Sociology of Sex and Reproduction
Abortion is unavailable in nearly ______ of U.S. counties.
0.9
By the end of the 1970s, what proportion of Puerto Rican women were sterilized?
1 in 3 or 1/3
In 2011 in the U.S., the infant mortality rate for white infants was 5.1 per 1,000. For black infants it was ____ per 1,000.
11.5
Women in their ____ make up the largest proportion of U.S. women who obtain abortions.
20s
In the U.S., 1 in ___ women will have an abortion before the end of her reproductive years.
3
Approximately how many abortions occur worldwide each year?
45 million
On average, about ___ of U.S. mothers breastfeed their babies at 6 months.
50%
The U.S. ranks ___ in the world in terms of maternal mortality
50th in 2010, worse than almost all European countries as well as several countries in the Middle East and Asia. Has worsened in recent years, going from 7.2 deaths per 100k live births in 1987 to a high of 17.8 deaths per 100k live births in 2009
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends feeding exclusive breast milk for the first _____ of life.
6 months
In the U.S., approximately ____ of mothers initiate breastfeeding (ever breastfeed).
80%
It has become a common practice for some women in the U.S. who are unable to reproduce themselves to hire a woman in India to serve as a surrogate. India has become a hub for this type of surrogacy because
: It costs less than in the U.S. and many other industrialized countries
The intentional termination of a pregnancy after a fertilized egg or pre-embryo has implanted in the uterine wall is called:
Abortion
Compared to the national average, breastfeeding rates in Florida are:
About average
Which group of women has the highest infertility rate in the U.S.
African American
Which of the following is a principle of reproductive justice?
All of these
Which of the following has been used in preindustrial societies to regulate reproduction?
All of these Contraception Abortion
What did Paltrow argue relating to Roe v Wade
All pregnant women, not just those who seek to end a pregnancy, have benefited from Roe v Wade. Today's system of mass incarceration makes it likely that if Roe is overturned women who have abortions will go to jail. Efforts to establish separate legal "personhood" for fertilized eggs, embryos, and fetuses, however, are already being used as the basis for the arrests and detentions of and forced interventions on pregnant women, including those who seek to go to term. Examination of these punitive actions makes clear that attacks on Roe threaten all pregnant women not only with the loss of their reproductive rights and physical liberty but also with the loss of their status as full constitutional persons.
Female egg donors are expected to be motivated by:
Altruism
birth control
Any method used to reduce births, including celibacy, delayed marriage, contraception; devices or medication that prevent implantation of fertilized zygotes, and induced abortions
What did Mahalingam and Wachman argue
Argued that cultural-ecological factors play a critical role in the extreme neglect of girls. Social and cultural interventions to combat female feticide and infanticide sex-selective gender abortion need to highlight the impact of male-biased sex ratios on the community's mental health Reproductive justice perspectives should be sensitive to the cultural-ecological factors that shape and constrain women's agency and pressure them to abort female fetuses. Combating female infanticide and feticide is necessary to achieve reproductive justice for women and girls who live in these communities and for those missing girls, who never had a chance to live.
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding birth control?
Attempts to control reproduction have existed throughout human history and across societies
According to the article by Carter (me!) and colleagues, peer breastmilk recipients are most often:
Babies of parents committed to breastfeeding who are unable to breastfeed themselves
Which concept refers to access to appropriate education about birthing options, freedom from undue medical intervention, and support for breastfeeding?
Birth Justice
The phenomenon of negative slave breeding refers to:
Castrating male slaves with undesirable characteristics so they could not reproduce
Breast milk:
Changes according to the baby's developmental needs
During slavery, the most common way that mothers were separated from their children was:
Child death due to malnutrition or disease
The mantra "abortion should be safe, legal and rare" is an example of:
Conciliatory Language
The situation in which a nation's birth rates have fallen below replacement levels among the native-born population, with correspondingly higher birth rates among immigrants is called:
Demographic Winter
eugenics
Developed by Sir Francis Galton method of improving the human race by control of certain races as to heritable characteristics regarded as desirable. -was increasingly discredited as unscientific and racially biased during the 20th century, especially after the adoption of its doctrines by the Nazis in order to justify their treatment of Jews, disabled people, and other minority groups.
The first eugenic sterilization program in the U.S., which was adopted by 30 states in the 1920s and sterilized individuals against their will:
Disproportionately targeted African Americans, Native Americans and poor whites
Attempts to control the gene pool of a population, which includes tactics such as mass sterilization, rape during war, and incentives for some women to use birth control and others to procreate is referred to as:
Eugenics
Everyone has the right to parent their children in a safe and healthy environment Every woman has the right to decide if and when she will have a baby
Every woman has the right to decide if she will not have a baby and her options for preventing or ending a pregnancy
What is reproductive tourism
Fertility tourism is the practice of traveling to another country or jurisdiction for fertility treatment, and may be regarded as a form of medical tourism.
Female Fetacide and Infanticide structural perspective
Focuses on structure of society/inequalities Women's low status and structural gender inequality are main causes - Advocate programs to improve women's educational and employment opportunities -Research shows that improving girls' opportunities corresponds with higher investment in boys and greater discrimination against girls. Cultural-practices perspective Focuses on cultural context - material conditions shape maternal behavior; In impoverished areas, infants are not considered full humans; bonding takes place later; often left to die (not viewed as infanticide) India - need to provide a dowry to marry off a daughter is a major stressor for some parents; girls are viewed as a drain on family resources -Patrilocal system - woman becomes a part of her husband's clan - differential investment in girls and boys Authors argue successfully combating female infanticide and feticide is necessary to achieve reproductive justice for women/girls in those societies Call for culturally sensitive reproductive justice policies - Simply improving status/opportunities for females does not necessarily reduce neglect/infanticide - Need to consider culturally-specific rationale
In 1996 Laura Pemberton was in active labor at her home in Florida. Laura had a cesarean birth with her first child, and doctors believed she was posing a risk to her second child by attempting a vaginal birth. She was taken into custody by a sheriff, who strapped her legs together and forced her to go to the hospital, where she was ordered by the court to have a cesarean birth. This is an example of:
Forced Obstetrics
The sterilization of individuals against their will is called:
Forcible Sterilization
According to Mamo's research on lesbian motherhood, state laws and insurance policies regarding artificial insemination are based on _____ standards.
Heterosexual
Many insurance policies cover assisted reproduction only for married couples, and some states prohibit doctors from using certain reproductive technologies for single women. Mamo argued these examples demonstrate _____ in access to reproduction.
Heterosexual privilege
The maternal mortality rate in the U.S. is:
Higher than almost all European countries and several countries in Asia and the Middle East
Who summarized the history of women as one of silence
Hillary Rodham Clinton
What is global gag rule
Impact of George W. Bush's presidency on sexual and reproductive health internationally -US health policy that prohibited funding to foreign aid organizations that provide abortion services -prevents foreign organizations receiving U.S. global health assistance to providing information, referrals, or service for legal abortion, even with their own money History - established by Regan 1984 - rescinded by Clinton - reestablished by George W Bush 2001 - rescinded by Obama 2009 Consequences - No money to International Planned Parenthood Federation or Marie Stopes International. No money to organizations that offer services where legal, but also provide family planning, HIV counseling, STI treatment, prenatal care, management of delivery complications and childhood immunizations.
Annie Lowrey argues that the birth control pill is responsible for:
Improvements in women's economic status
Hyde Amendment (1976)
In U.S. politics, is a legislative provision barring the use of federal funds to pay for abortion except to save the life of the woman, or if the pregnancy arises from incest or rape
Which of the following is evidence that assisted reproduction relies on a heterosexual framework?
Insurance policies cover the costs of assisted reproduction only for married couples, which excluded most same-sex couples at the time.
The perspective that examines the ways race, class and gender overlap to create distinct social positions in society that correspond with differential access to societal privileges and rewards is called: Intersectionality
Intersectionality
What was Laura Mamo's research about
Lesbian motherhood state laws, insurance policies regarding artificial insemination based on heterosexuality
In the 1990s, Jana Sawicki argued that reproductive technologies had the potential to:
Liberate some women and subordinate others
What was Jana Sawicki's 1990 argument about reproduction technologies
Liberate some women and subordinate others
The work of surrogacy, as exemplified by Indirani's story, is experienced by women in India as:
Liberating
The feminist movement in the early 1970s sought to legalize abortion with slogans such as "abortion on demand" and "abortion without apology." These are examples of:
Libratory Language
Laura Mamo's research shows that lesbian couples seeking to become parents typically prefer to do so using:
Low-tech procedures at home
A concept used by feminists to describe scenarios, particularly laws, social policies and medical practices, in which the mother and fetus are conceptualized as separate entities who have opposing interests is called:
Maternal-fetal conflict
In interviews with women who served as surrogates in India, how did they report feeling about their work as surrogates?
Meaningful and valued
How many women in the U.S. seek an abortion each year?
More than 1 million
The U.S. spends ____ on health care than any other country and ____ on childbirth-related care than any other area of hospitalization.
More; more
According to the article by Carter (me!) and colleagues, peer breastmilk donors are most often:
Mothers who are breastfeeding their own children and produce extra milk for donation
After the American Medical Association was established in 1847, the organization campaigned to:
Move birth into hospitals and abolish midwifery
In the U.S. today, the maternal mortality rate for black women is _____ that for white women.
Nearly four times higher
The practice during slavery of castrating male slaves with undesirable characteristics is called:
Negative slave-breeding
Feminists have been at the forefront of:
Opposing sterilization abuse
In what ways is intersectionality used
Person's identity, gender, sex, race, class, sexuality, disability used to discriminate
The concept of _____ consists of measures designed to give the same legal status to fertilized eggs as living humans.
Personhood
Which of the following is required by egg donors but not sperm donors?
Photos one of two gendered stereotypes -highly educated and physically attractive -caring and motherly with children of their own
Enslaved women who were unable to reproduce were often:
Punished by being sold off or killed
According to the article by Almeling, the ______ of the donor is the basis for the program filing systems used by egg and sperm donation centers.
Race/ethnicity
In 2014, the U.S. abortion rate:
Reached a historic low
With regard to race, sperm banks and egg agencies:
Reinforce biological notions of race
Societal mechanisms to control or monitor reproductive behaviors through, for example, legal regulations, religious organizations, etc., is called:
Reproductive Governance
The framework that advocates for government assistance in individuals' reproductive lives by providing access to affordable contraception, abortion, prenatal care, education, nutrition and housing is called:
Reproductive Justice
The framework that advocates for women to have the right to decide whether and when to reproduce, emphasizing women's rights to access contraception and abortion is called:
Reproductive Justice
The framework that advocates the rights of all individuals to choose to reproduce, to not reproduce, and to raise children with dignity is called:
Reproductive Justice
Which framework was developed by women of color to advocate for reproductive needs for marginalized populations that were not included in other frameworks?
Reproductive Justice
1973 U.S. Supreme Court Roe v. Wade decision was considered a major victory for activists who advocated for which framework?
Reproductive Rights Made it illegal for states to interfere with a woman's pursuit of abortion Denied states the ability to interfere with a woman's pursuit of an abortion
Which of the following is evidence that minority women receive poorer health care during childbirth than white women?
Research showing black women are not more likely to have conditions that cause death, such as postpartum hemorrhage and preeclampsia, but that they are more likely to die from these conditions than white women
Which of the following is a barrier to breastfeeding in the U.S.?
Routine hospital practices such as pacifier use and medical management of birth
UN 4th World Conference on Women
Sept 5, 1995 - Hillary Rodham Clinton -Women's rights are human rights - cannot be discussed separately -Violations of human rights - female infanticide - selling girls/women into prostitution - killing women b/c dowries too small - women are raped; subjected to rape as part of war - a leading cause of death to women 14-44 is violence in their own homes by their own relatives - female genital mutilation - forced abortions/sterilization
Female Fetacide and infanticide
Social and cultural factors that contribute to sex-selective abortion, female infanticide and extreme neglect of girls in China and India; - gender inequality - low status of females; women are blamed/mistreated for not producing sons - national population control policies - 1 child policy enacted in 1979 in China; in 2000 there were 100 girls for every 120 boys born; trend expected to continue/worsen over next 2 decades 2005 intercensus showed China with an estimated 32 million fewer females under 20 years old. More important reported more than 1.1 million more births of boys - reproductive technologies (ultrasound to determine sex) - India first sex-selective abortions documented where 430 of 450 women told sex of baby was female aborted, whereas 250 of 700 told baby was male gave birth
Drawing on examples from Alabama, attorneys who are appointed to represent the fetus in court proceedings where a minor attempts to bypass parental involvement in an abortion view their job as:
Talking the minor out of having an abortion
The growing trend for pharmacists and others in health-related fields to refuse to provide a treatment they believe is comparable to abortion (such as filling prescriptions for emergency contraception) is called:
The "health care refusal" movement
Reproductive Justice
The human right to personal bodily autonomy, parenthood choices, and safe communities in which to raise children -predominantly led by minority women -emphasis on right to government action to create conditions of justice -focus on inequalities; reproductive disciplining v. reproductive privilege -emphasis on right to give birth and raise children with dignity -right to not have a child but also right to have a child and to parent any children one has
Which of the following is evidence of the increasing medicalization of maternity care in the 20th century in the United States?
The increased use of pitocin to medically induce labor
What is the maternal mortality rate based on per live births
The maternal mortality ratio can be calculated by dividing recorded (or estimated) maternal deaths by total recorded (or estimated) live births in the same period and multiplying by 100,000.
In-vitro fertilization
The most common assisted reproduction procedure, in which a woman's eggs are mixed with sperm in culture dishes (in vitro) and then carefully inserted into a woman's uterus.
Joffe and Reich argue that the abortion debate in the U.S. is rooted in a larger debate over:
The proper place of women in society and legitimacy of non-procreative sexuality
In the 1980s and 1990s, abortion politics shifted toward debates over:
The social meaning of abortion
What are the rites/rituals associated with pregnancy loss in the US?
There are none
Historical and cross-cultural research on abortion shows that
There is evidence of abortion in all societies that have written records
The primary function of rape by slave masters was:
To reinforce domination
What is the health care refusal movement
Trump 2018 conscience and religious freedom division dept of health. refuse bills LBGTQ
What happened in 2010 that changed infant feeding options for parents who experienced difficulty or were unable to breastfeed?
Two organizations were established that facilitate peer milk sharing online
According to the text, which group is considered to be the most vulnerable with respect to reproductive care?
Undocumented immigrant women
In Reich's article on men's perspectives on abortion, most of the men interviewed
Wanted a traditional male-headed family at some point in the future
Which group was historically denied sterilization as a birth control option?
White
Compared to female sterilization, male vasectomy is less invasive, entails quick recovery, and is usually reversible. For these reasons, it is the preferred method of birth control among couples who are:
White, College-educated, Middle and Upper Class, All of these
Which of the following was a tactic used to sterilize women of Mexican origin after childbirth in the LA County Medical Center?
Withholding pain relief until consent forms were signed
What movement was predominantly led by minority women
Women's Rights Movement
In the 1970s, Shulamith Firestone argued that women's reproduction was the root of:
Women's oppression
Artificial Insemination (AI)
a reproductive technology in which semen is collected from males, then used in fresh or frozen form to breed females
A critique of the political use of conciliatory language regarding abortion is that it:
advocates for reducing use rather than expanding access or enhancing quality. Clinton changed it to safe, , legal, rare.
reproductive freedom
an individual's ability to freely choose whether or not to have a child plan, terminate, use contraceptives, learn about sex ed, gain access to services
assisted reproductive technology (ART)
any infertility treatment in which the egg is fertilized outside the womb
Sharma said 100 million girls are missing from the world's population or gendercide as a result of
assisted reproductive technology that facilitated female feticide.
reproductive controllers
behaviors that interfere with women's reproductive autonomy as well as actions that pressure or coerce a woman into initiating or terminating a pregnancy
What group of women are the most vulnerable with respect to reproductive care
black women
Which group of women have a higher risk of dying of AIDS and by how much
black women ages 25-44 have a 13x higher risk than white women
All major health organizations recommend _____ as the best infant feeding method.
breastfeeding
2014 Supreme Court Hobby Lobby Case
closely held for profit corporations exempt from regulation if its owners religions object to deny health coverages to employees birth control
coercive reproductive governance
coerced reproduction - reproduction control - behaviors that interfere with the decision making related to reproductive birth.
What are the requirements for being a sperm donor
college educated and generally tall with high sperm counts
Stratified reproduction refers to
concept of Shellee Colen - unbalances in the ability of different races, ethnicities, nationalities, classes, and genders to reproduce and nurture their children. A global process in which some categories of people are empowered to reproduce while others are not Stratified reproduction is a term originally coined by Shellee Colen in her classic 1986 study of West Indian nannies and their (female) employers in New York City, which found inequalities of race, class, gender, culture, and legal status played out on a social field that was both domestic and transnational
In the 2014 Hobby Lobby case, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that:
corporations with religious objections did not have to provide contraceptive coverage
What was Dorothy Roberts argument pertaining to the mother-fetal conflict
created by slave masters control of black women's reproduction illustrates the importance of reproductive liberty to women's equality. Every indignity that comes from the denial of reproductive autonomy can be found in slave women's lives - the harms of treating women's wombs as procreative vessels, of policies that pit a mother's welfare against that of her unborn child and of government attempts to manipulate women's child bearing decisions through threats and bribes. Slave master had incentive to rape and force slave to produce multiple children that became owners of the slave master. Argued policy makers were identifying a group of women (Black - welfare moms, unmarried, poor) who were less entitled to be parents. Denying someone the right to bear children deprives her of a basic art of her humanity.
Nancy Ehrenreich (1993) Legal scholar found
differential targeting ''outsider women'' reproductive decisions, once they are pregnant, are not considered worthy of respect. Reproductive Justice is intimately linked to the right to have a child - criminalization of reproduction highlights how some reproduction is not only discouraged but feared and penalized. - reproductive technology and the obstacles to having children that some groups face
The assumptions made about asexuality and the lack of sexual reproductive education and healthcare are made for which group in particular
disabled women
Where do Indian women typically live during surrogacy
dormitory
Female oppression manifested in
female infanticide and sex-selective abortion are examples of extreme form of neglect of girls, and gender inequality is one of its major contributing factors.
Malthusian Theory
focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder
What is forced obstetrics
forced c-sections
Which of the following is an example of coercive reproductive governance?
forced sterilization
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA)
health system reform legislation that introduced significant benefits for patients included contraceptives as basic health care
Criminalization of reproduction examples
impact of drug war in constructing drug use and addiction as matters of crime rather than health, moving the solutions from the health care system to the legal system. - moral panic over crack babies, states and administrative agencies attempted to detain, confine, or incarcerate women whose behavior thought to be damaging to their fetuses -drug addiction is a disease, not a crime but legal and medical actors used legal theories even extending existing laws to punish women who use drugs -Maternal drug use is prosecuted as child abuse or as the delivery of drugs to a minor including a lengthy sentence.
What does Annie Lowrey argue that the birth control pill is responsible for
improvement in women's economic status
What did preindustrial societies use to regulate reproduction
infanticide, abortion, sterilization, withdrawal by the male, suppositories, diaphragms, caps, other devices inserted into the vagina over the cervix and withdrawn after intercourse, intrauterine devices, internal medicines, potions or pills, douching and other forms of action after intercourse designed to kill or drive out sperm, condoms, variety of rhythm methods, based on calculating woman's fertile period and abstaining from intercourse during it.
