SP302 - Introduction to Social and Developmental Psychology

Content validity is the extent to which a measure assesses all relevant features of the construct, and does not assess irrelevant features.

Define content validity

Criterion validity is also known as predictive validity. This is looking to see the relations with relevant outcome variables.

Define criterion validity

Inter-rater reliability is the degree of agreement between the scores of different raters/observers.

Define inter-rater reliability

Internal-consistency reliability is the extent to which the items of a measure are correlated to each other.

Define internal-consistency reliability

Persuasion is the process by which a message changes a person's attitudes or behaviours

Define persuasion

Test-retest reliability is the degree of consistency between scores across different measurement occasions.

Define test-retest reliability

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Define validity

Individual/task-related factors, group-related factors, status, and prior commitment

What general conditions affect rate of conformity?

Group-related factors that would maximise conformity include group size and unanimity.

What group-related factors would maximise conformity?

Epistemic needs and ideologies have been linked to intergroup perceptions.

What has been linked to intergroup perceptions?

Human senses that have developed from evolution include stereoscopic vision and trichromatic colour vision.

What human senses have developed from evolution?

Ideologies such as Marxist Theory, Authoritarianism, and Social dominance Orientation have been linked to prejudice.

What ideologies have been linked to prejudice?

Anxious attachment dimension is the tendency to worry about the loss of a partner's love.

What is anxious attachment dimension?

Applied research is basic research applied to problems or issues (e.g. law, politics, business, education).

What is applied research?

Assimilation is using existing schemas to interpret new experiences.

What is assimilation?

Associative mating is finding someone who is similar to mate with.

What is associative mating?

Attitude function is the study of why we form opinions.

What is attitude function?

The "Looking Glass Self" is the ability to take the perspective of others and look at the self (Cooley, 1902).

"Looking Glass Self (Cooley, 1902)

Anderson, John, Keltner, and Kring (2001) used the Big Five Framework to look at 4 young adult students in a fraternity, sorority, and mixed-sex dormitory. Peer ratings of each student's prominence, influence, and respect were recorded. They found that extraversion was strongly related to social status in men and women, but it was more important with men. They also found that men's social status was positively related to emotional stability and negatively to neuroticism. Other Big Five characteristics were unrelated to social status. Ultimately, in men there is a strong correlation between extraversion and social capital, and they must have low neuroticism and be stable. Physical attractiveness also plays a factor in relationships. In women, extraversion was most important, for it is associated with popularity.

Anderson, John, Keltner, and Kring (2001)

It has been found that many animals also have a sense of self. Reiss and Marino (2001) found that dolphins would stop in front of a mirror for longer periods if they had a black spot on their nose.

Are animals self aware?

Discrimination and prejudice are not the same thing. For example, Fiske et al (2002) found that despite omen being generally seen as being 'at the wrong end of the battle', they tend to be liked more and seen to be nicer.

Are discrimination and prejudice the same thing?

Generally we have inaccurate self-judgements, which then limits our self-awareness. People do not appear to notice when or why their attitude changes, and they appear to not understand how situational factors affect their behaviour. It has also been found that people do not understand why they like things, and they think that behaviour is influenced by factors that don't actually influence it. It has also been found that people experience affective forecasting error.

Are humans accurate in their self-knowledge?

Asch (1951, 1952, 1956) studied normative influence, The participant was seated 6th in a row of 7 people and was presented with a diagram of a standard line and 3 other comparison lines. They had to choose which comparison line matched the standard line. In 1955, this was conducted with 6 confederates. There was also a control condition. In trial 1 and trial 2, everyone before the participant agreed on the same correct line, to which the participant agreed. In trial 3, all confederates chose the same wrong line. It was found that in the control condition, people were accurate 99% of the time. However, in the experimental condition people chose the correct line only 63% of the time. There was no obvious reason or pressure to comply (e.g. reward, punishment) and it could have clashed with the participant's conscious. This also raised the concern of if people comply so easily, what could happen if they were coerced by someone more important. Nonetheless, it demonstrated that normative influence can lead to conformity.

