sociology exam
positivism
A belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry
Ethnography
A detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years
Language
A set of symbols that expresses ideas and enables people to think and communicate with one another.
ascribed status
A social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individual has little or no control, such as race/ethnicity, age, and gender.
Which of the following is not an example of a rite of passage?
A weekly religious service
variable
Any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to another
Symbol
Anything that meaningfully represents something else.
Some people are atheists because they hold the conviction that God does not exist. Which central component of nonmaterial culture does this conviction exemplify?
Beliefs
sociological imagination
C. Wright Mill's term for the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society
looking-glass self
Charles Horton Cooley's term for the way in which a person's sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others
Which of the following terms refers to the wide range of cultural differences found between and within nations as a result of natural or social circumstances?
Cultural diversity
Cultural universals
Customs and practices that occur across all societies
anomie
Emile Durkheim's term for a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society
social facts
Emile Durkheim's term for patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person.
Organic solidarity
Emile Durkheim's term for the social cohesion found in industrial (and perhaps postindustrial) societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence
mechanical solidarity
Emile Durkheim's term for the social cohesion of preindustrial societies, in which there is minimal division of labor and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds
total institution
Erving Goffman's term for a place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run the institution
impression management (self-presentation)
Erving Goffman's term for people's efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favorable to their own interests or image
face-saving behavior
Erving Goffman's term for the strategies we use to rescue our performance when we experience a potential or actual loss of face
dramaturgical analysis
Erving Goffman's term for the study of social interaction in terms of theatrical performance
Which of the following terms refers to the practice of judging all other cultures by one's own culture, assuming that one's own way of life is superior to all others?
Ethnocentrism
In many countries, underage marriages are still part of the culture. A sociologist who studies this practice from the perspective of cultural relativism is likely to justify the practice. The given scenario demonstrates how cultural relativism can be used to:
Excuse customs that violate basic human rights
A country in the Asian subcontinent typically consists of middle-class Christians who have similar social and political backgrounds. This country can be referred to as a heterogeneous society.
False
An example of quantitative research is a study in which researchers systematically analyze the content of the transcripts of personal interviews conducted with patients of breast cancer, whereas an example of qualitative research is a study in which researchers compare the rates of breast cancer among people of different ethnicities.
False
Few sociologists attempt to discover patterns or commonalities in human behavior.
False
Middle-income countries are nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and personal income.
False
Pastoral societies are based on technology that supports the cultivation of plants to provide food.
False
Social structure is essential for society, but it is not an essential part of any particular individual's life.
False
Sociologist Talcott Parsons suggested that the division of household labor between husband and wife is one of the fundamental sources of conflict in industrialized societies.
False
Statuses depend on the specific people occupying them, and the expectations attached to these positions vary over time.
False
The most frequent form of child maltreatment is sexual abuse.
False
Unlike secondary groups, primary groups are large groups in which members engage in goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time.
False
Which theorists emphasize that social structure is essential because it creates order and predictability in a society?
Functionalitists
generalized other
George Herbert Mead's term for the child's awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child's subculture
social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer's belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out
Although some people see a global culture emerging, others fear that Western culture is dominating everywhere. This Westernization is a form of cultural __________.
Imperialism
Which of the following was one of the problems that led social thinkers to study societal changes?
Inadequate housing
Which of the following is composed of large-scale organizations that use print or electronic means (such as radio, television, film, and the Internet) to communicate with large numbers of people, to inform people about events, and to provide an array of viewpoints on current issues?
Mass media
French philosopher Auguste Comte's belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry became known as __________.
Positivism
Which of the following includes our family, close friends, and school- or work-related peer groups?
Primary groups
A researcher who is conducting a study on how religious views impact the voting behavior of the elderly sends an e-mail with a questionnaire to all members of the population being studied. The people who complete the questionnaire and thereby provide data for analysis are called __________.
Respondents
id
Sigmund Freud's term for the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification
superego
Sigmund Freud's term for the conscience, consisting of the moral and ethical aspects of personality
ego
Sigmund Freud's term for the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id
Teacher, student, professional athlete, rock musician, and homeless person are socially defined positions characterized by certain expectations. These positions are examples of __________.
Statuses
A category of people who share distinguishing attributes, beliefs, values, and/or norms that set them apart in some significant manner from the dominant culture is referred to as __________.
