SOCW 601 Ch 11

Nondiscrimination

A final set of ethical dilemmas for group leaders arises in balancing group composition considerations with values and ethics that emphasize nondiscrimination Such decisions are legitimate if they are made for appropriate clinical reasons, taking into account the need for, purpose of, and goals of the group. Consternation about exclusion can be addressed by creating parallel groups to address unmet needs or excluded populations Of course, competent professionals must always be mindful of their own prejudices and ensure that they are not veiling biases with an indefensible rationale.

isolate

A group member who is ignored by the group, does not reach out to others, or does so but is rejected. The isolate differs from the scapegoat in that the latter gets attention, even if it is negative, whereas the former is simply disregarded.

Socialization groups

A group that facilitates transitions through developmental stages, from one role or environment to another, through improved interpersonal relationships or social skills.

Educational groups

A group whose primary purpose is helping members learn about themselves and their society.

A Systems Framework for Assessing Groups

A systems framework helps leaders to assess group processes; they can attend to the repetitive interactions of members, infer rules that govern those interactions, and weigh the functionality of those rules and patterns. Conceptualizing and organizing group processes into response patterns enables leaders to make systematic, ongoing, and relevant assessments.

The Evidence Base for Groups

Although the evidence base for the efficacy of groups is growing, there are particular challenges to conducting research with treatment groups, including problems maintaining equivalent control conditions, monitoring specific process events that affect outcomes, ensuring that the treatment plan is implemented as intended, and isolating the multiple parts that interact to create change Until research-supported group treatments evolve more fully, group leaders will need to take responsibility for implementing evidence-based practices. Evidence base for the efficacy of groups is growing Meta-analyses of research on group outcomes found that group treatment results in reliable positive improvement Patient characteristics robustly predict process and outcome

Task Group Purpose

As described earlier in this chapter, task groups are organized to meet client, organizational, and community needs (Toseland & Rivas, 2009). All of these groups focus on generating products, planning activities, developing policies, and making decisions rather than on enhancing the personal growth of members (Ephross & Vassil, 1988). Important early steps in forming and assessing task groups are planning for the group and structuring initial sessions to address the purpose of the group.

Cultural Considerations in Forming and Assessing Task or Treatment Groups

Awareness of personal stereotypes and preconceptions about diverse groups Knowledge about diverse groups and the special needs of those groups Awareness of intervention techniques that would be effective with diverse groups In its Treatment Improvement Protocol for substance abuse groups, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (2005) offers the following suggestions for facilitating diverse groups: Understand personal biases and prejudices about specific cultural groups. Pay special attention to issues of diversity when forming groups because the feelings of belonging to an ethnic group can be intensified where there are several individuals to "feel different" from, not just the therapist. Pay attention to cultural traditions and how they play out in group processes to ensure that these traditions do not interfere with the purpose or progress of the group. Be aware of how cultural practices affect compliance with treatment requirements as well as communication among group members. Explore each member's self-identification with an ethnic group (do not assume group membership) because individuals may self-identify in ways other than appearance would indicate. Be open to learning about different cultures, customs, and beliefs held by members of the group. The greater the mix of ethnicities within a group, the more likely biases will surface and mediation by the facilitator will be required. Before placing a client in a group, the facilitator must assess the influence of culture, family structure, language, identity processes, health beliefs and attitudes, political issues, and the stigma associated with minority status. From the start of a multicultural group, members should feel that race or other cultural issues are permitted topics for discussion. The behavior of a minority group member might be significantly influenced by cultural norms about sharing personal material with strangers, speaking up before others, offering answers, or advising other members. Assessment of group interactions must occur in light of knowledge about each member's culture and his or her individual characteristics within that culture. Finally, as with individual practice, group workers must be careful not to discredit behavior they do not understand, behavior that may arise from the member's upbringing, or attempts to cope with the current environment and the stress and strain of adaptation Group planners and facilitators can adopt a stance of cultural humility, creating a respectful partnership with clients in order to learn about and learn from the client's lived experience. In groups with pluralistic membership, workers can also teach group members this stance of "reflexive attentiveness"