Asch (1951, 1952, 1955, 1956)

Balance theory (Heider, 1958) suggests people compare attitudes with others and reach a balance if there are similarities. A balance enhances positive feelings and attraction, and attitude dissimilarity causes imbalance.

Balance Theory (Heider, 1958)

Balyaev's Russian silver Fox Experiment was originally used to breed for fur in the Soviet Union. These foxes were wild, thus they were aggressive and difficult to handle. Thus, they selectively bred tame foxes together. It was found that as we moved down the class, not only were the foxes friendlier, physical patterns such as shape and pattern of fur changed. Ears also became floppier. This suggests that controlling aggression controls morphological features too.

Baylaev's Russian silver fox experiment: animal studies and aggression

Birch and Bloom (2007) has a girl put a violin into one container and leaves the room. Another girl moves it, and the participants are asked where the girl will look. If the violin stays in the room, 39% will say that the girl will look at the newest box. If the violin is out of the room, then 23% will say that the girl will look in the newest box.

Birch and Bloom (2007)

Bowlby worked with Romanian orphans in an orphanage and found that when the attachment figure was removed, they would want to get the attachment figure back, demonstrated through crying, escaping, and fighting. They then displayed different stages of depression and despair, and would end with detachment, meaning they display indifference towards potential attachment figures. they they see the attachment figure after detachment, the relationship is negatively affected. This is because although the child would like to reunite, they become afraid to lose them. Those with little contact with their mum had a 37% death rate over 2 years, whilst those with regular contact with their mum had 0% death rate. This was regardless of physical health care.

Bowlby and Romanian Orphans

Piaget came up with the Cognitive Development Theory. This involved constructivism, schemas, equilibrium, disequilibrium, adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation. This involved 4 stages of cognitive development, which are characterised by qualitatively different modes of thinking that occur in a fixed sequence and never stops. It is domain general.

Briefly talk about Piaget

Close relationships are in he centre of human existence because of our fundamental need to affiliate (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). We are preoccupied with the idea of 'being in love' or in close relationships. It is necessary for survival (physically and mentally) and we will naturally do things that make ourselves more attractive to others.

Briefly talk about close relationships and humans

Byrne's law of attraction (1971) states attraction is directly and linearly related to the proportion of attitudes shared, for it reinforces existing attraction.

Byrne's law of attraction (1971)

Adult testing methods usually include questionnaires/interviews, different tasks, and psychophysiological measures, but these are not always suitable for children for sometimes children can only demonstrate a behaviour when they perform a task.

Can adult-testing methods be used on children?

Aggression was found to be socially influenced. Jaffe and Yinon (1983) found that when men were surrounded by a large group of people and was angered, they were more likely to give stronger shots. However, this could be because they were embarrassed or humiliated.

Can aggression be socially influenced?

Attitudes can be inferred from our behaviour, for the way we express emotions are embedded in our neurons. This is known as the facial feedback effect (Strack, Martin, & Sepper, 2016). However, it was found that this would not occur when cameras were present (Noah et al, 2018).

Can behaviour affect attitudes?

Being in a group can sometimes reduce the tendency to aggress. Certain crimes are committed in private settings for they are away from acceptable norms.

Can being in a group reduce aggression?

Conformity as measured by Asch's paradigm is greater in cultures when there are heavy sanctions for non-conformity. It was found that individualistic cultures tend to be less likely to conform than collectivist cultures.

Can culture affect susceptibility in social influence?

It has been found that after training, mothers can become more sensitive. At 6 months, the children are more sociable, exploratory, cried less, and soothed themselves. At 18 months, 72% of children were found to be securely attached, compared to the 26% of the control group (van den Boom, 1994, 1995).

Can parental sensitivity be changed?

Infants can control their rate of sucking, allowing us to measure non-nutritive sucking as a reflection of their inner processes. For example, researchers may attach different rates of sucking to different stimuli. If the baby sees the stimuli they prefer, they can demonstrate this by changing their rate of sucking. Through this type of study, it has been found that 12-36 hour old babies can adjust their sucking rate to see the image of their mother over a stranger.

