Sociology of Gender (M162) Readings

Saguy, Abigail C. Forthcoming. Chapter 6 "Airing Dirty Laundry and Squealing on Pigs," in Come Out, Come Out, Whoever You Are. Oxford.

Keywords: #metoo, sexual harassment, movements Research Problem/Question: How is sexual assault treated in the United States vs France?

Schilt, Kristen. 2006. "Just One of the Guys?" Gender and Society. 20(4): 465-490

Keywords: gender, gender inequality, trans; transgender, transsexual, transgender employment, masculinity, gendered organization theory Argument/Conclusion: -transmen are given more advantages (respect, authority, and pay) in their careers after they transition This is typically only for tall white transmen however. A short black transman would not receive the same bonuses

Hochschild, Arlie, 1989. The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home, Preface (vii-xiii), Chapter 1-5 (pp. 1-74).

Keywords: gender roles, gender ideologies, gender strategies Follows 11 different couples and analyzes how household work and childcare is divided within couples. ● What is it? ○ The unpaid housework and responsibility that comes with motherhood ○ Working women averaged 15 hours more work per week than men ○ Most women work one shift at the office and a "second shift" at home ○ Women's "double day" ■ Women work an extra month out of every year when compared to men ● Just like there is a wage gap between men and women at work, there is also a "leisure gap" between them at home. ○ Women who don't have children spend more time on housework than men ○ Women with children spend time on taking care of children and houseworki ● What are the effects of the second shift? ○ Women who work outside the home= higher self-esteem than housewives BUT fatigued and get more sick often (compared to men) ○ Working mothers are more likely to suffer from what? Anxiety ■ Increased stress ■ Less sleep ● Gender roles ○ Women's roles have changed drastically, why? ■ To include both family and work ○ Did men's roles change? ■ Very little ● 3 ideal types of Gender Ideologies Genders behaving appropriately. ○ Traditional ■ Husband is the sole breadwinner and wife is the sole homemaker and child bearer ■ Ex: Carmen and Frank Delcorte ○ Egalitarian ideology ■ Women and men share same power within the marriage as equals ■ Ex: both spilt the laundry, cooking, washing dishes, helping with kids ■ Ex: Nancy Holt ○ Transitional ideology ■ Husband is primary breadwinner BUT supports wife idea (she still helps around the house) ■ Ex: Evan Holt ● Gender strategies ○ Nancy needed help/requested help around the home and Evan made no effort ■ The couple had talks, Nancy made a divided list, and she tried sharing the workload on alternative days ■ He always had an excuse ■ He is not demonstrating a gender, rather a gender ideology of tradition ● Case studies: ○ Even when husbands shares second shift, women felt guilty asking him to share in house work because she feels "lucky" to have a man who actually helps ■ Neglect ■ Wife feels unappreciated ■ Mutual resentments ○ The Economy of Gratitude ■ The idea of what each individual within the marriage offer something to one another and how grateful each spouse feels for another. ○ Family Myths ■ Nancy and Evan Holt ● Nancy divided the housework into "upstairs and downstairs" ● Nancy = upstairs (bedroom, bathroom, kitchen) ● Evan = downstairs (garage / hobby / dog) ● By dividing the housework, Nancy feels like Evan is contributing, but in reality, she is doing most of the housework ■ Carmen and Frank Delcorte ● Frank is the sole breadwinner, but Carmen runs a daycare at home to make extra money ● Neither of them tell people that Carmen works, b/c they want Frank to look like he is doing his manly and husband duties ● Without Carmen's job, Frank's income would not be sufficient enough

Kilmartin, Laurie. 2017. "Being a Female Comic in Louis C.K.'s World." The New York Times. November 10

Keywords: sexual harassment, opportunities, power Research Problem/Question: What factors contribute to the extra labor and alternate routes women in stand-up comedy take on contrary to their male counterparts? Argument/Conclusion: Previous unpleasant and uncomfortable encounters with problematic men (who make sexual advances) chase women away from opportunities that may help them succeed in stand-up comedy. As a response, women find alternate routes that ultimately make their stand-up comedy quest longer than that of a mans'.

Claire Cain Miller. 2014. "The Motherhood Penalty vs. the Fatherhood Bonus: A Child Helps Your Career, if You're a Man." The New York Times. September 6

Research Problem/Question: The disparity that exists between woman with children and men with children in the workplace. The author wants to know why I guess. Employers expect fathers to work harder with children and expect women to become lazy. Method/Approach: Presenting research from past studies and interviews with other sociology professors about the issue? Argument/Conclusion: This disparity mostly exists because of discrimination against women with children. Argument Outline: - Miller introduces the issue of mothers making less than fathers in the workplace - Explains that employers still expect women to become lazy workers when they have children and men to become hard workers when they have children - Miller uses Michelle Budig's, a sociologist who studied the pay-gap, to solidify her argument that not only is there a disparity but it exists between the two groups who it affects the most: low income women and high-income men - Presents statistics on the reality, and that is, that women with children do in fact work and in a lot of these households the mother is often the sole bread-winner - It is old-fashioned cultural assumptions that inform this disparity - Uses Shelley J. Correll's work on work place discrimination to explain why employers will pay mothers less It is only through policy that we can see changes actually happen.

Davis, Georgiann. 2015. Chapter 6 "The Dubious Diagnosis." Pp. 147-168. In Contesting Intersex. New York University Press.

Research Problem/Question: The very nomenclature we use to described intersexed individuals can be divisive even within the community and how do we move away from that and move toward liberation? Method/Approach: : Davis takes us through stories of intersexed individuals and their experiences with stigma and uses informed research to outline how we can move toward liberation. Historical approach. Argument/Conclusion: We must confront the gender structure we as a society have constructed in order to better understand the struggles of intersexed people. 7 actions for liberation to decrease intersex stigma.

Kein, Kathryn. 2015. "Recovering Our Sense of Humor: New Directions in Feminist Humor Studies." Feminist Studies. 41 (3): 671-681.

The texts reviewed in this essay represent a recent and overdue explosion in attention to women and feminism in US humor. As the exchange that opens this essay reflects, these texts enter a conversation of scholars who aim to pave a new road away from the traditional modes of humor scholarship— and humorless feminist scholarship —and toward queer and feminist theory in interpretations of comedy. As they work to establish ways to think about work that has thus far been ignored, they push us to challenge assumptions about how humor functions, how it participates in politics, and even who can produce it.

Williams, Juliet. 2010 "Learning Differences: Sex-Role Stereotyping in Single-Sex Public Education." Harvard Journal of Law and Gender 33 (2): 555-580.

This article has considered how proponents of the sex difference approach have negotiated anti-stereotyping norms, highlighting the use of scientific rhetoric to affirm the reality of sex differences. At the same time, discourses of racial and economic disadvantage have been mustered to undermine potential coalitions between anti-racist and feminist activists. In formulating a response, the anti-stereotyping principle cannot simply be reiterated, but it also must be reconceived to address the social construction of sex. Resistance to the biologization of masculinity must be formulated in the context of an awareness of the political mobilization of identities articulated through multiple modes of subordination.

Calasanti, Toni M. and Kathleen F. Slevin, 2001. Gender, Social Inequalities, and Aging, Introduction (pp. 1-12); Chapter 1, "A Gender Lens on Old Age" (pp. 13-28), Chapter 3, "Bodies in Old Age" (pp. 51-72).

...

Davis, Heath Fogg. 2018. Beyond Trans. NYU Press. Chapter 1.

...

Wade, Lisa. 2017. American Hookup: The New Culture of Sex on Campus. Norton. Chapters 4-7 (pp. 92-179)

???

Preves, Sharon. "Intersex Narratives: Gender, Medicine, and Identity." In Rethinking Foundations: Theorizing Sex, Gender and Sexuality. Pp. 32-43.

Keywords: Intersex, Gender, Medicine Research Problem/Question: What are the life experiences of people who are born without a clear distinction of "gender" when they are born? What are their medical experiences like? Method/Approach: Presents perspectives of intersexed adults and research that supports her claim. Interviews 37 intersexed adults from March 1997 to September 1998. Argument/Conclusion: Medical treatments that are advertised as useful in creating a sense of normalcy for intersexed individuals actually serves to maintain social order amongst the adults and institutions surrounding the children. It is through connecting with others and not solely the secretive experience of sex-reassignment surgery that prevents feelings of alienation in these children. Argument Outline: - States argument in her initial discussion of how intrinsic gender is in our everyday \ - Intersex bodies create an issue for the people around them and intersexed people don't understand why - The medical experience is often done in secrecy and shames the individual - - Intersexed individuals expressing feeling like an "object of study" or a "freak" in their medical experience - - Being left in the dark about the purpose of these surgeries is often what creates these feelings of alienation - - It is support groups and connecting people that soothes alienated feelings. - - Intersex pride can exist and does in Hermaphrodites with Attitude! - As a result, movement has been made toward change

Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 2000. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. Chapter 1 "Dueling Dualisms" (pp. 1-29)

Keywords: androgen insensitivity; sex testing; social expression ; physical underpinning ; biopolitics ; Kinsey Scale ; human variation ; human universals ; age structured homosexuality; gender-reversed homosexuality ; role-specialized homosexuality; Research Problem/Question: How do we define who is male and who is female? Method/Approach: Author looks at how we define sex and how socially constructed ideas of gender affect that. Author uses example of Olympics its history. Argument/Conclusion: Nature and nurture are a false dichotomy.. Argument Outline: ● Labeling someone with a gender is a social decision - we might assign them a gender based on biology, but the ultimate decision is social ● What we define as male/female is already in our ideas about gender ● Biology affects our social conceptions and social conceptions affect how we interpret biology - they bounce off of one another and affect each other equally ● Gender, sex, and sexual orientation is all socially constructed

Steinem, Gloria. 1978, "If Men Could Menstruate," Ms. Magazine, October, 101.

Keywords: menstruation, gender discrimination, power Research Problem/Question: If men menstruated, would it be stigmatized the way it is for women? Method/Approach: Satirical perspective on menstruation, juxtapose the stigmatization of menstruation for women with the way masculine traits/actions are glorified. Argument/Conclusion: If men could menstruate, it would be a source of competition, honor, and social power. Argument Outline: - The characteristics of the powerful are thought to the superior to those of the powerless - So, if men menstruated, it would be a subject not only talked about, but the specifics of length, flow, etc. would be bragged about - Not menstruating would be a sign of weakness Strengths/Weaknesses: Strength: Humorous way to make demonstrate how power dynamics work and the illogical way menstruation is stigmatized Weakness: Product of its time, some men do menstruate

Aida Harvey Wingfield. 2012. "Racializing the Glass Escalator: Reconsidering Men's Experiences with Women's Work." Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 41:66-94.

Keywords: race, gender, glass escalator,femininity Research Problem/Question: How do race and gender intersect to affect black men in the feminized occupation of nursing? Method/Approach: semi structured interviews Argument/Conclusion: Conclusion: glass escalator is racialized and gendered Argument Outline: ● Purpose: examine how race and gender intersect to affect black men in feminized occupation of nursing. ● Gendered racism: suggests racial stereotypes grounded in gendered ideals ● What is the glass escalator? "Subtle mechanism in place to enhance men's positions in a women's profession." ● Findings: black men do NOT ride the glass escalator ● Method & population ○ 17 semi structured interviews ○ Black, male nurses ages 30-51 ○ 6 oncology, 4 bedside, 2 ICU, 1 dialysis, 1 ortho, 1 ER, 1 surgery ○ , 1 ambulatory care ● 3 main mechanisms facilitate glass escalator: ○ Relationships with colleagues/ supervisors ■ White men-warm welcome from females ■ Ok ● Patients mistook white men for doctors ■ Black men treated coldly ● Some patients refused help ■ Black men don't have gendered bonds with coworkers ○ Suitability for nursing ■ Sense men don't belong ■ Belief that men are more competent ■ Also believe that black men are less competent--lower wages ○ Distance from femininity ■ Blacks challenge racism by "caring self" ■ Reject femininity and assert masculinity Strengths/Weaknesses: Wingfield herself states that there are other factors that must be looked at for future research: ● "Consider the extent to which the glass escalator is not only raced and gendered but sexualized as well" pg.23 ○ Straight men compared to gay men ● Should consider if predominately white/black/etc settings have an effect on glass escalator ● Should take into consideration other racial minority men's experiences in women professions

West, Candace and Donald Zimmerman. 1987. "Doing Gender." Gender & Society. 24(1): 125-51

Keywords: sex ; sex category ; sex criteria ; omnirelevant ; accountability Research Problem/Question: Purpose: "propose an understanding of gender and routine, methodical and recurring accomplishment" Method/Approach: Theory Argument/Conclusion: We are always doing gender - it never ceases. Argument Outline: View gender as feature of social situations - an outcome and rationale for certain social arrangements - legitimating divisions ● Gender role vs gender display - role obscures work involved in producing gender in everyday activities - display relegates it to periphery of interaction ● Sex is classified at birth via genitalia - sex category is where someone is placed and is acheived through application of sex criteria, in everyday life - sex and sex category can vary independently ● Gender is activity of managing situated conduct in light of normative conceptions, attitudes, activities - emerge from sex category ● Role theory - emphasizes social and dynamic aspect of role construction and enactment - roles are situated identities instead of master identities - most roles already gender marked ● Goffman and gender displays - interactional portrayals of what we would like to convey - social scripted dramatization - scheduled performances ● Sex → Sex Category → Gender (case of Agnes) ● Doing gender is unavoidable because society is partitioned by differences ● Interactional situations and institutional practices produce the difference itself instead of allowing for the expression of natural differences (ex: toilets) ● Accountability ● Division of labor - women in household work → do household work because engaging in it exhibits essential nature of female ● Authors believe that in order to make a social change, make men and women equal, we need to change on the institutional and cultural level of sex category, and interactional level of gender

Lorber, Judith. 1994. "Night to His Day: The Social Construction of Gender."

Keywords: social status; gender norms; stratification and structure of gender Research Problem/Question: None Method/Approach: Analytical approach and based off of research Argument/Conclusion: Gender inequality has social functions and a social history. Gender distinctions are upheld through social institutions, learning, etc. Argument Outline: Society is built from the idea of "doing gender"; we "do" gender everyday without thinking about it ● Gender signs/symbols are ubiquitous - we usually fail to notice them unless something is missing or out of place ● We feel uncomfortable if we can not place someone's gender and feel the need to do so ● Gender construction starts with recognition of genitalia at birth and then are dressed to identity ● Sex category becomes gender through naming, clothing etc ● By puberty, sexual feelings and desires have been shaped by treatment based on gender norms ● Social institution - gender is one of the major ways humans organize their lives; society allocates people on the basis of gender to fulfill certain tasks/jobs ● Social status constructed through teaching, learning, enforcement ● Gender norms inscribed in the way people move, gesture etc ● Gender is ascribed through social institutions, to legitimate institutions; social order ● Social institution of gender doesn't care what men and women do, even if they do the same thing, only that what they do is perceived as different ● Stratification and structure - "A and not-A" - men or white are not seen as gender or race, instead the "other" which lacks dominant qualities is put into the category ● More economic resources = more monopolized by men, more unequal

David S. Pedulla. 2014. "The Positive Consequences of Negative Stereotypes: Race, Sexual Orientation, and the Job Application Process." Social Psychology Quarterly

Keywords: stereotypes, race, sexual orientation, salary, job market Research Problem/Question: Can negative stereotypes cancel eachother out? Method/Approach: Have employers suggest starting salaries for identical resumes except: "Gay Student Advisory Council" or "Student Advisory Council", and applicant name (signaling race as white or black) Argument/Conclusion: Stereotypes of different disadvantaged groups can counteract each other, leading to less disadvantage overall in certain contexts Argument Outline: - Black men and gay men suffer from negative stereotypes in the workplace, criminal justice, and education - Gay black man are perceived as less threatening than heterosexual black men - Gay sexual orientation can cancel out the negative stereotype of "scary black man" and raise expected salary to the same level as a white, heterosexual man.

Sojourner, Truth. 1851, "Ain't I A Woman?" Delivered at the Women's Rights Convention. Old Stone Church, Akron, Ohio

Keywords: women's convention, intersectionality, gender stereotypes Research Problem/Question: Does the black woman's experience in mid 19th century America negate stereotypes of women? Method/Approach: List ways in which her own experiences contradict assumptions of women as fragile/lesser. Argument/Conclusion: Woman are strong, powerful, and should be allowed to participate equally in society. Argument Outline: - She has survived discrimination, violence, and slavery - Intellect/education don't determine if someone should be oppressed - Biblical: eve was powerful, god and Jesus must have been birthed by a woman Strengths/Weaknesses: Strength: Intersectional perspective on women's rights, use of personal anecdotes to highlight inaccuracies of stereotypes Weakness: N/A

Rothman, Barbara Katz. 1993. "Chapter 5: On Fetal Sons and Daughters," in The Tentative Pregnancy: How Amniocentesis Changes the Experience of Motherhood, pp. 115-154.

Keywords:knowledge of sex helps turn a fetus into a baby, knowing the sex does influence our perceptions of babies, gender socialization begins at birth, sex selection and perfect child syndrome Research Problem/Question: when are gender roles projected? What is the outcome of known fetal sex? Method/Approach: the author conducts interviews with women who had amniocentesis Argument Outline: ● Knowledge of sex changes things ● With sex comes gender ● Sex comes from science, gender depends on the person ● Knowledge of sex makes the fetus real ● Sex implies gender and generates expectations for gender roles ● Males were preferred ● Pleased when mothers found out sex=boy at birth ● More pleased when found out sex was a girl during pregnancy ○ Women felt more comfortable with girls pregnancies ● Sex selection reinforces stereotypes ● Sibling order reinforces gender hierarchy

Mears, Ashley. 2011. Chapter 5, "Size Zero High-End Ethnic," in Pricing Beauty: The Making of a Fashion Model.

Method/Approach: -Participant observation (as model) for 2 years -Interviews with 33 bookers/managers/accountants, 40 models, and 40 clients (designers, photographers, editors, stylists, casting directors) Argument/Conclusion: Fashion bookers and clients select models based on their own understanding of beauty, race, class, and femininity. Argument Outline: -There are 2 different types of fashion production: Editorial and Commercial -In editorial modeling, sex is "stripped" away; curves are seen as "cheap" -Commercial modeling is meant to appeal a diverse audience, so they try to broadcast diverse bodies -Even when models of color are used in campaigns, everything about their appearances (besides their skin color) is meant to resemble a white woman's

Hunter, Marcus. 2013. "Race and the Same-Sex Marriage Divide." Contexts. Summer. Pp. 74-76

Research Problem/Question: : Support of same-sex marriage is unequal in black communities and trails behind that of white people. Method/Approach: Interviews and informal conversations with black gays and lesbians in urban areas through a decade along with quantitative data Argument/Conclusion: "In the course of these conversations, I have found that racial differences in opinions on same-sex marriage are best understood through the lens of race, and the segregation and exclusion many black lesbians and gays experience in their daily lives" Argument Outline: - Introduction + thesis - Uptick in support of same-sex marriage due to getting to know gay people. - There exists a disapproval of same-sex marriage among gay people of color because of the foundations of marriage itself. The questions becomes "Who owns marriage?" - Marriage as a patriarchal institution that no one should really want to participate in - Black lgbt people getting "squeezed" between civil rights and lgbt rights movements

Meadow, Tey. 2018. "Chapter 7: From Failure to Form," in Trans Kids. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 212-226.

Research Problem/Question: How do parents come to understand their gender non-conforming children? Why don't we talk about children and development? Argument/Conclusion: : IT is parental support, as seen with Rachel/Rafe that makes the difference and allows trans youth to come to understand themselves. "Gender is deeply valued cultural material, even by those whose practices seem most resistant to its mandates"

Messner, Michael A. 2000. "Barbie Girls versus Sea Monsters: Children Constructing Gender." Gender and Society. 14(6):765-784.

Research Problem/Question: How gender conformity is naturally enforced and practiced by kids as young as kindergarten and elementary school. Method/Approach: Ethnography, field notes Argument/Conclusion: Gender roles are constructed in structure, culture, and -. Argument Outline:- Introduces the idea that children perform gender with and for each other and brings up (AUTHOR's NAME) Tells us that will be using the example of children's organized sports as the medium for examining this Describes incident of small boys yelling "NO BARBIE!" in response to each other after each of them see the girls parading around Barbie. Presents different data on the naming of kids soccer teams - boys used warrior names far more often than girls did Arguments on whether Barbie is feminist or not and discussion on what that Barbie meant to those girls in that moment. Gender as the segregator for the boys on the Sea Monsters team. Gender that is taught to them through media and popular culture and enforced via the AYSO's sex segregation. Specifically, Messner's analysis focuses on the interactional, structural, and cultural

Morris, Esther. 2001. "The Missing Vagina Monologue," Sojourner, 26(7).

Research Problem/Question: Lack of knowledge of MKRH and the fixation on "fixing it" that centers on a heteronormative conception of the function of the vagina Method/Approach: Detailing authors own experiences with MKRH and the consequences of her lack of knowledge with it. Argument/Conclusion: We need to change our idea of identity that does not center around body parts and women with MKRH should be treated as whole complete women rather than disabled women isolated due to their sexual dysfunction. Argument Outline: - Details initial thoughts on MKRH - Parents sent her to get her genitals constructed from ages 13-15 - Spent years going to specialists and felt like she had no control over occurrences - Questions that were present at the time are included in the narrative of happenings - Sex angered her - men can jerk it to anything - Discovery of MKRH as an adult and connecting with other women who suffer in order to understand each other

Ferguson, Ann Arnett. 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Chapter 4 (pp. 76-96) AND pp. 234-235

Research Problem/Question: The inequity rampant in the treatment of black male youth in society. Method/Approach: Ethnography of public schools and interviews with the teachers. Argument/Conclusion: Black male youth are "adultified" in society at large but especially in public schools and are held to different standards than their white male counterparts. Argument Outline: - Introduction to the issue of masculinity as depicted in popular culture by the anecdote of author going to movies with son or grandson - Issue taken with representation of black male youth in the media - The behavior of young black boys are seen through a gendered, racial, and age lens that serves to "adultify" these young boys - After understanding these children as adults teachers then decide if these kids are worthy of having resources used on them or not - We see a double standard in the "loudness" of white male student in the teachers eyes as an attribute to his "Good Bad Boy" status and loudness in a black male student as punishable by the class at large and disruptive to the class - A reputation can then follow these youth and can set tone of rest of school - Question becomes whether or not these youth are "unsalvageable" - Author states that she would propose a complete transformation of the current educational system versus the way things are running as of now

Pascoe, C. J. 2005. "'Dude, You're a Fag': Adolescent Masculinity and the Fag Discourse." Sexualities 8(3): 329-346.

Research Problem/Question: The meanings of the term "fag" and it's ubiquitous use amongst contemporary youth. Method/Approach: The author engages in fieldwork and observes the interaction of youth at Riverhigh, a high school whose demographics are similar to the nations at large. Argument/Conclusion: The term "fag" has served to reinforce masculinity on to the person using the insult and strips the insulted of their masculinity. The term is more concerned with masculinity than with actual state of homosexuality. Argument Outline: - Pascoe explains the history of the term "******" and how it has been come to be used so frequently by society - Pascoe considers other works by authors who have only explored what the term has meant in relation to sexuality without question to gender and states that this is what she wants to look into - Pascoe explains her decision to observe high school age boys specifically in a high school - It is the interaction of these high schoolers that help her develop her argument that it is more to do with masculinity - a high school student would not use the term "fag" to describe an actual homosexual person - Comparatively, the use of the word "slut" is equated to a "fag" but is used less - A racial dimension is added when Pascoe begins to look at what white and black youth consider "fag" behavior (dress, dancing) - Ends with a note on how this discourse can result in deadly consequences

Virginia Valian, 1998, "Why So Slow?" Cambridge: MIT Press, Chapter 1 (pp. 1-22)

Research Problem/Question: What are the invisible reasons for why women don't do as well in the work environment as men despite there being a seemingly equal playing field in most cases. Why do men still advance much more rapidly in the workplace than women? Method/Approach: "I draw on data and concepts from psychology, sociology, economics, and biology" Argument/Conclusion: " ... A set of implicit, or nonconscious, hypotheses about sex differences plays a central role in shaping men's and women's professional lives. These hypotheses, which I call gender schemas, affect our expectations of men and women, our evaluations of their work, and their performance as professionals" men are overrated and what makes their gender more visible is celebrated while women are underrated and what makes their gender more visible is a loss Argument Outline: - Hypothesis formation and stereotyping as not always essentially bad - we should instead think of schema - We make assumptions about a single man or woman based on our nonconscious beliefs about men and women as a whole - Accumulation of advantage, simulation of promotions with 1 percent bias for men, clearly shows even small disadvantages can have long term effects - Meeting example of person whose comments are ignored is probably losing prestige in the eyes of many - Women are automatically seen as less and so they avoid speaking up a lot of the time in order to not accrue disadvantage - People are bad at evaluating objective facts - laboratory experiment of students guessing peoples objective heights and women were always smaller than the men. This example can be carried over into the work place. - Effects of gender schema on raising children even - Various examples and scenarios of gender schemas at play in different environments