Conducting Preliminary Interviews

Before convening a treatment group, social workers often meet individually with potential group members for the purpose of screening participants, establishing rapport, exploring relevant concerns, formulating initial contracts with those motivated to join the group, and clarifying limits and options for involuntary members. There are several advantages to having pregroup meetings with potential members: When creating a group of involuntary clients, interviews allow the opportunity to clarify participants' options and identify acknowledged as well as attributed problems. In rural areas, preliminary interviews provide an opportunity to notify potential members that others they know might attend; in doing so, the group leader can address any concerns that this group composition provokes. With groups drawn from populations who may be uncomfortable or unfamiliar with group treatment, a pregroup orientation can acquaint prospective members with the treatment process, help them understand what to expect, reduce apprehension, and learn how best to participate Interviews help leaders obtain valuable information to guide interventions in early sessions, aiding in the efficiency and effectiveness of services. Preliminary interviews enable social workers to enter the initial group sessions with a previously established relationship with each member Previous knowledge facilitates the leader's understanding of the members' behaviors and allows the leader to focus more fully on group processes and the task of assisting members to develop relationships with one another. Establishing rapport with the leader is also beneficial for members in that it enables them to feel more at ease and to open up more readily in the first meeting. Social workers should focus on the following in preliminary interviews: Orient potential members to proposed goals and purposes of the group, its content and structure, the leader's philosophy and style in managing group processes, and the roles of the leader and group members. Elicit information on the individual's prior group experiences Elicit, explore, and clarify the clients' problems, and identify those that are appropriate for the proposed group. Explore the service user's hopes, aspirations, and expectations regarding the proposed group Identify specific goals that the person wishes to accomplish, discuss whether these goals can be attained through the proposed group, and determine the client's views as to whether the group is an appropriate vehicle for resolving his or her problems. Mutually develop a profile of the client's strengths and attribute Identify and explore potential obstacles or reservations Ensure that screening for the group is a two-way process.

Establishing the Group Purpose

Client's goals may differ from those of the social worker Social worker must explore clients' expectations and negotiate between individual, group, and agency purposes Kurland and Salmon (1998) describe several common problems to avoid in developing an appropriate group purpose: Group purposes are promoted without adequate consideration of service users' needs. That is, the purpose may make sense to the prospective leaders or the agency, but not to the potential clients. The purpose of the group is confused with the content. For example, the group's purpose is described in terms of what the members will do in the group—their activities—rather than the outcome toward which those activities are directed. The purpose of the group is stated too generally so that it is vague and meaningless to potential members and provides little direction to prospective leaders. Leaders are reluctant to share their perceptions about the purpose, leaving members to wonder why they are there. The group is formed with a "public" purpose that conflicts with its actual hidden purpose. For example, prospective members may not know the basis on which they were contacted to become part of a group. Group purposes may be misunderstood as static rather than dynamic (adjusting to the evolving desires and needs of the members). The overall purpose of a planned group should be established by the social worker in consultation with agency administrators and consumers prior to forming the group; the goals subsequently negotiated by the group should reflect the perspectives of those three stakeholders. Schopler and Galinsky (1974) note that the client's goals may be influenced by many internal or external forces, such as the expectations of others and the client's personal comfort, motivation, and past experiences in group settings. During group formation, the social worker must carefully explore clients' expectations of the group, help them to develop individual and collective goals that are realistically achievable, and negotiate between individual, group, and agency purposes.

Setting the Frequency and Duration of Meetings

Closed groups benefit from having a termination date at the outset, which encourages productive work. In general, short-term groups vary between 1 and 12 sessions, with the shorter-duration groups being targeted at crisis situations, anxiety alleviation, and educational programs

Determining Group Composition

Composition refers to the selection of members for the group. On occasion, composition may be predetermined—for example, when the group consists of all residents in a group home, all patients preparing for discharge, or all motorists mandated to attend due to charges of driving while intoxicated. When the leader is responsible for deciding the group's composition, the overriding factor in selecting members is whether a candidate is interested in group services, motivated to make changes, and likely to be a productive group member. Another key factor is the likelihood of that person being compatible with other members in the group. Social workers usually consider gender, age, intellectual ability, education, personality, and other features when composing group membership, weighing the relative metrics of homogeneity versus heterogeneity among members. Conversely, some diversity among members with respect to coping skills, life experience, and levels of expertise fosters learning and introduces members to differing viewpoints, problem-solving skills, and ways of communicating. Heterogeneity is also vital in task group membership so that the group has sufficient resources to fulfill its responsibilities and efficiently divide the labor when dealing with complex tasks Corey and Corey (2006) caution against including members in voluntary groups whose behavior or pathology is extreme, inasmuch as some people reduce the available energy of the group for productive work and interfere significantly in the development of group cohesion.

Member Contacts outside the Group

Contacts by members outside the group can be constructive or harmful to individuals and the group's purpose, and thus the practice literature contains differing views on this topic.

Attendance

Discussing the problems that irregular attendance can pose for a group before the fact and soliciting commitments from members to attend regularly can do much to solidify group attendance in future group sessions.

