Sociology Final

What have studies shown about the overall health of black and white Americans with similar incomes and education levels?

Blacks have worse health than whites, regardless of income or education level

When children who speak languages other than English at home attend public schools in the United States, they not only are expected to learn and use academic English, they also are exposed to and expected to act in accordance with rules such as waiting in line to go through the lunch line and sitting in the cafeteria to eat lunch. When these children go home, they speak with their family in their shared language and follow different practices regarding shared meals. Moving between these different settings, these children grow adept a

Code switching

Why are Asian Americans sometimes labeled a "model minority"?

Compared to other minorities, most Asian Americans have achieved educational and financial success in the United States

Kalani has busy summers planned for her daughters. They take music lessons, play on soccer and basketball teams, and attend summer school classes. This summer schedule is an example of

Concerted cultivation

Your friend Jerome tells you that he believes culture is an innate biological aspect of human societies. Having already taken an introductory sociology class, you disagree, arguing that modes of behavior and understanding are not universal or natural. You give the example of the disagreement between indigenous Americans and colonial Europeans about whether land was something that could be owned. You are trying to illustrate the idea o

Cultural scripts

Josie comes up with an idea to create and distribute satirical advertisements that expose the hypocrisy of a large tech company that promotes itself as a force for good in the world while exploiting factory workers in poor countries. This would be an example of

Culture jamming

The changing attitudes toward marijuana can be difficult to fit into our understanding of crime. At the federal level, the drug is classified as a controlled substance, and possession and distribution may carry severe penalties. In most states, possession is a criminal offense with penalties including jail. In a few states, possession is treated as a misdemeanor, and in a handful of states, beginning with Colorado and Washington, recreational marijuana possession is now legal. What does this suggest about the difficulties of measuring changes in crime rates over time?

Definitions of crimes change over time.

Jamar enters a clothing store and a security guard immediately notices him and follows his actions on a security monitor. Jamar is aware of the security guard's actions and adjusts his own behavior to avoid a potential confrontation. This is a contemporary example of which sociological concept developed at the turn of the twentieth century?

Double consciousness

A friend of yours has invited you to a big social event. Knowing you might meet people who could offer you a job after graduation, you polish your shoes, buy a new outfit, and practice introducing yourself and explaining the insights you've gained during college, all in the hopes of making a strong professional impression. In sociological terms, you're preparing to present yourself as a young professional, in accordance with

Dramaturgical theory

he Sociological Conversations interview with Victor Rios highlights the differential treatment that racial and ethnic minorities, particularly those in the inner cities, receive from a young age. In his youth, Rios often encountered police intrusion upon his daily life, including at school. What sociological idea epitomizes Rios's experience?

Durkheim's anomie

In his interview with Dalton Conley, David Grusky explains why the notion of perverse incentives is outdated. What is an example of a perverse incentive?

Entry to a special honors program is based solely on grades with no review of the types of classes students have taken, so some students take easier classes the semester before applying to boost their grade point average

In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson declared a "War on Poverty." This ambitious plan led to the creation of numerous agencies, some of which persist today. These include which of the following?

Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Agriculture

A theoretical perspective most popular in the mid-twentieth century held that social realities such as the roles that men and women play in heterosexual couples or the existence of inequality could be explained by the necessary purpose they served in society. What was this theoretical perspective

Functionalism

Climate change has evoked a politically polarized debate in the United States. For many, the cause and effect relationship between human activity and climate change seems obvious based on the science available. For others, such a claim seems ludicrous. Although it may seem that climate change is a matter of science, underlying the disagreement are attachments to opposing

Ideologies

What has the pattern in income growth among low-, middle-, and high-income earners in the United States over the past 30 years looked like?

Income growth for high-income individuals has far outpaced that of middle- and low-income individuals

How has the timing of the transition to a free-market economy been used to partially explain the great difference in inequality and poverty between the United States and other advanced democracies?

Institutions that could better protect the weak or disadvantaged were more fully developed in countries that transitioned to a free- market economy later than the United States.

Getting ready to go out on a first date with someone she first contacted through a dating app, Jada tries on a dress and stilettos. Then, remembering that the person mentioned liking sporty women, Jada reconsidered and changed into shorts and a tank top. Jada's wardrobe change illustrates what social theory

Looking-glass self

Despite being a business executive and competitive athlete, Jorge is often treated as helpless by people he encounters in his daily life because he is paraplegic and uses a wheelchair. Jorge's disability is a(n)

Master status

Which statement is most closely associated with a conflict theory approach to gender studies?

Men benefit economically from women's inferior position in the family and the workplace

According to Durkheim, why is a society predominantly bound by mechanical solidarity more likely to apply punitive justice rather than rehabilitative justice to a person who violates a law or social norm?

People in such a society are bound by sameness, and any violation of social norms must be punished severely to reinforce the boundaries of acceptable behavior

Some businesses in the United States, especially food service establishments, will post signs that read, "No shirt, no shoes, no service." These signs

Reinforce a cultural norm

The decision to marry is a major life step. Contemporary Americans do so with certain cultural expectations: that our partner will love and care for us, will share the duties of managing a household (nowadays, fairly equally and regardless of gender), and will support us in our lives when problems arise at work or with other family members. These expectations of a spouse are an example of

Roles

Arenda is the oldest of five children. Shayna is an only child. According to research on determinants of mortality, who is at higher risk of dying young?

Shayna

At a friend's housewarming, you meet a young engaged couple from India. They tell you that their relationship was arranged when they both very young (she was 12, he was 14). They seem happy with this arrangement, but you're taken aback. The couple's comfort with the arrangement, as well as your initial discomfort, are examples of

Socialization

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States undertook the internment of all people of Japanese ancestry living in the United States. The government stated that this action was to protect national security. Many of those sent to these internment camps were US citizens, with parents or grandparents born in Japan. This action relied on the use o

Stereotypes

How do street crime and white-collar crime compare in terms of cost to society and prevalence?

Street crime is the most prevalent type of crime, but white-collar crime has greater financial impact

According to William Julius Wilson, how do factors such as deindustrialization, globalization, suburbanization, and discrimination contribute to high rates of welfare-dependent, single-mother families?

Such factors have contributed to a net shrinkage of the pool of employed, unincarcerated men, thus greatly limiting women's opportunity to find a stable life partner.

The passage of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) involved a lengthy political battle between Congress and President Obama. How did the ACA represent a shift in the relationship between doctors and patients?

The ACA further reduced the power that doctors have

Talib was starving as he got on the crowded bus with a greasy cheeseburger he had just purchased. As tempting as it was to eat his messy meal right then and there, he worried what the other passengers might think of him if he did so, and decided to wait until he got home. As illustrated here, Talib is fully socialized because he has developed a concept of

The generalized other

Why did the negative income tax experiment lead to more women leaving their marriages?

The guaranteed payment that people received through the program meant that many women were no longer financially dependent on a man.

Sociologist Allison Pugh researched consumer culture and socioeconomic class differences through parental purchases for children. In their relationship with their children, low-income parents tended to strive for symbolic indulgence, whereas high-income parents tended toward symbolic deprivation. Both of these approaches are an attempt to ensure that kids "fit in" at school, indicating that parents of all classes shy away from difference. These actions reflec

Values

What is an example of a negative relationship between an independent and a dependent variable

Wealthier individuals tend to be less concerned about environmental problems

Which statement offers an essentialist explanation for gender differences

Women are overrepresented in professions such as nursing, teaching, and social work because they are inherently more nurturing and caring than men

In India, a system of stratification persists, partially because it was exploited by British colonialism to persistently divide the people. This division of society into four main groups (Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra) is an example of

a caste system

What is an example of a total institution?

a convent

What is an example of a primary group?

a group of three best friends who grew up together on the same block and see each other regularly

Jasmine has begun attending a large weekly support group for atheists raised in religious families. She hasn't felt very close to her family since she came out as an atheist, but when she is at these meetings she feels like for the first time in her life she is accepted and valued for who she really is. Her support group would be considered

a secondary group.

Our birth families (mother, father, sister, and so on) are a central part of our lives. Suppose you family decides to host a foreign exchange student for a year. It goes well, and, the next year, the student's entire family (all nine of them) decides to visit America and your family. In the ensuing year, various members of the two families stay in touch, and you share these relationships with your own friends. In the context of social networks, what's happening between your two families, as well as the way you share the experience with your friends, is what sociologists call a tie, and although the two families are unrelated, this "tie that binds" is made real because of

a set of stories that explains our relationship to the other members of our network.

Drivers stop at red lights for no other reason than that there is a shared understanding that this is what you're supposed to do at a red light. This shared meaning becomes the basis for how people act and interact with each other on the road and thus takes on the appearance of an objective fact. This is an example o

a social construction

What is defined as a complex group of interdependent positions that, together, perform a social role and reproduce themselves over time

a social institution

Professor Chang has spent years studying human history and social change and developed an abstract, systematic model that explains how as countries become wealthier their cultures shift to become more tolerant and open. This would be an example o

a theory

Marissa Mayer was appointed the chief executive officer (CEO) of Yahoo Corporation in July 2012. Mayer is not the highest paid CEO in the United States, but her position suggests that more women are

able to break the glass ceiling.

In August 2018, alt-right figurehead Jason Kessler organized the Unite the Right 2 Rally in Washington, D.C. to advocate for "white civil rights." This example illustrates white nationalists' reaction to the "browning of America" in that they are

adopting the rhetoric of minority status

Building on Émile Durkheim's classic theory of suicide, sociologist Matt Wray describes a contemporary "American Suicide Belt." Wray finds elevated suicide rates in the American West, particularly among white men isolated from social contact by unemployment or being unmarried. What type of suicide are residents of this area prone to, according to Durkheim's typology?

anomic

"Thinking like a sociologist" means that you

apply analytical tools to the things you've always done without much conscious thought in the past

Suppose you are part of a research team stationed in Uganda to do sociological surveys. You are there with your same-sex spouse of eight years. In Uganda, homosexuality was criminalized in 2009 and is currently punishable by life imprisonment. Attitudes in the country are not favorable toward homosexuality, but you have not experienced difficulties in daily life. As you begin the write-up of your research, you are especially aware of the scholarly need to

avoid letting your own beliefs about same-sex relationships enter your writing

Your good friend Judy comes to you in a state of exasperation and tells you that she just left the girl's bathroom and saw what she swears was a man dressed in women's clothing walking in. "Men need to use their own bathroom. There's a reason we have different restrooms for different sexes!" Judy is expressing what many people feel, reflecting ideas about

biological determinism.

The case of a young girl named Genie is the most carefully documented and well-studied instance of what happens to a child who does not experience adequate contact with other people during infancy and childhood. Genie was locked in a room alone for nearly 13 years and never developed language skills the way most children do. Obviously, this is a story in part of severe parental neglect, but it also provides insight into whether such abilities as language are innate. Fundamentally, this case about a feral child is about whether

biology or socialization shapes human behavior

Material culture includes

buildings, artworks, and technological devices

Definitions of deviant behavior tend to

change over time and vary from one context to another.

What is discussed in this chapter as the gateway to becoming middle class?

college education

What is the best example of a quantitative research method

conducting a survey of how frequently people exercise

As discussed in the text, President Barack Obama, the son of a white Kansan mother and black Kenyan father, is widely perceived as a black man despite being biracial. This is illustrative of the

continued significance of the one-drop rule

You've noticed that when you sleep less, your grades suffer. At the same time, you realize that lower grades could also lead to a lack of sleep: that worrying about a possible dip in your grade point average could keep you up at night. What kind of relationship between the two variables, lack of sleep and lower grades, are you noticing here

correlation

What three factors are needed to establish causation?

correlation, time order, and ruling out alternative explanations

In the book, we are presented with a mobility table (Table 7.2). As you look at this table, you can begin to see what happens to the sons. The rate of occupational change is surprisingly low. The sons largely wind up in the same occupational category as the fathers. One of the conclusions from the mobility table analysis suggests that

despite the American belief that we live in the land of opportunity, mobility rates have declined significantly in the past decades

Sociology is distinct from other academic disciplines in its attempt to

detect patterns in how different societies respond to similar phenomena.

