialism, by contrast, emphasizes freedom from basic want. The goal of equality requires the state to regulate the economy, which in turn limits personal choices and opportunities for citizens.

crimes against the person

Crimes that direct violence or the threat of violence against others; also known as violent crimes (violent crimes including murder, aggravated assault, and forcible rape).

Average-middles

Family income of $51,000 and $121,000 a year. High school teachers, bank branch managers, and government office workers.

Gender and socialization

Gender shapes human feelings, thoughts, and actions

LOWER-UPPERS

Get their money mostly by working for it and not inheriting it. JK Rowling is worth more that Queen Elizabeth, but Rowling is in the lower while Elizabeth is in the upper. (3-4% of US population). Live in large homes in expensive neighborhoods, own vacation homes near the water, send their kids to private schools and good colleges. Yet do not gain entry into the most exclusive clubs and associations of "old money" families.

Conflict Theory

Prejudice is used as a tool to oppress others. Elites use this tactic to give out lower wages. Minorities themselves encourage race consciousness to win greater power and privileges. "special treatment"

The Industrial Revolution

Industrialization changed the economy in five fundamental ways a) New Sources of Energy—machinery and engines b) Centralization of work in factories—impersonalized work places that housed the machines. c) Manufacturing and Mass Production—turning raw materials into a wide range of finished product. d) Specialization—People playing their specialized part in the final product. e) Wage labor—Factory workers become wage workers for strangers, who often cared less for them than for the machines they operated. o This revolution raised the standard of living as countless new products and services fueled an expanding marketplace. Benefits of industrial technology were shared very unequally, especially at the beginning.

Racism

Is the belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another. Ideas about racial inferiority supported slavery in the US. Racial differences in mental abilities result from environment rather than biology.

plea bargaining

a legal negotiation in which a prosecutor reduces a charge in exchange for a defendant's guilty plea.

Race and Ethnicity (US stratification)

Non-Hispanic whites have more income and wealth than all minorities in the US. People of an English background have enjoyed much more wealth than any other ethnic group. Income difference builds into a huge wealth gap. Whites have a higher occupational position than African Americans.

Economic productivity

One key dimension of economic performance is productivity.

Containment Theory

People who stay out of trouble have a personality that controls deviant impulses.

3 technological revolutions that reorganized production and, in the process, transformed social life.

The agricultural revolution The industrial revolution The Information revolution and Postindustrial society

Authoritarian Personality Theory

Theodore Adorno considered extreme prejudice a personality trait of certain individuals. These authoritarian personalities rigidly conform to conventional cultural values and see moral issues as clear-cut matters of right and wrong. People with authoritarian personalities also view society as naturally competitive and hierarchical, with "better" people inevitably dominating those who are weaker.

Defining deviance

We also define especially righteous people as deviant, even if we give them a measure of respect. What deviant actions or attitudes, positive or negative, have in common is some element of difference that causes us to think of another person as an "outsider." Outsiders aren't just defined by actions and attitudes, it can also be what type of category they fall into of people. Like the Elderly-- "out of it." - How a society defines deviance, who is branded as deviant, and what people decide to do about deviance all have to do with the way society is organized. Only gradually, however, have people recognized that the roots of deviance are deep in society.

Neocolonialism

a new form of global power relationships that involves not direct political control but economic exploitation by multinational corporations.

shock probation

a policy by which a judge orders a convicted offender to prison for a short time but then suspends the remainder of the sentence in favor of probation

Probation

a policy permitting a convicted offender to remain in the community under conditions imposed by a court, including regular supervision.

organized crime

a business supplying illegal goods or services.

Gerontocracy

a form of social organization in which the elderly have the most wealth, power, and prestige.

Conglomerates and corporate linkages

a giant corporation composed of many smaller corporations. PepsiCo is a conglomerate that includes Pepsi-Cola, Frito-Lay, Gatorade, Tropicana, and Quaker. o Many conglomerates are linked because they own each other's stock, the result being worldwide corporate alliances of staggering size. o Corporations are also linked through interlocking directorates, networks of people who serve as directors of many corporations. They have access to each company's pricing policies and marketing strategies. This is legal, but they can perform illegal acts such as price fixing.

slavery imposed by the state

a government imposes forced labor on people convicted of criminal violations or on others simply because the government needs their labor

Absolute poverty

a lack of resources that is life-threatening

Postindustrial Economy

a productive system based on service work and high technology. Automated machinery reduced the role of human labor in factory production and expanded the ranks of clerical workers and managers. This era is marked by a shift from industrial work to service work. There has been 3 significant changes a) From tangible product to ideas—people work with symbols, computer programmers, writers, financial analysts, advertising executives, architects, editors make up the labor force in the information age. b) From mechanical skills to literacy skills—Information Revolution requires literacy skills: speaking and writing well and knowing how to use a computer. People able to communicate effectively are likely to do well; people without these skills face fewer opportunities in the job market. c) From factories to almost anywhere—information technology blurs the line between our lives at work and at home.

Rehabilitation

a program for reforming the offender to prevent later offense.

Stereotype

a simplified description applied to every person in some category. This is especially harmful to minorities in the workplace.

Pluralism

a state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing.

Upper-middles

above average income around $121,000 - $217,000 a year. Comfortable homes in fairly expensive areas, build investments, and own several automobiles. College and postgraduate. Play an important role in local political affairs.

Liberal Feminism

accept the basic organization of our society but seek to expand the rights and opportunities of women.

Radical Feminism

believe that patriarchy is so firmly entrenched that even a socialist revolution would not end it. Instead, reaching the goal of gender equality means that society must eliminate gender itself. New technology that has the ability to separate women's bodies from the process of childbearing. With an end to motherhood society could leave behind the entire family system, liberating women, men, and children from the oppression of family, gender, and sex itself. They seek egalitarian and gender-free society, a revolution much more sweeping than that sought by Marx.

Institutional prejudice and discrimination

bias built into the operation of society's institutions, including schools, hospitals, the police, and the workplace. Banks reject home mortgage applications from minorities at a higher rate than those applications from white people, even when income and quality of neighborhood are held constant.

Criminal justice system

cases of serious deviance involve the organizations—police, courts, and prison officials—that respond to alleged violations of the law.

Sexual harassment

comments, gestures, or physical contacts of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated and unwelcome. Most victims of sexual harassment are women, because our culture encourages men to be sexually assertive and to see women in sexual terms and most people in a position of power are men, who overlook women in the workforce. - Pornography also plays into social stratification because it dehumanizes women, depicting them as the playthings of men. There is a widespread concern that it encourages violence against women by portraying them as weak and undeserving of respect. Pornography weakens morality.

community-based corrections

correctional programs operating within society at large rather than behind prison walls. With 3 main advantages 1. They reduce costs 2. Reduce overcrowding in prisons 3. Allow for supervision of convicts while eliminating the hardships of prison life and the stigma that accompanies going to jail. - Not to punish, but to reform.

White Collar Crime

crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations. - They do not involve violence and attract the police to the scene with guns drawn. - White collar criminals use their powerful offices to illegally enrich themselves, often causing significant public harm in the process. - "crime in the suites" as opposed to "crime in the streets." - White-collar offenses typically end up in a civil hearing rather than a criminal courtroom.

Crime

crime is a type of deviance and is the violation of a society's formally enacted criminal law. Even criminal deviance spans a wide range, from minor traffic violations to prostitution, sexual assault, and murder.

crimes against property

crimes that involve theft of property belonging to others; also known as property crimes (property crimes including burglary (breaking in to commit a crime), larceny-theft (stealing), and arson (setting fire to property)

Ideology

cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality. A belief - for example, the idea that rich people are smart and poor people are lazy - supporting inequality by defining it as fair. - Ideology changes along with a society's economy and technology. - History shows how difficult it is to change social stratification. However, challenges to the status quo always arise.

criminal law

defines the individual's morals responsibilities to society. - Corporate officials who lose the case pay for the damage or injury and are not labeled a criminal. They are also protected by the fact that most charges of white-collar crime target the organization rather than individuals. - When white-collar criminals are charged and convicted, they usually escape punishment. - A government study found that those convicted of fraud and punished with a fine ended up paying less than 10% of what they owed - Until courts impose more prison terms, we should expect white-collar crime to remain widespread.

income

earnings from work or investments - The rich earn the most of the nation's annual income + have the best health care services and use the most products.

Five outcomes of the Global Economy

economic activity that crosses national borders. 5 outcomes: 1. Global division of labor: Agriculture represents about half the total economic output of the world's poorest countries. The poorest nations specialize in raw materials, and the richest nations specialize in the production of services. 2. An increasing number of products pass through more than one nation. Morning coffee: the beans may have been grown in in Colombia and transported to New Orleans on a freighter registered in Liberia, made in a shipyard in Japan using steel from Korea, and fueled by oil from Venezuela. 3. National governments no longer control the economic activity that takes place within their borders. Governments cannot even regulate the value of their national currencies. 4. A small number of businesses, operating internationally, now control a vast share of the world's economic activity. 5. The globalization of the economy raises concerns about the rights and opportunities of workers. The global expansion of capitalism threatens the well-being of workers throughout the world.