Subculture
Who among the following is most likely explaining the role of schools in the socialization of children from a conflict perspective?
Susan, who states that school experiences of students differ on the basis of their social class, their racial-ethnic background, and their gender
Which theorists emphasize that during infancy and early childhood, family support and guidance are crucial to a child's developing self-concept?
Symbolic interactionists
Nonmaterial culture
The abstract or intangible human creations of society that influence people's behaviors
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective on socialization, four components make up our self-concept. Which of the following components is illustrated by the statement "I am good at soccer"?
The active self
racial socialization
The aspect of socialization that contain specific messages and practices concerning the nature of one's racial or ethnic status as it relates to our identity, interpersonal relationships, and location in the social hierarchy.
In the context of George Herbert Mead's stages of self-development, children become concerned about the demands and expectations of others and of the larger society in __________.
The game stage
Culture
The knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or society.
Beliefs
The mental acceptance or conviction that certain things are true or real
Which of the following perspectives focuses on the immediate reciprocally oriented communication between two or more people and the part that facial gestures, posture, tone of voice, and other gestures play in communication?
The symbolic interactionist perspective
A society is composed of people, whereas a culture is composed of beliefs, values, symbols, norms, language, and material possessions.
True
A sociologist who believes that culture helps people achieve their biological, instrumental, and integrative needs is most likely to believe that shared values are essential for the maintenance of a society.
True
In an experiment, the experimental group contains the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable to study its effect on them.
True
Most human behavior is influenced by social interaction.
True
People in a society claim to be culturally pluralistic, but they constantly engage in ethnocentrism and undermine the customs of other cultures. This exemplifies that a gap exists between ideal culture and real culture in the society.
True
The symbolic interactionist perspectives of Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead help us understand that we cannot form a sense of self or personal identity without social contact with others.
True
Cultural lag
William Ogburn's term for a gap between the technical development of a society (material culture) and its moral and legal institutions (nonmaterial culture)
social script
a "playbook" that "actors" use to guide their verbal replies and overall performance to achieve the desired goal of the conversation or fulfill the role they are playing
experiment
a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behavior
Subculture
a category of people who share distinguishing attributes, beliefs, values, and/or norms that set them apart in some significant manner from the dominant culture
role strain
a condition that occurs when incompatible demands are built into a single status that a person occupies
interview
a data-collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers
peer group
a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age
social group
a group that consists of two or more people who interact frequently and share a common identity and a feeling of interdependence
Counterculture
a group that strongly rejects dominant societal values and norms and seeks alternative lifestyles
role expectation
a group's or society's definition of the way that a specific role ought to be played
formal organization
a highly structured group formed for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals
society
a large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations
Gesellschaft
a large, urban society in which social bonds are based on impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values
secondary group
a larger, more specialized group in which members engage in more-impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time
status symbols
a material sign that informs others of a person's specific status
survey
a poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationships among facts
questionnaire
a printed research instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond
correlation
a relationship that exists when two variables are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance
participant observation
a research method in which researchers collect systematic observations while being part of the activities of the group being studied
secondary analysis
a research method in which researchers use existing material and analyze data that were originally collected by others
role
a set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status
theory
a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events
social institution
a set of organized beliefs and rules that establishes how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs
self-fulfilling prophecy
a situation in which a false belief or prediction produces behavior that makes the originally false belief come true
social devaluation
a situation in which a person or group is considered to have less social value than other individuals or groups
role exit
a situation in which people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self-identity
primary group
a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time
achieved status
a social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort
Status
a socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties
hypothesis
a statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables
Germeinschaft
a traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability
Popular culture
activities, products, and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to members of the middle and working classes
status set
all the statuses a person holds at a given time
macrolevel analysis
an approach that examines whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems, instead of looking at important social dynamics in individuals' lives.
microlevel analysis
an approach that focuses on small groups rather than large-scale social structures
A young woman decides that she wants to become a professional basketball player. She joins her school's basketball team, reads articles about the world's best basketball players, and attends basketball camps. This scenario best illustrates __________.
anticipatory socialization
According to Emile Durkheim, organic solidarity is __________.
characterized by interdependence and practical considerations
High Culture
classical music, opera, ballet, live theater, and other activities usually patronized by elite audiences
Values
collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture
Both Emile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tӧnnies __________.
developed typologies to explain changes in the social structure of societies
Norms
established rules of behavior or standards of conduct
Laws
formal, standardized norms that have been enacted by legislatures and are enforced by formal sanctions
manifest functions
functions that are intended and/or overtly recognized by the participants in a social unit
role preformance
how a person actually plays a role
division of labor
how the various tasks of a society are divided up and performed
dependent variable
in an experiment, the variable assumed to be caused by the independent variables.
independent variable
in an experiment, the variable assumed to be the case of the relationship between variables.