Assessing Individuals' Cognitions and Behaviors

During assessment, group leaders need to develop accurate cognitive and behavioral profiles of each individual, taking note of the functional and dysfunctional responses that members displayed in initial sessions. Patterned cognitions are a form of internal dialogue. To use an analogy, it is as though events in a person's life trigger a recording in his or her mind that automatically repeats the same messages over and over, coloring the person's perceptions of events and determining his or her reality. These patterns can be tracked through client self-reports or by peer observation within the group. The data may be captured in charts, logs, diaries or journals, self-anchored rating scales or observations (which can be naturalistic), role-plays and simulations, or analysis of video recordings of group process (Toseland & Rivas, 2009). By assessing and identifying these patterns, the facilitator can address them in sessions, note and reinforce growth, and manage cognitions or behaviors that create problems for the member or group process.

Identifying Roles of Group Members

For example, members may assume leadership roles that are formal (explicitly sanctioned by the group) or informal (emerging as a result of group needs). Some members, of course, assume roles that strengthen relationships and enhance group functioning. Reinforcing these positive behaviors both encourages the individual who demonstrates them and helps other members to emulate them. It is important to identify all of the roles that members assume because those roles profoundly affect the group's capacity to respond to the individual needs of members and its ability to fulfill the treatment objectives. Identifying roles is also vital because members tend to play out in treatment or task groups the same roles that they assume in other social contexts.

scapegoat

Group member who bears the burden of responsibility for the group's problems and the brunt of teasing or negative responses from other members.

expressive roles

Group members who emerge as spokespersons around concerns of the group. Rather than interpret those behaviors as a negative influence, you may consider whether that member is representing concerns held by others in the group or identifying issues that are lingering below the surface in group sessions.

self-serving roles

Group members who seek to meet their own needs at the expense of the group.

Choosing an Open or Closed Group

Groups may have either an open format, in which the group remains open to enrolling new members, or a closed format, in which no new members are added once the group gets under way. Open-ended groups are generally used for helping clients cope with transitions and crises, providing support, acting as a means for assessment, and facilitating outreach drop-in (or drop-out) model in which members are self-selecting, entry criteria are very broad, and members attend whenever they wish for an indefinite period. In the replacement model, the leader immediately identifies someone to fill a group vacancy. In the re-formed model, group members contract to attend for a set period of time, during which no new members are added but original members may drop out. An open format provides the opportunity for new members to bring fresh perspectives to the group and offers immediate support for those in need, who come when they need to and stay as long as they choose. At the same time, the instability of this format discourages members from developing the trust and confidence to openly share and explore their problems—a strong feature of the closed-ended group. Advantages associated with a closed group include higher group morale, greater predictability for role behaviors, and an increased sense of cooperation among members. Disadvantages are that the group may not be open to members when potential participants are ready to make use of it and that, if too many members drop out, the group process will be drastically affected by the high rate of attrition. Single-session groups are intended to meet only once with a given membership. Some single-session groups are designed for only one meeting, as with a group designed to educate college students about high-risk drinking

Single-Session Group

Groups whose membership is the same for only a single session are common in settings where the census of potential members fluctuates frequently, such as medical and psychiatric units in hospitals, inpatient substance abuse treatment settings, shelters, and other residential facilities. While single-session groups may sacrifice the cohesion and reflection that can be characteristic of closed multisession groups, they have demonstrated effectiveness in education and in assisting members to resolve immediate challenges, restore equilibrium, and mobilize coping skills Based on a comprehensive literature review by Keast (2012), the author created a toolkit to assist clinicians in single-session group formation: To determine the need and purpose for the group, planners should consult with potential referral sources and coworkers from multiple disciplines. Brief surveys at admission or reviews of intake data may also reveal the need for or interest in group services. Co-leadership is recommended in single-session groups to allow continuity of leadership, with at least one facilitator attending from one group to the next. Regardless of the demographics of the population from which the group is drawn, leaders should still consider individuals' appropriateness for the group based on the purpose and the prospective members' needs and capacities. When the membership of a single-session group is affiliated with residency in a particular program, the facility may dictate the size and location of the group. The studies reviewed by Keast (2012) suggest that single-session groups should be longer than typical treatment groups, as the membership may be larger and time is needed, within one session, to create trust and facilitate sharing. As such, groups might meet for 90 to 120 minutes Although extensive preliminary interviews are not feasible for single-session groups, facilitators may get acquainted with potential members through case staffing or their other therapeutic or supervisory roles in the residence or unit. The format for single-session groups may be educational or didactic, but in either case, facilitators need to be prepared to do on-the-spot assessments to make sure material is responsive to the needs of the individuals gathered for the session Facilitators in single-session groups may cultivate trust from the outset of the meeting by inviting members to share about their needs and expectations for the group.