Socialist Feminism

evolved from the ideas of Karl Marx. Socialist feminists do not think the reforms supported by liberal feminists go far enough. Replacing the traditional family can come about only through a socialist revolution that creates a state-centered economy to meet a needs of all.

Servile forms of marriage

families marry off women against their will. Many end up as slaves working for their husband's family: some are forced into prostitution.

Prejudice

is a rigid and unfair generalization about an entire category of people. It is unfair because all people in some category are described as the same, based on little or no direct evidence. It may target people of a particular social class, sex, sexual orientation, age, political affiliation, physical disability, race, or ethnicity. They are prejudgments that can be either positive or negative. Because such attitudes are rooted in culture, everyone has at least some prejudice.

Ethnicity (social meaning)

is a shared cultural heritage. People define themselves—or others—as members of an ethnic category based on common ancestry, language, or religion that gives them a distinctive social identity. - cultural traits

Race (social meaning)

is a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important. - biological traits

Capitalism

is an economic system in which natural resources and the means of producing goods and services are privately owned. With three distinctive features: 1. Private ownership of property: in a capitalistic world individuals can own almost anything. The more capitalist an economy is, the more private ownership there is of wealth-producing property, such as factories, real estate, and natural resources. 2. Pursuit of personal profit 3. Competition and consumer choice: a purely capitalist economy is a free-market system with no government interference. (supply and demand) The United States is primarily capitalistic, but not quite because the government plays a large role in the economy. The government owns and operates a number of businesses, including almost all of this country's schools, roads, parks and museums, the U.S. Postal Service, Railroads, and the entire US military. The US government also sets minimum wage levels, enforces workplace safety standards, regulates corporate mergers, provides farm price supports, and supplements the income of a majority of its people in the form of Social Security, public assistance, student loans, and veterans' benefits.

minority

is any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates. - Women are a minority because we depend on men for social standing fathers then husbands and we also get paid less than men in all class levels. Even though women outnumber men.

Institutional sexism

is found throughout the economy, with women highly concentrated in low-paying jobs. The legal system has long excused violence against women, especially on the part of boyfriends, husbands, and fathers. - Sexism limits the talents and ambitions of half of the human population, who are women. It leads men into risky business. patriarchy drives men to relentlessly seek control of women, themselves and the world. Thus, masculinity is linked to stress-related diseases, suicides, and violence. Finally, as men seek control over others, they lose opportunities for intimacy and trust. It separates men from men and everyone else (due to this competitiveness). - Most sociologists believe that gender is socially constructed and can be changed.

due process

is simple but very important idea: The criminal justice system must operate according to law. This principle is grounded in the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution—known as the Bill of Rights.

Caste System

is social stratification based on ascription, or birth. Birth determines your future, allowing little to no social mobility based on individual effort.

Status consistency

is the degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across carious dimensions of social inequality. A person's class is harder to define than a person's caste. Like a professor has a high prestigious job but doesn't earn a lot of money. Low status consistency means that it is harder to define a person's social position (for classes) - India—caste - UK—caste and class + meritocracy - Japan—caste and meritocracy - Soviet Union— "classless" but definitely not - China—communists, equal pay—eliminating social class. After the communist leader died, people have been able to own businesses and classes started to gradually emerge.

Age Stratification

is the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege among people at different stages of the life course.

specific deterrence

is used to convince an individual offender that crime does not pay

Social Isolation (old age)

o Being alone can cause anxiety at any age, but isolation is most common among elderly people. Retirement closes off one source of social interaction, physical problems may limit mobility, and negative stereotypes of the elderly may discourage younger people from social contact with them. But the greatest cause of isolation is the death of significant others, especially the death of a spouse. Whatever the cause the more social isolation people experience, the greater the chances they will experience dementia or other types of mental and physical decline. Women typically outlive men, so they experience more isolation.

Monopoly

o Federal law forbids any company from establishing a monopoly—the domination of a market by a single producer, because with no competition, such a company could simply charge whatever it wanted for its products.

Unemployment

o Has many causes, including operation of the economy itself. At highest risk for unemployment are young people and African Americans. o Companies find no use in hiring people when in recession, and even after, with higher usage of technology and putting more work on temporary workers, hiring people abroad instead of within the US, the US economy is not growing fast enough, US workers are too expensive and do not have the high level of skills needed to fare well in today's economy.

Social conflict theory of aging

o Highlights the inequalities in opportunities and social resources available to people in different age and gender categories. o A capitalist society's emphasis on economic efficiency leads to the devaluation of those who are less productive, including the elderly. o Some categories of elderly people—namely women and other minorities—have less economic security, less access to quality medical care, and fewer options for personal satisfaction in old age than others.