Folkways
informal norms or everyday customs that may be violated without serious consequences within a particular culture
mass media
large-scale organizations that use print or electronic means (such as radio, television, film, and the internet) to communicate with large numbers of people
Taboos
mores so strong that their violation is considered to be extremely offensive and even unmentionable
high-income countries
nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and personal income
middle-income countries
nations with industrializing economies, particularly in urban areas, and moderate levels of national and personal income
The basis for Durkheim's theory of society is the belief that:
people are the product of their social environment.
ageism
prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age, particularly against older persons
low-income countries
primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization and low levels of national and personal income
Sanctions
rewards for appropriate behavior or penalties for inappropriate behavior
Amber is a first-grade teacher, a daughter, a wife, a mother, a Presbyterian, a soccer coach, and a Kansas resident. Taken together, all of these socially defined positions constitute her status __________.
set
industrial societies
societies based on technology that mechanizes production
horticultural societies
societies based on technology that supports the cultivation of plants to provide food
pastoral societies
societies based on technology that supports the domestication of large animals to provide food
postindustrial society
societies in which technology supports a service and information based economy
hunting and gathering societies
societies that use simple technology for hunting animals and gathering vegetation
agrarian societies
societies that use the technology of large-scale farming, including animal-drawn or energy-powered plows and equipment, to produce their food supply
quantitative research
sociological research methods based on the goal of scientific objectivity and that focus on data that can be measured numerically.
qualitative research
sociological research methods that use interpretive descriptions (words) rather than statistics (numbers) to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships
research methods
specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research
Mores
strongly held norms with moral and ethical connotations that may not be violated without serious consequences in a particular culture
primary socialization
teaching and learning process normally first carried out within the family
gender socialization
the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society
Cultural relativism
the belief that the behaviors and customs of any culture must be viewed and analyzed by the culture's own standards
Culture shock
the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life
cultural imperialism
the extensive infusion of one nation's culture into other nations
validity
the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure
reliability
the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time
experimental group
the group that contains the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable (the experimental condition) to study its effect on them.
control group
the group that contains the subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable
personal space
the immediate area surrounding a person that the person claims as private
Technology
the knowledge, techniques, and tools that allow people to transform resources into usable forms, and the knowledge and skills required to use them after they are developed
Socialization
the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society
master status
the most important status that a person occupies
agents of socialization
the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in order to participate in society
Material culture
the physical or tangible creations that members of a society make, use, and share.
Ethnocentrism
the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture
role-taking
the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in order to understand the world from that person's or group's point of view
urbanization
the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas
anticipatory socialization
the process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future roles
social construction of reality
the process by which our perception of reality is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that we give to an experience
industrialization
the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries
reciprocal socialization
the process by which the feelings, thoughts, appearance, and behavior of individuals who are undergoing socialization also have a direct influence on those agents of socialization who are attempting to influence them
resocialization
the process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values, and behaviors from those in one's background and previous experience
Secondary Socialization
the process of learning that takes place outside the home - in settings such as schools, religious organizations, and the workplace - and helps individuals learn how to act in appropriate ways in various situations
tertiary socialization
the process of learning that takes place when adults move into new settings where they must accept certain ideas or engage in specific behaviors that are appropriate to that specific setting
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
the proposition that language shapes the view of reality of its speakers
role conflict
the situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person
postmodern perspectives
the sociological approach that attempts to explain social life in modern societies that are characterized by postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications
conflict perspective
the sociological approach that views groups in society as engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources
Functionalist Perspective
the sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system
symbolic interactionist perspectives
the sociological approach that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups
ethnomethodology
the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves
content analysis
the systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life
Sociobiology
the systematic study of "social behavior from a biological perspective"
Sociology
the systematic study of human society and social interaction
self-concept
the totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves
nonverbal communication
the transfer or information between persons without the use of words.
significant others
those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self
latent functions
unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants
value contradictions
values that conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive
