Sociology Final Exam
__________ is what sociologists call marriage to someone within one's social group.
endogamy
Sociologists call the awareness of our own and others' class statuses
everyday class consciousness
Who does the family influence as an agent of socialization?
everyone
__________ is what sociologists call marriage to someone from a different social group.
exogamy
According to sociologists, stereotyping is something people only do occasionally when they happen to encounter someone with a role conflict.
false
________ is the belief in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes.
feminism
Children raised with minimal or no human interaction are referred to as
feral children
________ was the system of social stratification in the final stages of breaking down when Karl Marx developed his ideas.
feudalism
What are people called who take advantage of a public good without contributing to it?
free riders
A person's self-conception of being male or female based on their association with masculine or feminine gender roles can be defined as
gender identity
The deliberate and systematic extermination of a racial, ethnic, or national group is called
genocide
What is the relationship between race and class, according to sociologists such as Michael Omi and Howard Winant?
Race is not a side effect of class; rather, it permeates every aspect of daily life.
Structural functionalist theory is concerned with the ways in which structures contribute to the stability of society. What is a structure?
a social institution that is stable over time and helps meet the needs of society
A(n) ________ status is earned.
achieved
What is the Uniform Crime Report (UCR)?
an official measure of crime in the United States
A ________ is an example of a total institution.
cult
Imprisonment was a rare type of punishment before the nineteenth century because earlier societies
did not have sufficient resources to operate prisons.
A public goods dilemma occurs when
individuals must give something to a collective resource without necessarily taking anything in return.
__________ is/are tasks designed to achieve a tangible goal like washing the dishes or taking out the trash.
instrumental tasks
What is the strongest type of conformity that can occur as a result of social influence or peer pressure?
internalization
Which type of conformity has occurred when someone joins an animal rights group and then adopts a vegan diet?
internalization
In sociology, authority refers to the
legitimate right to wield power
An example of an aggregate is a
line of people waiting to buy movie tickets.
Researchers usually transcribe responses after they conduct a series of interviews. The transcription process is fairly time-consuming, but it is valuable, in part, because it allows researchers to
look for patterns in their data.
Folkways are
loosely enforced norms involving common customs, practices, or procedures.
In the system of government known as authoritarianism,
ordinary citizens are denied representation by and control over their own government.
A small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of conducting a study on a larger scale is referred to as a(n)
pilot study
Politics, education, and religion are often discussed together in sociology because
political, religious, and educational concerns often overlap in everyday life.
Sociologists refer to the methods and tactics used to influence government policies, policy-related attitudes, and activities as
politics
__________ is a set of beliefs about the superiority of one racial or ethnic group compared to another.
racism
An example of discrimination is
refusing to sell someone a house because of their race.
Countercultural groups such as the those in the anti-government militia movementreject the norms of the dominant culture.
reject the norms of the dominant culture.
Modern technology has made it possible for individuals who work in traditionally urban jobs, such as stockbrokers, to live in rural areas. What concept is this an example of?
rural rebound
Identify the means of enforcing norms that include positive and negative versions.
sanctions
Incarceration, a frown, and monetary fines are all examples of
sanctions
Norms are enforced in everyday settings by
sanctions
A common objection to __________ is that they will drain funds from vulnerable public schools and cause them to deteriorate further.
school vouchers
A society that separates church and state is a(n) __________ society.
secular
What is the transformation of a culture over time called?
social change
________ is a system of stratification commonly used in modern capitalist societies.
social class
A goal of socialization is to
teach norms, values, and beliefs
What is the sociological imagination?
the ability to understand the interplay between the self and larger social forces
What racial issue does functionalism help to explain?
the assimilation of European ethnic groups into larger society
In sociological terms, reliability refers to
the consistency of a question or measurement tool.
Unlike folkways, mores are closely related to
the core values of a group
According to conflict theory, the nuclear family facilitates exploitation
through a sexual division of labor within the home.
What type of authority does a king wield, according to Max Weber's typology of power?
traditional authority
Some subcultures have adopted branding as a form of body art, though it is no longer used as a form of punishment in the United States. This demonstrates that
what is considered deviant changes over time.
With what issue is first-wave feminism most strongly associated?
women's suffrage
An example of a microaggression is
a man who whistles at and catcalls a woman who is walking down the street.
Which of the following examples could be associated with Talcott Parsons's concept of the expressive role?
a mother providing love, care, and affection to her husband and children
Which of the following authority figures still derives legitimacy from traditional sources?
a parent
An example of extrinsic religiosity would be
a person attending religious services.
If changing one variable seems to lead to a change in another variable, this shows ________ but does not necessarily prove ________.
correlation; causation
Microsociology is an approach that
examines interactions between individuals and how those interactions reflect larger societal patterns.
Macrosociology is an approach that
examines large-scale social structures to see how they affect individual lives.
A characteristic of primary groups is that they
exhibit high levels of cooperation.
Informal norms are different from formal norms, in that
informal norms are implied and unwritten.
Survey research tends to produce quantitative data. One key advantage of this kind of data is that it
is easy to transmit to the public.
What is a closed-ended question?
one that limits the possible responses
__________ are high-profile individuals who interpret political information and influence the voting habits of the public.
option leaders
A special interest group is a(n)
organization formed expressly to raise and spend money in order to influence elected officials and public opinion.
Charter schools are
public schools that are run by private entities.
Activists are engaging in __________ when they begin to amass the things they need to sustain their movement, including volunteers, money, and office space.
resource mobilization
The concept of __________, in which a person self-identifies as deviant and initiates their own labeling process, indicates that in some circumstances, the deviant label can be beneficial.
deviance avowal
__________ association theory argues that we learn to be deviant from peers who are deviant.
differential
The framing theory of social movements examines
how participants give meaning to their struggles for social change.
Although "like usually marries like," ________ is more common for heterosexual women, whereas ________ is more common for heterosexual men when class boundaries are crossed in marriage.
hypergamy; hypogamy
Social mobility that occurs over the course of an individual's lifetime is called ________ mobility.
intragenerational
What sort of jobs can support a middle-class lifestyle in America today?
jobs in the information and technology sectors
Sociology can be defined as the systematic and scientific study of human society and social behavior from ________ to ________.
large-scale institutions; individual interactions
White privilege is the idea that one group in society enjoys certain unearned privileges and that group members are
largely unaware of the unequal benefits they possess.
The process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, and beliefs of their social group and thereby become functioning members is known as
socialization
Honor killings are primarily seen in Middle Eastern and ________ cultures.
south asian
Mother Teresa was a person with tremendous power and prestige, yet she was very poor. Which sociological term best describes her situation?
status inconsistency
What do sociologists call it when large numbers of people move up or down the social class ladder as a result of changes to society as a whole?
structural mobility
What does Arlie Hochschild call mothers who accept the dual workloads of paid labor at work and unpaid labor at home without any help?
supermoms
Which sociological perspective is concerned with how gender is constructed and maintained in our everyday lives?
symbolic interactionism
Which sociological theory focuses on micro-level interactions?
symbolic interactionism
Which theory about human interaction developed from the groundwork laid by Max Weber's discussion of verstehen (understanding), which emphasizes empathy with individual experiences?
symbolic interactionism
A ________ is a kind of norm so deeply ingrained in that the very thought of violating it evokes feelings of disgust or horror.
taboo
__________ was the historical event that convinced American scholars that not all social movements can be explained in terms of simply satisfying the psychological needs of their members.
the civil rights movement
What is it called when there is uneven distribution of technology between different parts of a society or different parts of the world?
the digital divide
Sociologists define the self as
the experience of an individual's personal identity that is distinct from other people.
Lessons that students learn indirectly through the method in which the curriculum is presented and the way the school is organized are known as
the hidden curriculum
A researcher must identify a target population before engaging in sampling. What is the target population?
the larger group of people about whom they wish to generalize
What was the Asch experiment measuring?
the power of peer pressure
What is it called when individuals must care for both their own children and their elderly parents?
the sandwich generation effect
Arlie Hochschild's study of two-income families found that women were much more likely than men to do the majority of the unpaid labor inside the home, even after a full day's work outside the home. What term do sociologists use to describe this extra labor?
the second shift
What is the real source of racism according to conflict theory?
the struggle between groups over power and control
A symbolic interactionist studying the family would be most interested in
the way gift giving within an extended family makes some bonds more important than others.
W. I. Thomas famously argued that "if men define situations as real,
they are real in their consequences."
A company that dumps toxic waste in a river to keep costs down will likely never be caught by environmental regulators. According to Garrett Harden, we can best understand the costs of this action in terms of a
tragedy of the commons
The basic premise of Charles Cooley's looking-glass self is that we care what others think of us and develop our sense of self as a result.
true
Which social class category comprises people who live in poverty conditions and typically earn $15,000 or less per year?
underclass
The primary goal of comparative and historical research methods is to
understand relationships between parts of society in various regions and time periods.
Ethnography's main goal is to
understand the meanings people attach to their activities.
Ethnocentrism refers to
using one's own culture as a standard by which to judge others.
Which of the following would sociologists consider the best definition of deviance?
violations of social norms
Sociologists define a minority group as a group
with members who are denied access to power and resources.
Sociologists are interested in how social groups have changed over time. Of particular note is the degree to which individuals base their identities on group membership. How has this changed in recent American history?
Americans are less likely to identify themselves as group members today than in the past.
__________ laws prohibited the mixing of racial groups through marriage, cohabitation, or sexual contact.
Antimiscegenation
What do schools, churches, and governments all have in common?
They are all social institutions.
What can an institutional review board do if it has reservations about the safety or ethics of a research project?
It may stop the project from going forward, at least until changes have been made.
Religion fulfills what role in society from a structural functionalist perspective?
It provides its supporters with a set of values, norms, and rules by which to live.
What is the principal sociological critique of the culture of poverty?
It tends to blame the victims of poverty for their own misfortunes while ignoring the structural causes of inequality.
What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis propose?
Language can structure our perception of reality.
What sociological theory discusses how a stable system of structures contribute to the equilibrium of society as a whole?
Structural functionalism
Which is true of social mobility in a caste system?
There is virtually no chance of social mobility.
Feminist theory is an offshoot of conflict theory. What do these two theories have in common?
They both seek to not only understand inequality but also to remedy it.
How have social networking websites affected social groups?
They help people make the most of both their primary and secondary groups.
Which of the following is a quality of charismatic leaders?
They possess extraordinary personal qualities.
An example of __________ is Asian American students being more likely to be placed in Advanced Placement classes, earn higher grades, and be treated well by teachers.
a stereotype promise
What do all religions have in common?
a system of beliefs and rituals that establish a relationship between the sacred and the profane
Which of the following is an example of resocialization?
a woman learning basic life skills after a car accident
The "decline" phase of social movements is interesting because
after a movement declines, it is possible that the movement changes and continues.
What are displays of ethnic identity that only occur on special occasions?
symbolic ethnicity
The theory of positivism states that an individual's sense of perception is the only valid source of reality. What was August Comte's purpose for developing this theory?
to identify laws, such as those in mathematics and physics, that describe the behavior of a particular reality
To whom has Hochschild's concept of the "Supermom" always been applicable?
working class mothers
Which of the following is an example of cultural capital?
having college-educated parents who help with homework and study habits
Robert Merton's typology of deviance outlines the strain that people experience as they attempt to access cultural goals through legitimate, institutionalized means. In which of the following categories would fraudsters and thieves be found?
innovation
What is it an example of when the children of working-class parents manage to attend college and get a job in a professional field?
intergenerational mobility
Which of the following statements about social change is true?
it is always happening
According to labeling theory, none of the pseudo-patients in David Rosenhan's "On Being Sane in Insane Places" were discovered because
it is difficult for anyone to see past the label once a person has been labeled "mentally ill."
A state is called __________ when white people comprise less than half the population.
majority-minority
Corporal punishments like branding or amputation, commonly used in colonial America, were designed to
mark the offender
__________ occurs when a large number of people either collectively or individually engage in similar behaviors.
mass behavior
________ refers to the set of behaviors expected of someone because of their status.
role
The term "master status" is defined as a
status that generally overrides all other statuses a person possesses.
Which of the following theorists is credited with coining the phrase "the survival of the fittest"?
Herbert Spencer
The changing representation of LGBTQ people in the media, such as their greater inclusion and more positive treatment on television shows, can lead us to conclude that
media representation of LGBTQ people is slowly changing to reflect increasing tolerance toward them.
Which part of sociology can likened to a zoom lens on a camera?
microsociology
On average, participants in social movements are
more socially engaged than nonparticipants.
Role conflict occurs when an individual has
multiple roles that are in conflict with each other.
Traditionally, parents teach children, not the other way around. However, it is now common for parents to call their children for help in performing a simple task on a computer, such as attaching a file to an email. What creates situations in which parents must turn to their children for help?
social change
What general predictions can sociologists make about a person's life prospects if all that is known is the person's social class?
the level of education they may receive
An example of in-group orientation is when a
woman writes on her social media, "I am Black, trans, and proud!"
Who is more likely to return home after a full day of paid labor and put in a "second shift" taking care of the home and children?
women
The second-wave feminist movement was associated with the issue of
women's equal access to employment and education.
Regressive or reactionary social movements are always
working to make sure things stay the same or even turn them back to an earlier point in history.
Which of the following is an example of fictive kin?
your dad's best friend whom you refer to as "Uncle Pete" even though he's not really your uncle
Examples of ________ are the furniture and artwork in a building.
material culture
What percentage of babies are born intersex?
1.7 percent
Robert Merton's structural strain theory sees deviance as the result of a person's position in a social structure. What do you think Jack Katz, author of Seductions of Crime, would say about structural strain theory?
A focus on social position fails to consider the emotional appeal that a deviant act has for an individual.
__________ is/are an example of a special interest group.
A lobbying organization created to advocate on behalf of universities
How is a sociological definition of religion different from a commonsense, everyday definition?
A sociological definition must be broad enough to encompass all varieties of religious experiences.
What does it mean for a sociologist to control for a variable?
All factors except the independent variable are taken into account.
How is a counterculture different from a subculture?
Both are distinct from mainstream culture, but a counterculture actively opposes important aspects of the mainstream.
Which of the following is an advantage of using ethnography to study social life?
Ethnography allows the researcher to gather abundant data on a small population.
What is an advantage of replicability in experiments?
Experiments can be performed again and again over time in order to measure change.
How does a fad differ from fashion?
Fads become very popular for short periods; fashions are widespread styles of behavior that may last longer.
Why does the family have such a powerful impact as an agent of socialization?
Family begins the socialization process before there are any other competing influences.
________ is the sociological term for signs people make with their bodies.
Gestures
Alfred Kinsey conducted research to better understand the diversity of human sexuality and challenge the binary of sexual orientation. Why did he avoid asking the question, "Do you identify as gay or straight?"
He believed that people were not exclusively either gay or straight and that those two binary classifications were too limiting.
Sociologically, what is the difference between a group and a crowd?
Individuals associated with a group feel a shared identity and have ongoing social relations.
How is institutional discrimination different from individual discrimination?
Institutional discrimination is more systemic and widespread.
What is the danger of too much group cohesion?
It can lead to groupthink, in which dissenting opinions are strongly discouraged.
Which of the following is true regarding social movements reaching the "bureaucratization" stage?
It happened when American colonists transitioned from being revolutionaries to the official government leaders.
What is one of the basic principles of social stratification?
It is maintained through beliefs that are widely shared in a society.
What is the meaning of propinquity?
It is the tendency to partner with people who live close by.
Martha Stewart was convicted of obstruction of justice after lying to the FBI during an investigation of her sale of a stock that dramatically fell in value immediately after she sold it. Her conviction was unusual, as this sort of white collar crime is much more likely to be dealt with in civil, rather than criminal, court. How does the tendency to deal with white collar criminals in civil court bias our understanding of the demographics of crime?
It leads us to overestimate the relationship between poverty and crime.
What term did sociologist George Ritzer use to describe the spread of rationalization and bureaucratic ways of operating into everyday life?
McDonaldization
Symbolic interactionism argues that people act toward others based on the meaning they assign to a situation. According to this perspective, how does meaning arise?
Meaning is negotiated through interaction with others
Which of the following is true regarding gendered occupations?
Men outnumber women in occupations with more prestige and higher salaries.
How is prejudice different from discrimination?
Prejudice is an attitude; discrimination is an action.
Which of the following is a disadvantage of using existing sources of data for research?
Researchers often seek answers to questions the data does not directly address.
For most sociologists, what is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex is biological; gender is social.
What is the difference in how sociologists and anthropologists study culture?
Sociologists usually study a society to which they belong.
Why is sociology exceptional among the social sciences?
Sociology's integrative approach makes it more comprehensive than other social sciences because it covers a wider intellectual territory.
Which of the following is an example of the hidden curriculum?
Students are taught to dress and behave in a specific manner by teachers and other staff members.
What is an advantage of using interviews as a research method?
They reveal attitudes and beliefs inaccessible by any other means.
"Welfare queen" is an insulting term for a woman who is accused of cheating the government by collecting welfare payments. There is no "welfare king" insult. What sociological truth is contained in the phrase "welfare queen"?
The use of the word "queen" reminds us that women are more likely than men to live in poverty.
Why are child and elder abuse likely to go unreported?
The victims are relatively powerless.
Which of the following statements about child custody trends in America is true?
There has been an increase in shared custody between both parents.
__________ proposed social control theory, which suggests that individuals with stronger bonds are LESS likely to commit crime.
Travis Hirschi
How is culture transmitted and internalized?
We learn values and beliefs slowly and incrementally.
How do self-fulfilling prophecies work?
We respond not only to the objective features of a situation but also to its meaning. Once meaning has been assigned to our behavior, the consequences of that behavior are determined by the meaning.
A person is most likely to be murdered by
a family member
What must there be for a survey to be considered valid?
a high response rate
Gender role socialization begins
before birth
An example of prejudice is
believing that Asians are better at math.
________ authority is rooted in the personal qualities of a leader.
charismatic
What did Karl Marx state is the catalyst for social change?
conflict between social groups
Which theory suggests that crimes committed by the upper classes are typically treated more leniently than crimes committed by the lower classes because laws represent the interests of those in power?
conflict theory
What is it called when members of a minority group adopt the cultural practices of the dominant group?
cultural assimilation
________ refers to the tastes, habits, and expectations that children "inherit" or learn from their parents, which help them achieve material success in life.
cultural capital
What is the process called by which societies lose their uniqueness and start to resemble one another?
cultural leveling
In 1978, cult leader Jim Jones forced more than 900 of his followers to drink poisoned Flavor Aid, which led to their deaths. In the run-up to this event, Jones had strictly enforced discipline, mocked and ridiculed anyone who expressed doubts, and even had doubters sedated. This extreme effort to enforce conformity is an example of
social influence
We would call a group that is organizing to change cultural "codes" related to substance addiction a
social movement
Pierre Bourdieu studied ________, which is the tendency of social class to be passed down from one generation to the next and consequently remain relatively stable over time.
social reproduction
Which term describes the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy?
social stratification
Connections between individuals are known as
social ties
Regarding gender, structural functionalists generally believe that
some social roles are better suited to one gender than the other.
A sociologist observes that kindergartners are not just being taught about arts and crafts; they are also being taught how to be students, including skills such as following rules, remaining in their seats, and other things that will be necessary for the rest of their education. What are these skills called?
the hidden curriculum
Which of the following groups argues that men suffer discrimination due to feminism?
the men's rights movement
__________ is the most extreme form of authoritarianism.
totalitarianism
__________ is the physical and legal responsibility for the everyday life and routines of children.
custody
According to the symbolic interactionist George Herbert Mead, the generalized other is
an understanding of the rules that govern a network of different players in related roles.
Émile Durkheim worried that individuals would feel less connected to groups in an increasingly fragmented modern world, which would lead to
anomie or normlessness.
According to Robert Merton, manifest functions
are intended and obvious.
Expressions given off
are typically nonverbal, but they are observable in various ways.
Sociologists define ethnicity
as a group with a shared ancestry or shared cultural heritage.
Race is defined by sociologists
as a social category based on real or perceived biological differences.
What is it called when a minority group is absorbed into the dominant group?
assimilation
The controversy surrounding Colin Kaepernick's choice to kneel during the national anthem in protest of racial oppression and inequality is an example of which of the following concepts?
culture wars
An example of a secondary sex characteristic is
body hair
What term applies to a child who leaves home at eighteen but later returns for at least a short period of time?
boomerang kid
Which of the following is an example of a feeling rule?
boys don't cry
Poverty can be defined in either relative or absolute terms. How is poverty defined according to relative deprivation?
by comparing the poor with more affluent members of society
Poverty can be defined in either relative or absolute terms. How is poverty defined according to absolute deprivation?
by considering access to food, shelter, clothing, and medical care
How do sociologists observe society?
by studying the various parts of a society and the ways they interact and influence one another
__________ argues that punishments for rules violators are unequally distributed, with those near the top of society subject to more lenient rules and sanctions than those at the bottom.
conflict theory
The power elite consists of __________ of the American population, according to a recent study.
considerably less than 1 percent
__________ was one of the earliest theories of collective behavior.
contagion
What research method is a sociologist using if they watch a lot of television and count the number of times women play roles with lower status than those played by men?
content analysis
What do we call norm violations that are codified into law?
crimes
The term ________ refers to the entire way of life of a group of people.
culture
Clashes over values in the United States, especially as represented by liberals and conservatives in the mass media, have been termed
culture wars
The family is responsible for the reproduction of society as it produces and socializes children who will in turn become future workers and produce and socialize more new members of society. What did Talcott Parsons refer to this as?
pattern maintenance
Color blindness contributes to racial inequalities because it
perpetuates racial inequalities by making subtle forms of racism difficult to recognize and therefore difficult to address.
________ are where much of our socialization occurs.
primary groups
Researchers must avoid negative questions when writing a survey. What are negative questions?
questions that ask respondents what they do not think rather than what they do think
The phrase "keeping up with the Joneses" is an example of what group concept?
reference group
Everyday cultural practices such as greeting a friend, giving someone flowers, or using a thumbs-up seem like natural ways of acting. Why does having an awareness of how these practices vary across cultures demonstrate a healthy sociological imagination?
It reminds us that everyday interactions are connected to larger societies and norms.
Which of the following is a subculture?
Korean pop music fans
A behavior, trait, or belief is considered __________ if it departs from a norm and results in a negative reaction.
deviant
__________ is an action or behavior that results in the unequal treatment of an individual because of their membership in a racial or ethnic group.
discrimination
Which of the following terms is used for a person who is stripped of voting rights, either temporarily or permanently?
disenfranchised
The values, norms, and practices of the most powerful group within a society are called
dominant culture
Schools that blend high school and college are called
early college high schools
According to Sigmund Freud, the ________ is the realistic and practical part of the mind that works to balance our instinctive and biological drives and the internalized demands of society.
ego
Physical beauty is considered a(n) ________ status.
embodied
If conducting research, what steps must you take to follow the scientific method? Identify them in the correct order in which you should do them.
form a hypothesis, define variables, choose research method, collect data
Which of the following is an example of how teachers treat boys and girls differently in a classroom setting?
Boys are more likely than girls to be punished for misbehaving.
The term "deadbeat dad" describes a man who isn't married to his children's mother and isn't helping to support his children financially. Why do we almost never talk about "deadbeat moms"?
Mothers usually remain the primary caregiver even when fathers don't take the instrumental role.
What is a key difference between psychology and sociology?
Psychology specializes in internal states of mind while sociology looks at the individual in relationship to external social forces.
Sociologists who believe that notions of gender are socially determined are
constructionists
Which of the following is a latent function of the U.S. educational system?
keeping children out of trouble while parents are at work
The belief that all Irish are drunks is an example of
prejudice
The standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical knowledge, as well as building and testing a body of scientific theory that helps explain and predict different aspects of our world, is known as
the scientific method.