Differential opportunity theory links what two things in analyzing deviance?

economic opportunities and crime rates

Consider outgoing president Dwight D. Eisenhower's 1961 farewell address, in which he forewarned of the rise of the "military-industrial complex" which had the potential for a "disastrous rise of misplaced power." Eisenhower's position critiques the __________ system

elite-mass dichotom

In 2014, the US Supreme Court upheld the state of Michigan's ban on affirmative action. In a passionate dissent, Justice Sonya Sotomayor argued that the law placed an undue burden on racial and ethnic minority students not faced by other applicants. What type of equality was Justice Sotomayor arguing in favor of

equality of condition

What standard of equality was key to the arguments of civil rights leaders in the 1960s?

equality of opportunity

Sociologists are skeptical of ____ arguments that explain social phenomena in terms of natural ones and often rely on biological determinism

essentialist

At the outset of US history, eligible voters were white property owners or very wealthy. The gradual inclusion of African Americans, women, and other groups took a long time. More recently, voter ID laws have become popular. Many would argue that such laws restricting who can vote are an extension of this long history, which is largely what kind of stratification system?

estate

Between 1924 and 1979, the state of Virginia performed sterilizations on individuals deemed "unfit." This included people with epilepsy, which today is recognized and treated as a medical condition. These cases represent a manifestation of

eugenics

Native Americans have been the target of racial and ethnic abuses since Europeans arrived. In Indian Bureau boarding schools and schools provided on reservations, English was mandatory and children were severely punished if they spoke or wrote their native language, resulting in the gradual erosion of culture. This policy was an attempt at

forced assimilation.

The Asch test provides insight into what concept?

group conformity

Paul is a father and a successful manager earning six figures. At age 48, he is diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. Paul finds it increasingly difficult to do basic tasks such as driving, typing, and even walking. As his disease progresses, he is eventually terminated from his job, leaving him unemployed. Gradually, friends stop calling and party invitations taper off. Paul and his family have been "downgraded" in their socioeconomic status in accordance with the drift explanation, which asserts that

health determines social position

The level of income inequality in the United States is

higher than that of all other advanced democracies

The American Psychological Association's classification of homosexuality as a deviant personality type, which was only changed in 1973, as well as the US Supreme Court ruling in 2003 decriminalizing homosexual sex both reflect Michel Foucault's assertion that

homosexuality appears as the result of the state and the medical profession's interest in asserting their power.

Same-sex marriage is now legal in the United States, and the numbers of persons marrying those of the same sex has skyrocketed and become easily visible. In Brazil, we see that the travesti take on distinctly female characteristics, declare themselves as men, and yet have penetrative sex with men who have an exclusively male appearance. How do these two different examples help describe the difference between homosexuality and homosexual behavior?

homosexuality is a certain social identity, whereas homosexual behavior is an activity that is not necessarily tied to a social identity

Children in families that eat dinner together at least four times per week experience fewer behavioral problems in school. In this hypothesis, what is the dependent variable

how often children misbehave in school

Celiac disease affects a moderate number of people worldwide. Gluten intolerance is claimed to be more widely spread and is more difficult to evaluate clinically. A recent clinical study found that even when subjects were given a strictly controlled placebo diet, they reported a worsening of the symptoms commonly reported by people complaining of gluten intolerance. This is an example of

how people learn the sick role and behave accordingly

A researcher observes that most teens entering a café choose to sit near other occupied tables, whereas most retirees choose a table that is farther away from other customers. The researcher then theorizes that youth like to feel that they are part of a larger group of people, whereas the elderly are more comfortable being alone. This is an example of which kind of research approach

inductive

Suppose you are a participant in an online forum where people review online games, and one participant recently posted an angry rant in all caps, which elicited a harsh rebuke from several other users. Such a reprimand is a kind of

informal social sanction

In an interview with Dalton Conley, Mitchell Duneier describes his desire to conduct research that adheres to the ethical guidelines of social research. If Duneier had interviewed street vendors by secretly recording their interactions, what ethical guideline would he have violated?

informed consent

One of the challenges faced by many colleges and universities is binge drinking on campus. Imagine you are tasked with developing solutions to this problem. Thinking sociologically, you suggest that it would be useful to understand the meaning placed on the parties where binge drinking happens, so solutions are based on a deeper understanding of the experience itself. Your approach relies on the methodology of

interpretive sociology

Health maintenance organizations (HMOs) were an early attempt to control healthcare costs. In this model, the provider (doctor) receives a capitation, which is a fee per person and not per treatment. The major shortcoming of this approach is that

it may lead to undertreatment

Feminists argue that gender matters because

it structures social relations between people

Chad is the captain of the high-school golf team and son of a prominent business owner in town. Orhan is a refugee from Syria who attends the same school and lives with his single mother on the poor side of town. Both Chad and Orhan were caught cheating on a recent biology exam, but only Orhan was punished, which led him to drop out of school due to the shame he felt and to become involved in the illicit economy of street crime. Chad, on the other hand, went on to become a successful corporate executive after attending a prestigious college. This is an example of which theory of deviance?