Reproductive Rights
legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health -predominantly led by white women --emphasis on right to be free from government interference -focus on freedom of choice -emphasis on bodily autonomy
What role did the American Medical Association play relating to abortion
made the abortion struggle one of its highest priorities. Physicians argued that abortion was both an immoral act and a medically dangerous one, given the incompetence of many of the practitioners then.
What is birth justice
movement led by black women, women of color seeking recognition of inequities to empower people in communities in pregnancy and childbirth birthing process
According to your textbook, what is the most motivating factor for men to become sperm donors?
must be financially motivated responsible with consistently high sperm counts great personality, adorable, caring, and sweet
How were Mexican women coerced into sterilization
pain meds withheld until form signed
The article by Carter (me!) and colleagues found that infant feeding decisions are based on:
perceptions of the relative healthiness of infant feeding options
Most vulnerable
poor people, people of color, people with disabilities, people with non-normative gender expression and sexualities.
What was the 1996 Laura Pemberton case about
pregnant woman drug problem dragged from home, active labor, refused c-section, dragged away by sheriff
What is the Rebecca project
protecting life, dignity, freedom for people in Africa and the U.S. justice, dignity, reform for vulnerable women and girls
What framework did the Roe v Wade decision advocate for
protects pregnant woman's right to choose an abortion
What is considered conciliatory language as it relates to abortion
reproductive choice that makes abortions safe, legal, and rare.
1927 Supreme Court Buck v Bell
set legal precedent where states could sterilize inmates, feeble minded- eugenic sterilization
During slavery, U.S. legislation deemed that any child who resulted from the rape of a slave was a:
slave
What are some of the methods used in India to kill a newborn female infant
starving the infant to feeding it paddy with milk or milk with a mixture of poisonous herbs.
Reproductive governance
state, religious, financial institutions, social movements, legislative, economic, controls moral injunctions
Public funds can be used to cover most of the cost of _____ for poor women.
sterilization
Since the late 1970s, the most popular form of birth control for U.S. women over age 25 is:
sterilization
What is the preferred method of birth control among couples
sterilization
The 1927 U.S. Supreme Court Buck v. Bell case permitted that states could:
sterilize the "feeble minded"
Impact of George W. Bush's presidency on sexual and reproductive health internationally
stopped funding UNFPA - organization that worked in China to move away from coercive reproductive policies. They were accused of engaging in coercive practices and the allegations were shown to be false; Bush ended funding anyway, which was 12% of overall funding, resulting in more unwanted pregnancies and abortions. Promoted abstinence for young people Appointed religious leaders as U.S. representatives for global reproductive health initiatives
What do detailed ethnographic reports in Tamilnadu, India show
that female infanticide and feticide still exist today. For example, 1 female child is born for every two male children as a result of reproductive technologies, mainly ultrasound that determines ideal gender composition. Continues to happen as a result of structural factors - low status of women and more men in power -federal policies promoting small families (determined by men - easy access to reproductive technologies
What country are 1-3 women having abortions prior to the end of their reproductive years
the United States
demographic winter
theory that suggests that the human population will not be able to support itself if for lack of humans. -worldwide decline in birthrates, decline in fertility will lead to economic devastation
In Japan before World War II what did parents who had children with visible birth defects do
they considered them shameful and often killed them
Coalition building
unite groups based on issues: HIV/AIDS; birth justice
Sexual rights
unites diverse people around particular issues such as violence, disease prevention while also considering pleasure, autonomy and self determination; sexual rights is a platform to embrace everybody
identity politics
unites individuals based on social positioning/identity; LGBTQ, feminist movement, etc
What was an outcome of the welfare reform program that established the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) relating to reproductive rights?
welfare recipients had a family cap imposed. If they were approved for assistance and then became pregnant the new child was not covered under TANF
_______ women make up the largest proportion of U.S. women who have abortions.
white
Before the 1850s, abortion in the U.S. was:
widespread and minimally regulated
The single most common contraceptive method in historically and throughout the world is:
withdrawal
During the "Century of Criminalization" when abortion was illegal:
women still had illegal abortions, which were often unsafe