Growth groups

Growth groups stress self-improvement, offering members opportunities to expand their capabilities and self-awareness and make personal changes (e.g., a personal development group or a communication enhancement group for couples). Growth groups contrast with other types of groups in that they focus on promoting socioemotional health rather than alleviating socioemotional deficits.

Formulating Preliminary Group Guidelines

In formulating guidelines with the group, the social worker takes the first step in shaping the group's evolving processes to create a "working group" capable of achieving specific objectives. There are three common reasons why attempts to formulate guidelines fail. First, the social worker may establish parameters for the group, merely informing members of behavioral expectations to which they are expected to adhere. Second, the social worker may discuss group guidelines only superficially and neglect either to identify or to obtain the group's commitment to them. Third, just because the group adopts viable guidelines for behavior does not mean that members will subsequently follow them. Because formulating guidelines is a critical process that substantially influences the success of a group, we offer the following suggestions to assist you in this aspect of group process: If there are nonnegotiable expectations (e.g., confidentiality, no smoking policies, or rules forbidding contact between members outside sessions), you should present the rules, explain their rationale, and encourage discussion of them (Behroozi, 1992). Introduce the group to the concept of decision by consensus on all negotiable items, and solicit agreement concerning adoption of this method for making decisions prior to formulating group guidelines. Ask group members to share their vision of the kind of group they would like to have by responding to the following statement: "I would like this group to be a place where I could...." Reach for responses from all members. Once this has been achieved, summarize the collective thinking of the group. Offer your own views of supportive group structure that assists members to work on individual problems or to achieve group objectives. Ask members to identify guidelines for behavior in the group that will assist them to achieve the kind of group structure and atmosphere they desire. You may wish to brainstorm possible guidelines at this point, adding your suggestions. Then, through group consensus, choose those that seem most appropriate. Guidelines are helpful only to the extent that they expedite the development of the group and further the achievement of the group's goals. They should be reviewed periodically to assess their functionality in relationship to the group's stage of development. Outdated guidelines should be discarded or reformulated. When the group's behavior is incompatible with the group guidelines, the leader should describe what is happening in the group (or request that members do so) and, after thoroughly reviewing the situation, ask the group to consider whether the guideline in question is still viable.

Assessing Group Processes

In group assessment, social workers must attend to processes that occur at both the individual and the group levels, including emerging themes or patterns, in an effort to enhance the functioning of individuals and the group as a whole.

self-help groups

In self-help groups, members have central shared concerns, such as coping with addiction, illness, or obesity. These groups are distinguished from treatment and task groups by the fact that they are led by nonprofessionals who are managing the same issues as members of the group, even though a social worker or other professional may have aided in the development, sponsorship, or coordination of the group. Self-help groups emphasize interpersonal support and the creation of an environment in which individuals may retake charge of their lives. It is the social worker's task to offer support and consultation to such groups without taking them over.

New Members

In some cases, the group leader may reserve the prerogative of selecting members. In other instances, the leader may permit the group to choose new members, with the understanding that those choices should be based on certain criteria and that the group should achieve consensus regarding potential members. In either case, procedures for adding new members and the importance of the group's role in orienting those entrants should be clarified. As mentioned earlier, adding new members in an open-ended group should occur in a planned way, considering the stage of development of the group.

Informed Consent, Confidentiality, and Self-Determination

In task groups, the ground rules and mutual expectations should be documented in meeting minutes. Therefore, it is important to alert group members to the limits of confidentiality before they unknowingly divulge such events. People in time-limited services or programs with a particular focus may be notified at the beginning that the program only addresses certain issues or utilizes a particular type of intervention. In groups, an important part of informed consent involves articulating the expectations and limits of confidentiality. The social worker must explain his or her commitment to members' privacy, along with the legal and ethical limits to that commitment. The worker must also involve the group in discussing confidentiality, what it means, and how the commitment to each other's privacy will be reinforced. Although group workers endeavor to extract and enforce agreements about privacy, informed consent requires facilitators to acknowledge that they cannot control the actions of other members of the group. These already complex issues can be exacerbated in online and other electronically facilitated groups. Facilitators must take steps to confirm the identity of participants and reduce risks posed by severely distressed members, minors, or participants who misrepresent themselves and their problems. Some steps to address this include posting agency policies and informed consent procedures on the website so that prospective group members can review them in advance of applying for the group. During the recruitment phase, facilitators are urged to contact prospective members in person to assess suitability for the group and determine how and where the individual will be accessing the group Preliminary discussions with group members should address whether their computer is secure from use by others, their capacity for privacy during group phone calls, and expectations about confidentiality. All members of technology-mediated groups should sign and discuss informed consent statements indicating that they understand the expectations and limits of confidentiality

Assessing Group Cohesion

In the initial phases of the group's life, leaders must also assess and foster the development of cohesion in groups. Defined as the degree to which members are attracted to one another, cohesion is correlated, under certain conditions, with productivity, participation in and out of the group, self-disclosure, risk taking, attendance, and other vital concerns Cohesion is inextricably linked to the development of norms in a beginning group. Norms that may potentially interfere with both group formation and cohesion include irregular attendance, tardiness, subgroups, changing membership, interpersonal aggression, excessive dependence on the leader, dominance by a few members, and general passivity in the interaction

Care for Space and Cleanup

Making group decisions regarding care of the room (e.g., food, furniture, trash) and cleanup (before having to contend with a messy room) encourages members to assume responsibility for the group space. Otherwise, resentments may fester and subgroups destructive to group cohesiveness may form when some members feel responsible for cleanup and others do not.

Deciding on Leadership

Many types of groups benefit from co-leadership. Having two leaders can provide additional eyes and ears for the group, with one leader specifically attending to content and the other taking note of the process and meta-messages (underlying messages) by group members. Co-leaders bring different perspectives, backgrounds, and personalities to the group process, which can appeal to a wider array of members than a single leader might. They can also use their interactions to model effective communication and problem solving (Jacobs, Masson, & Harvill, 1998). In addition, two leaders can keep a watchful eye on each other, providing feedback and noting patterns where individual facilitators' needs and motives may impede effective management of the group Of course, co-leadership is sometimes impractical because of the costs involved and the time needed to coordinate roles, plan the group sessions, and debrief together. In managing the cost concern, some agencies utilize volunteers or "program graduates"—consumers who have had group training and can bring personal experiences to the group process. Nosko and Wallace (1997) suggest three ground rules for effective co-leadership: "establish a common theoretical orientation; agree on the identification and handling of problems; and agree on what constitutes the appropriate quantity and quality of each leader's participation"

treatment groups and task groups differences

Member roles in treatment groups evolve as a result of interaction; in task groups, they may be assigned or elected (e.g., facilitator, minutes taker) or associated with the member's professional role (e.g., the psychiatrist in a treatment team). Procedures in treatment groups may be flexible or formal, depending on the group; task groups usually follow formal agendas and rules. In treatment groups, self-disclosure is expected to be high, proceedings are kept within the group, and group success is based on individual members' success in meeting the treatment goals. In task groups, self-disclosure is low, proceedings may be private or open to the public, and the success of the group is based on members accomplishing a task, fulfilling a particular charge, or producing a result.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP BEHAVIOR

Members openly communicate personal feelings and attitudes and anticipate that other members will be helpful. Members listen carefully to one another and give all ideas a fair hearing. Decisions are reached through group consensus after considering everyone's views and feelings. Members make efforts to incorporate the views of dissenters rather than to dominate or override these views. Members recognize and give feedback regarding strengths and growth of other members. Members take turns speaking. Members use "I" messages to speak for themselves, readily owning their own feelings and positions on matters. Members adhere to the guidelines established in initial sessions. Members assume responsibility for the group's functioning and success. The group shows its commitment by staying on task, assuming group assignments, and working out problems that impair group functioning. Members are sensitive to the needs and feelings of others and readily give emotional support.

Use of Recording Devices and Phones

Members should be reminded of confidentiality expectations and be encouraged to prohibit recording as part of their ground rules. If there is a therapeutic or professional purpose for recording the group, the social worker should always ask for the group's permission before doing so

PROBLEMATIC GROUP BEHAVIOR

Members talk on a superficial level and are cautious about revealing their feelings and opinions. Members are critical and evaluative of each other; they rarely acknowledge or listen to contributions from others. Dominant members count out other members in decision making; members make decisions prematurely without identifying or weighing possible alternatives. Members are critical of differences in others, viewing them as a threat. Members compete for the chance to speak, often interrupting one another. Members do not personalize their messages but rather use indirect forms of communication to express their feelings and positions. Members display disruptive behaviors incompatible with group guidelines. Members resist talking about the here and now or addressing personal or group problems. Members focus on others rather than on themselves. Members show little awareness of the needs and feelings of others; emotional investment in others is limited.

maintenance roles

Members who are oriented to altering, maintaining, or strengthening a group's functioning, such as offering compromises, encouraging and supporting the contributions of others, commenting on the emotional climate of the meeting, or suggesting group standards.

Task Group Membership and Planning

Membership in task groups may be dictated by the needs of the group or the task to be accomplished, or it may be constrained by organizational structure, bylaws, or regulations Task group composition may be voluntary, by appointment, or by election, but it should always be responsive to the group's purpose and goals. Members of any task group should have the interest, information, skills, and power needed to accomplish the purpose of the group. Membership should be large enough and sufficiently diverse to represent the major constituencies affected by the problem being targeted, and participants should possess adequate skills and knowledge for addressing the group's purposes. Quality planning in this stage is reflected by accurately and clearly communicating the group's purposes and expectations to prospective members. As with treatment groups, task groups may be open or closed in time and in membership. Formal boards or committees generally are ongoing but have structures that provide for the rotation of membership in and out of the group, allowing for "staggered" terms to assure continuity.

Assessing Group Norms

Norms are regulatory mechanisms that give groups a measure of stability and predictability by letting members know what they can expect from the group and from one another. Norms may define the specific behaviors that are appropriate or permissible for individuals or they may define the range of behaviors that are acceptable in the group. Toseland and Rivas (2009) note that group members watch the behavior of other members as they reward some behaviors and punish others. Once members realize that sanctions are applied to certain behaviors, they usually attempt to adapt their behavior to avoid disapproval or punishment. he status of members—that is, the evaluation or ranking of each member's position in the group relative to the others—also determines the extent to which members adhere to norms. Toseland, Jones, and Gellis (2006) observe that low-status members are the least likely to conform to group norms because they have little to lose by deviating. Such behavior is less likely if the member has hopes of gaining a higher status. Medium-status group members tend to conform to group norms so that they can retain their status and perhaps gain a higher status. High-status members generally conform to valued group norms when they are establishing their position. At the same time, because of their elevated position, high-status members have more freedom to deviate from accepted norms. Leaders may be able to identify norms by asking themselves key questions such as the following: What subjects can and cannot be talked about in the group? What kinds of emotional expressions are allowed in the group? What is the group's pattern with regard to working on problems or staying on task? Do group members consider it their own responsibility or the leader's responsibility to make the group's experience successful? What is the group's stance toward the leader? What is the group's attitude toward feedback? How does the group view the contributions of individual members? What kind of labels and roles does the group assign to them? Another strategy for identifying norms is to explain the concept of norms to group members and to ask them to identify the guiding "rules" that influence their behavior in the group. This strategy forces members to bring to a conscious level the group norms that are developing and to make choices in favor of those that advance the group's goals.

Eating, Drinking, and Swearing

Opinions vary among group leaders concerning these activities in groups. Some groups and leaders believe that they distract from group process; others regard them as comforting and thus beneficial to group operation. Some groups may intentionally provide meals as an incentive to encourage group attendance

Programming

Programming refers to the content of group sessions and the activities or exercises that are used to meet group goals. With increased attention to evidence-based practices, manualized curricula have been developed that detail the sequence, content, and activities for various types of groups. These programmed approaches offer several advantages. They help to focus treatment, advance systematized practices, and support research on interventions. However, those who oppose manual-based practice are concerned that they promote paternalistic, one-size-fits-all approaches instead of the organic, empowerment-based changes that arise from members' and workers' dynamic interactions (Wood, 2007). A further concern is that they may be misused by workers who adopt curricula without supervision or sufficient appreciation for group dynamics and in the absence of group facilitation skills.

Identifying the Need for the Group

Some agencies adopt group-based services as their primary modality because of ideological or practice considerations or as a strategy to meet efficiency or cost-containment targets. Sometimes practitioners or agencies determine that groups are needed based on the patterns of problems being presented and the evidence that group modalities are the most effective means for addressing these problems. Sometimes group work is indicated when existing groups require social work interventions—for example, in school or community settings where factional conflicts are threatening the safety of the learning environment. Social workers may construct groups based on needs assessments sparked by observations of individual clients whose needs could be addressed through mutual aid with others facing the same challenges

Assessing Individuals' Patterned Behaviors

Some of the patterned behaviors that group members display are functional—that is, they enhance the well-being of individual members and the quality of group relationships. Other patterned behaviors are dysfunctional—that is, they erode the capacities of members and are destructive to relationships and group cohesion. A major role of leaders in groups, then, is to help members become aware of their patterned behavioral responses, determine the effects of these responses on themselves and others, and choose whether to change such responses. Content refers to verbal statements and related topics that members discuss, whereas process involves the ways members relate or behave as they interact in the group and discuss content.

Support groups

Support groups help members cope with life stresses by revitalizing coping skills so that members can more effectively adapt to life events

CONSTRUCTIVE group norms

Take a risk by spontaneously revealing personal content about yourself. Treat the leader with respect and seriously consider the leader's input. Focus on working out personal problems. Allow members equal opportunity to participate in group discussions or to become the focus of the group. Communicate directly with other group members. Talk about obstacles that get in the way of achieving the group's goals.

Task Group Subtypes

Task groups are generally organized into three different subtypes: Groups that are created to meet client needs: These include treatment teams that meet regularly to review cases or assure quality of care. In case conferences, all of the professionals working with a particular client or family may come together to share assessment findings or develop an interdisciplinary care plan. Staff development teams may be responsible for doing needs assessments and planning, delivering, and evaluating educational sessions to assure that employees have the knowledge and skills to properly assist clientele. In some facilities, resident councils composed of clients engage in self-governance when issues arise within the residence, and they also represent the needs of residents to administrative or other decision-making bodies. Groups that are intended to meet organizational needs: Groups that are intended to meet organizational needs: In contrast to the groups in subtype 1, these task groups are generally responsible for the governance and well-being of an institution, not the clientele. For example all nonprofit organizations have boards of directors, trustees, or governors, which have fiduciary responsibility (legal and financial accountability) for the operation of the agency. Public human service agencies often have advisory boards. These groups may not have decision-making power, but they may be chartered to review services, statistics, incidents, and other activities and issue recommendations about the agency. All organizations utilize another form of task groups, committees, to get work done. Committees may be standing (established and ongoing) or ad hoc (time-limited). Focus groups may be convened to help organizations understand service needs, evaluate programs, or gather feedback on proposed changes. These groups typically meet once and are highly structured to achieve the intended purpose. Groups that address community needs: In this context, "community" refers broadly to the needs of a geographic community or a community of interest or affiliation. Social workers may be members or facilitators of such groups.

Beginning the Task Group

The agenda for a beginning session of a task group is similar to that for a treatment group. It includes facilitating introductions, clarifying the purpose of the group, discussing ground rules, helping members feel a part of the group, setting goals, and anticipating obstacles (Toseland & Rivas, 2009). An opening statement, including the host agency's function and mission as it relates to the group purpose, should be shared so that members will understand why they have been called together. Developing group rules and concurrence on decision making (e.g., majority rule, consensus) then follows. Task groups then proceed to goal setting. Such goals always include those mandated by the purpose of the group, such as revising agency policies, planning a conference, reviewing audit reports, implementing new regulations, or coordinating care. In addition, the group may generate its own goals—for example, generating a list of best practices in achieving its purpose or tailoring its response to the group's purpose based on the specific talents and assets available in the group. As with treatment groups, task group members may take on or be assigned formal (e.g., secretary, chairperson, treasurer) and informal (e.g., timekeeper, devil's advocate, instrumental leader, expressive leader) roles. Other parallels with treatment groups include the evolution of subgroups, norms, cohesion, and the role of members' status in group dynamics. As with treatment groups, these phenomena can play either destructive or positive roles in the group's development. Beginning the task group Agenda Facilitating introductions Clarifying the purpose Discussing ground rules Helping members feel a part of the group Setting goals and anticipating obstacles

Assessing the Group's Patterned Behaviors

The group may also display transitory negative behaviors in initial sessions, which is to be expected in the early phases of group development. Facilitators must be alert to the continued or intensifying destructive patterns, particularly in regard to power and decision making. Groups are sometimes torn apart because unresolved power issues prevent the group from meeting the needs of some members When social workers assess groups, they need to identify the current capacity of members to share power and resources and to implement problem-solving steps that ensure "win-win" solutions. They can accelerate the group's progress through these stages by assuming a facilitative role in teaching and modeling effective decision making and by assisting the group to adopt explicit guidelines for making decisions in the initial sessions.

Help-Giving/Help-Seeking Roles

The help-seeking role incorporates such behaviors as making direct requests for input or advice, authentically sharing one's feelings, being open to feedback, and demonstrating willingness to test new approaches to problems. The help-giving role involves such behaviors as listening attentively, refraining from criticism, clarifying perceptions, summarizing, maintaining focus on the problem, and pinpointing strengths and incremental growth.

Determining Group Size and Location

The size of the group depends in large part on its purpose, the age of clients, the type of problems to be explored, and the needs of members. Seven to 10 members is usually an optimal number for a group with an emphasis on close relationships As such, educational and task groups may accommodate more members than would therapy and support groups, where cohesion is central to the group progress. The location of group meetings should be selected with image and convenience in mind. Image refers to the impression that the site makes on members—the message it conveys that may attract them to the group or make them uncomfortable in attending. Convenience refers to the accessibility of the site for those people whom the group chooses to attract. Leaders may have little choice over the meeting location if the sponsoring agency's site must be used. Those planning groups should take the image and accessibility of the location into account, however, when recruiting prospective members or when diagnosing problems related to group membership.

Assessing Group Alliances

The subgroupings that invariably develop do not necessarily impair group functioning. Members may derive strength and support from subgroups, in turn enhancing their participation and investment in the larger group. Indeed, it is through the process of establishing subgroups or natural coalitions that group members achieve true intimacy. Problems may arise, however, when members develop exclusive subgroups (cliques) that disallow intimate relationships with other group members or inhibit members from supporting the goals of the larger group. Credited to Moreno and Jennings (Jennings, 1950), a sociogram graphically depicts patterned affiliations and relationships between group members by using symbols for people and interactions. Sociograms are representations of group alliances at a given point because alliances inevitably shift and change, particularly in the early stages of group development. Charting the transitory bonds that occur early in group life can prove valuable to leaders in deciding where and when to intervene to modify, enhance, or stabilize relationships between members.

Formation of Treatment Groups

The success or failure of a treatment group rests to a large extent on the thoughtful creation of the group and the careful selection and preparation of members for the group experience.

Therapy groups

Therapy groups help members change their behavior, cope with or ameliorate their personal problems, or rehabilitate themselves after a social or health trauma

Touching

Whatever the group's policy, it is important to explain the expectation and the rationale and to address member concerns rather than impose the guideline unilaterally.

Individual Contacts with the Social Worker

Whether you encourage or discourage individual contacts with members outside the group depends on the purpose of the group and the anticipated consequences or benefits of such contacts.

Competence

While ethical practice demands that all group leaders must be competent in both the issues under discussion in the group and group processes themselves, social workers facilitating electronic groups must also be familiar with the challenges of the particular medium Avoid using techniques with which they are unfamiliar Understand group processes, dynamics, and skills, even if using manualized curricula (Galinsky, Terzian, & Fraser, 2006) Respect group members and avoid creating conditions in which members are bullied, coerced, or manipulated Provide supportive and respectful confrontations when they are required Put the needs of group members ahead of their own (Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 2007) Help members to differentiate their personal needs from collective, community needs "Operationalize values of democracy and self-determination in task group process"

task-related or instrumental roles

facilitate the group's efforts to define problems, implement solutions, or carry out tasks. These members may propose goals or actions, suggest procedures, request pertinent facts, clarify issues, or offer an alternative or conclusion for the group to consider.

Determining the Group Structure

group structure, or how the time in the group will be used to most effectively meet the needs of participants. The result should be a clearly conceptualized format that provides the means for evaluating group and individual progress. The structure should also be flexible enough to accommodate differing group processes and the unique needs of members as they emerge. The following activities will assist you and your members to focus your energies so as to achieve therapeutic objectives effectively and efficiently: Define group and individual goals in behavioral terms, and rank them according to priority. Develop an overall plan that organizes the work to be done within the number of sessions allocated by the group to achieve its goals. The leader (or co-leaders) should have done preliminary work on this plan while designing the group. Specify behavioral tasks (homework) to be accomplished outside the group each week that will assist individuals to make the desired changes. Achieve agreement among members concerning the weekly format and agenda—that is, how time will be allocated each week to achieve the group's goals. For instance, a group might allocate its weekly 1.5 hours to the format shown in Table 11-2. The group leader is responsible for developing the preliminary structure and presenting it, and the rationale, to the group. Although input and mutuality are important, group members are typically ill equipped, due to their own distress or lack of group experience, to give meaningful input in creating group structure. They may, however, respond with concerns or preferences about the format offered and may be better able to offer feedback on structure as the group evolves.

PROBLEMATIC group norms

ignore attendance and time commitments. Keep the discussion centered on superficial topics; avoid taking risks or self-disclosing. Play the game "Let's get the leader." Harass, criticize, or complain about the leader whenever the opportunity arises. Let aggressive members dominate the group. Avoid emotionally charged or delicate subjects. Direct comments to the leader.

group work

small numbers of people who share similar interests or common problems convene regularly and engage in activities designed to achieve certain objectives

treatment groups

the focus is on helping individuals to make changes by seeking to enhance their socioemotional well-being through the development of social skills, education, and therapy. In such groups, communications are open, and members are encouraged to interact actively.

task groups

the focus may be on the group as a whole as the unit of change or the group as a mechanism for influencing the individual members. Communications are more structured, focusing on discussion of a particular issue or agenda item. Examples of task groups include committees, governing boards, treatment teams, and task forces that seek to complete a project or develop a product.