Aging and Culture

o How long and how well people live depend, first, on a society's technology and standard of living. o In high-income nations, however, increasing affluence has increased the average life span by about 30 years.

Historical perspective of death and dying

o In the past, death was a familiar part of everyday life and was accepted as a natural event that might occur at any age. o Modern society has set death physically apart from everyday activities, and advances in medical technology have resulted in people's inability or unwillingness to accept death. o This avoidance of death also reflects the fact that most people in high-income societies die in old age.

Competitiveness and corporations

o Independent corporations are competitive, but since many companies are linked, less competitiveness is rising, plus few large corporations dominate many markets, so they are not truly competitive.

Age Stratification: A Global Survey

o Like race, ethnicity, and gender, age is a basis for social ranking. Hunting and Gathering Societies—they rely on physical strength and stamina, so the elders might have been considered as an economic burden and, when food is in short supply, abandoned. Pastoral, Horticulture, and Agrarian Societies—they produce a surplus of food, with the building of wealth, the most privileged are typically the elderly. Industrial and Postindustrial societies—Industrialization pushes living standards upward and advances medical technology, both of which increase human life expectancy. Although it adds to the quantity of life, it can harm the quality of life for older people. Industrial based countries thrive in the youth for business and such. High-income countries leave their parents when they are old enough to make a life for themselves. Some occupations are dominated by older people, such as farming. Japan: An Exceptional Case—Japan's elders still hold a lot of respect from traditional cultural beliefs. They also do not lose their prestige as they get older. The oldest employees have the most respect

Economic Concentration

o Most US corporations are small, with assets less than $500,000, so it is the largest corporations that dominate our nation's economy.

Labor Unions

o Organizations of workers that seek to improve wages and working conditions through various strategies, including negotiations and strikes. o "right to work" law, allows everyone the right to work whether or not they join a Union.

Death and dying: Ethical issues: confronting death (Euthanasia)

o Our society's power to prolong life has sparked a debate as to the circumstances under which a dying person should be kept alive by medical means. o People who support a person's right to die seek control over the process of their own dying. o Euthanasia—assisting in the death of a person suffering from an incurable disease; also known as mercy killing - poses an ethical dilemma because it involves not just refusing treatment but also actively taking steps to end a person's life.

The Dual Labor Market

o Primary Labor Market—offers jobs that provide extensive benefits to workers. White collar jobs associate with this. o Secondary Labor Market—jobs that provide minimal benefits to workers. Blue collar jobs

Bereavement

o Some researchers believe that the process of bereavement follows the same pattern of stages as a dying person coming to accept approaching death: denial, anger, negotiation, resignation, and acceptance. o The hospice movement offers support to dying people and their families.

Psychological changes of old age

o We sometimes exaggerate the psychological changes that accompany growing old. o The ability to learn new material and to think faster declines after the age of 70. Only 7 percent of adults suffer symptoms ranging from mild memory loss to more serious mental conditions. o As people get older the capacity for thoughtful reflection and spiritual growth actually increases. o In feeling better or worse as people get older, most don't feel different (better or worse). The most common personality changes with advancing age are becoming less materialistic, more mellow in attitudes, and more thoughtful. Generally, two elder people who had been childhood friends would recognize in each other the same personality traits that brought them together as youngsters.

Retirement

o Work provides us with an important part of our personal identity. Retirement has less social prestige and perhaps a loss of purpose in life. Seniors offer more volunteer work than any other age group.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

the total value of goods and services produced annually. • Per capita (per person) GDP—allows us to compare the economic performance of nations of different population sizes. • Capitalist countries outproduced the socialist nations be a ratio of 2.7 to 1.

wealth

the total value of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts. Including stocks, bonds, and real estate—distributed more unequally than income. Family wealth reflects in the value of homes, cars, investments, insurance policies, retirement pensions, furniture, clothing, and all other personal property, minus a home mortgage and other debt. - When subtracting the assets and debts, the lowest ranking 40% of US families have little to no wealth at all.

Gender stratification

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women. - But we must be careful not to think of social differences in biological terms. - Mead concluded that culture is the key to gender distinctions, because what one society defines as masculine another may see as feminine.

Discrimination

unequal treatment of various categories of people. Prejudice refers to attitudes, but discrimination is a matter of action. Discrimination can be either positive (providing special advantages) or negative (creating obstacles), and ranges from subtle to extreme.

Intergenerational social mobility

upward or downward social mobility of children in relation to their parents

Deterrence

— the attempt to discourage criminality through the use of punishment. An idea that humans will not break the law if they think that the pain of punishment will outweigh the pleasure of the crime.