Can rate of sucking by an infant be used as a measure of behaviour?

Sociocultural factors such as religion and systematic differences in consequences of different kinds of aggression. Behaviour is also too complex, varied, and sophisticated to be entirely due to instincts. Time periods are factor in aggression.

Can sociocultural factors lead to aggression?

Infants, to a certain extent, can control their facial expressions, meaning we could provide stimuli that encourage these expressions. Certain confounds have to be considered though, for example neonatal imitation and social smiling. 2-month-olds can and will smile at people, but it requires contingent feedback. Blind babies would need a different type of feedback to keep smiling.

Can we use infants' facial expressions to interpret behaviour?

Cialdini et al (1987) argued that altruistic behaviour is motivated by empathic distress. He tested role of empathic distress by telling participants to either adopt a cold, impersonal attitude while watching a video of a suffering victim and only consider the facts, or empathise with the person in the video and try to share feelings with the model. These groups were each split into two to test the role of 'motive to feel better' by giving placebo pills that stops the mood from changing or the pill does nothing. The video was a real life victim with broken legs that needed help with notes, and the dependent variable was how many participants agreed with helping her. The difference between low empathy groups to help was smaller than high empathy groups, suggesting that people have motivation to help to feel better. High empathy participants that took the control pill also dedicated significantly more hours to help than those in the same condition that took the mood-freezing pill. However, still over 50% of people helped in all conditions, suggesting empathic distress is not the only factor.

Cialdini et al (1987) altruism

Cohen and Nisbett (1997) conducted a field experiment on violence in different parts of the US. They found that overall, there was a lot more violence in the south between men and men towards women. This could be because in the south and west settlement they had to protect livestock and there is insufficient laws, thus need to be aggressive to commit to honour. They sent in bogus job applications stating that the applicant had killed someone because their girlfriend was stolen, making it a crime of honour. It was found that in the south and west, they were more likely to respond, had more agreeable responses, and they had a better tone.

Cohen and Nisbett (1997) Culture of Honour

The control theory of self-regulation is to test the self against public and private standards and change behaviour if there is a discrepancy (Carver & Scheier, 1981, 1998). It is a test, operate, test, exit model (TOTE), and can be seen as a feedback loop. We use our self-schema to see if one meets the standard, and if not then we address the discrepancy and test again. If it matches, then we exit. This allows for self-improvement through self-appraisal and self-regulation, but can sometimes make self-improvement difficult (Muraven & Tice, 1998).

Control Theory of Self-Regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1981, 1998)

Cooper and Fazio (1984) found that there were 4 conditions that were needed to be satisfied for dissonance: realising that inconsistency has negative effects, individuals have to take responsibility for their actions, experiencing physiological arousal, and attributing these feelings to actions.

Cooper and Fazio, 1984

Attachment styles are the way in which people act, think, and feel in the specific context of their relationship.

Define attachment styles

Construct validity is seeing if the measure is assessing the construct it intends to measure. There is convergent validity and discriminant validity.

Define construct validity

Darley and Latane (1968) studied the bystander effect. Participants were seated in rooms alone and communicated with another through an intercom. One of them was a confederate, who pretended to have a seizure, asked for help, and began to choke. The participant was made to believe that they were either alone, had one other participant with them, or 4 other participants with them. As the number of participants grew, the smaller the percentage of bystanders but the longer it took for a reaction. This could be because as the number of bystanders increases, people are less likely to notice the problem, interpret it as a problem, and assume responsibility.

Darley and Latane (1968) Bystanderism

Aggression is physical or verbal behaviour intended to hurt someone. This can be physically, socially, emotionally, and culturally.

Define aggression

Altruism is an action performed to benefit another person or group at the cost of the self or in-group.

Define altruism

An affectionate bond between two individuals which endures through space and time, and serves to join them together emotionally. This definition looks at qualia and is not quantifiable.

Define attachment emotionally (Klaus & kennel, 1976)

Attachment can be identified quantifiably as the tendency to bond that has critical survival and adaptation values. It acts to maintain nurturance, protection, and security, both psychologically and physically.