labeling theory

Montrice attends an orientation session on her first day of college. There are 45 students and two orientation leaders in her session. This type of group is known as a

large group

In 2011, a Toronto police officer, during a crime prevention talk, said "women should avoid dressing like sluts in order not to be victimized." The remark prompted formation of a protest movement dubbed SlutWalk, whose stated objective was to stop oppression by slut-shaming and "of being judged by our sexuality and feeling unsafe." Although controversial in many respects, the effort sparked a larger debate on rape culture, socially acceptable dress and appearance, and the idea of slut shaming. The idea that women are supposed to dress within a particular set of largely unspoken social boundaries, and thereby avoid being called sluts, speaks to the

maintenance of a gender order

Through network analysis a hidden rule was discovered that governs romantic relationships among teenagers. It prohibits dating the ex of your ex's current boyfriend or girlfriend. This rule is known as "______."

no cycles of four

In the effort to stop the spread of HIV, organizations and countries have invested in research to understand how the virus spreads within a population. Often, this research investigates transmission through "having sex." Here, one of the challenges is to precisely define what "having sex" means, so that researchers can identify the relevant variables. This challenge of specifying a key idea is crucial to any good sociological study and is called

operationalization

Winona is picking up her children from day care. Her nine-hour minimum-wage shift as a temp leaves her exhausted. As she piles her two kids into the car, she loses her temper after one of them refuses to sit still for her to fasten the seatbelt. Winona's solution is to yell at the child until he does what she asks. A sociologist might say that Winona's situation is an example of the

parenting stress hypothesis

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the US government decreed that all people of Japanese descent living in the United States, whether or not they were citizens, were subject to internment in concentration camps. At the time, enclaves of Japanese Americans thrived in several American cities. The fear and rejection of anyone with Japanese ancestry following the attacks reflected a decline in

pluralism

Whether Muslim women veil themselves, especially in countries such as the United States and France, is often a controversial topic. Sociological research has found that while some women choose to veil for religious reasons, others may take up the veil because they are motivated to claim their Muslim identity in the face of anti-Muslim sentiment. These different interpretations of the importance of veiling illustrates how meaning is subjective. This emphasis on differences in subjective interpretations, in turn, is characteristic of

postmodernism

In the text, we read about Marlin, who was fed by food stamps, housed by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and moved through the education system into prison. Marlin's life is a case study of the puzzle of whether

poverty is the cause or the result of social problems

Certain ideals about women's appearance are highly valued in the United States, such as thinness, muscular definition, and blemish-free skin. Reflection theory suggests that this obsession in our culture with the "perfect female body" emerges from our social structures and shapes the kinds of relationships we seek and value: we want to be around people who meet this standard of perfection. That is, the culture of women's bodies is a result of our own proclivities, and not a result of how women are depicted in the media. The primary difficulty with this idea is that it

presumes culture is a one-way process

The brief review of Peggy McIntosh's essay on white privilege lists just a few of the 50 privileges that McIntosh identified in her original work, which included not being asked to represent your entire race and not having to educate children to be aware of systematic racism for their own protection. Which of the following could also be considered white privilege?

shopping in a store without fear that security guards will scrutinize your behavior

Suppose you attend a dinner party, to which you were invited by a close friend who is trying to help you land a job in your chosen field of human resources. Your friend was unable to attend, and you knew nobody at the dinner, even though the dozen guests were all employed in human resource departments in the area. During the dinner, you were quiet and reserved, just listening to conversations around you. Afterward, you worry you missed the chance to gain new

social capital

The importance of the Whitehall Study was to show that

social factors such as where a person lives, what a person does for a living, and how much money a person earns have a great influence on health

One of your closest friends works as a repair technician for an elevator company, and she earns a six-figure salary. While at a social event together, you overhear a conversation in which your friend is jokingly dismissed as a "common laborer" and a "member of the proletariat." The people making these remarks are rudely evaluating your friend based on what?

status hierarchy

In her interview with Dalton Conley, Devah Pager discusses her field work in Milwaukee and New York, in which she sent out job applicants, both black and white, with half of them pretending to have prison records. Pager found that having a criminal record negatively affected an applicant's ability to be offered a job. In addition, she found that black applicants were far less likely to be called back for an interview than white applicants. This racial disparity in hiring indicates unconscious stereotypes in the minds of the hirers, in addition to the challenge of a criminal record's

stigma

In her interview with Dalton Conley, Annette Lareau discusses the work found in her book, Unequal Childhoods, and gives numerous examples of the ways in which different parenting strategies play out in the home, and the results of those different strategies. Socioeconomic class differences (middleclass, working-class, and poor) figure prominently into the results, and she notes that the success of the child often hinges upon the knowledge and acceptance that what matters is

that children enter institutions, and institutions have rules.

hen a child is born, doctors make a decision about what sex they are. Usually, this is very straightforward. However, when a baby is born with atypical or ambiguous genitalia, most doctors recommend sex-reassignment surgery during infancy to make them conform to typical male or female genitalia. While this decision may or may not be a good choice, a sociologist might view the doctor's rationale as resulting from

the belief in a binary sex system.

During World War II, the US economy suffered. With imposed price and wage controls, employers were often not able to offer raises to employees who worked long hours at hard, sometimes hazardous, jobs. Instead, many companies began to offer free health care as a benefit. This is often cited as the origin of

the employer-based health care system

Average household net worth is much higher for white families than for black and Latino families. This "equity inequality" is BEST explained as a result of

the historical disadvantage of minority groups.

The Nazi regime's belief that it had to protect a superior race from contamination by inferior races stemmed in part from

the notion of social Darwinism

According to the sociologist Georg Simmel, what can you use to predict the behavior of members of a social group

the number of people in the group

Jamal is a medical doctor doing volunteer work in rural India. He comes across a man suffering from leprosy (an infectious disease) and offers to provide him with antibiotics that will cure his sickness. However, the man refuses the treatment saying that it won't help, that he has been cursed by the gods for his bad behavior and must suffer his punishment. Jamal finds that this belief is widespread in the region, which is making his work very difficult. This is an example of

the social construction of illness.

Martha wants to get a highly competitive internship with a state senator. She has shared this interest with her family and friends, but no one seems to have any useful contacts who can help her. One day, she runs into a former classmate she has not seen for several years and learns that the classmate has a cousin who worked as the assistant campaign manager for that senator in a recent election. The classmate then offers to introduce Martha to his cousin. This is an example of what concept?

the strength of weak ties

The first naturalization law in the United States in 1790 limited citizenship to "free white persons," which set up a relatively broad and inclusive definition of "whiteness." However, the definition of whiteness narrowed such that it applied only to Anglos by the early twentieth century. What social change led to this increasingly exclusive definition of whiteness?

the surge in immigration of non-Anglo Europeans to the United States

In August 2014, police in Ferguson, Missouri, shot Michael Brown, a young black man. The incident sparked a wave of protest and elicited a dialogue about police and race relations nationwide. The town of Ferguson is predominantly African American, having become increasingly so as white residents moved to the suburbs. Some people have argued that part of the problem in Ferguson originated from the disparity between the residents and police department, where the city was comprised of one population (black) and the police department of another (white). This underlies a more fundamental problem faced by many communities, in that the decline of communal ties has lessened the amount of

trust

In the United States, poverty is usually thought of as severe economic deprivation that prevents people from living with dignity. Despite decades of effort and billions of dollars, poverty in the United States continues unabated. Recent research suggests that poverty is a kind of proxy, or stand-in, for the

underlying social disease of inequality and economic segregation

What is an example of using one's sociological imagination?

understanding that the divorce of one's parents is part of a larger societal trend toward marriage dissolution

What is an example of medicalization?

viewing drug addiction as a disease that can be treated

If you were to tell someone that you were conducting breaching experiments, you would be telling them that you were intentionally

violating social norms to see what happens

In recent years it has become harder to fully participate socially and economically in American society without having a smartphone. Some might even consider them a requirement for being able to live with dignity in our society. This would be an example of how

what is considered a necessity is socially defined and can change over time

You would like to understand why some high-school students in a private religious school are prone to being cyberbullied. After thoroughly operationalizing the terms, developing well-honed variables, and identifying a sample, you must apply to an institutional review board in order to conduct the research. One of the main concerns is that

you are dealing with a protected population group