Define attachment quantifiably

De Dreu and de Vries (1996) studied the differential processing models of persuasion and found that although majority arguments caused more attitude change on the focal issue than minority influences, there was no effect found for attitudes toward related issues.

Differential Processing Models of Persuasion

Attachment styles have been found to differ between cultures. In Germany, avoidant is the most common, Israelic Kibbutz is anxious/ambivalent, and in Japan and Dogon of West Africa, there is no sign of avoidant attachment.

Do attachment styles differ between cultures?

Hartshorne and May (1928) looked at 11000 children for consistency in their "moral character" (e.g. altruism, self-control, honesty). They observed behaviour in various situations and found that children displayed little consistency between any two behaviours. This suggests that maybe personality traits may not exist. However, Mischel (1968) suggested that individual differences in behaviour depend on the specific situation, and conscientiousness depends very strongly on the situation (Mischel & Peak, 1982). This suggests we must instead look at cross-situational consistency when aggregating observations across many situations. For example, Jackson and Paunonen (1985) found in that study, the correlations between two sets of several behaviours became much higher.

Do personality trait exist?

LaPiere (1934) found that attitude does not predict behaviour. They looked at the relationship between racial attitudes and behaviour, specifically towards Chinese people. They asked drivers if they would serve a Chinese couple, to which 92% said no. However, the observed behaviour showed that they all served with courtesy.

Does attitude predict behaviour?

Expressive self-presentation (e.g. to act emotionally stable or unstable) in public can help people change their behaviour. Tice (1992) found that those who were emotionally stable were more responsive in private than public, whilst emotionally unstable people are more responsive in public than private. This may be because doing something in public is more impressionable on the self.

Does expressive self-presentation change behaviour?

Gender does not make much of a difference to susceptibility to social influence (Eagly, 1987). Milgram (1974) found that the same percentage of women as men obeyed.

Does gender make people more susceptible to social influence?

Generally, attachment styles are relatively stable throughout life time. A 20-year study showed that 72% kept the same attachment classification from infancy to adulthood (Waters et al, 2000). This is because internal working models are hard to change, as they are based on expectations and patterns. However, our classification can change with life experiences. Otherwise, stable attachment occurs when we are in stable family circumstances.

Does our attachment style change throughout our life?

Personality and individual differences have fairly weak connections with being influenced (Mischel, 1968). However, it was found that low self-esteem, high need for social support, need for self-control, low IQ, and high anxiety led to greater conformity. This may be related to the need for support or need for information.

Does personality and individual differences affect susceptibility to social influence?

Ekman and Friesen (1975) looked at the 6 basic/universal emotions. These are anger, sadness, disgust, surprise, fear, and happy. They specifically were studying how people express emotions across cultures, namely visually or via facial expressions. They investigated to see if people can decode emotions in the same way. They found that US university students and people in a Papua New Guinea tribe were all able to identify the same emotions correctly. These emotions were also foun in primates.

Ekman and Friesen (1975) Emotions

Elkins, Kins, McGue, and Iacono (2006) interviewed around 1000 17 year olds to determine their tobacco, alcohol, and drug use. At around 20 years old, 30% were nicotine-dependent, 30% were alcohol dependent, and 20% had a drug use disorder. They found that 17 year olds with substance use disorder had lower emotional stability and conscientious-related traits. These personality traits were also predictive for developing substance-use disorder by age of 20. Conscientiousness and emotional stability also predicted quitting smoking and drinking.

Elkins, Kins, McGue, and Iacono (2006)

Milgram's participants believed that they were giving shocks during the study. However, in post-experimental interview they found no ill effects and 83.7% said that they were glad to have taken part. This does not consider individuals that did not complete the experiment (had nervous breakdowns).

How did participants react to Milgram's experiment?

The lack of close relationships can lead to depression, loneliness, alienation, ostracism, anger, and aggression.

What can the lack of close relationships lead to?

Fantz (1960s) challenged he idea that neonates could only see lights, and that they could see patterns. The baby is rolled under a chamber and shown different stimuli. Where the baby looked was recorded. It was found that neonates have a pattern perception preference: faces, complex patterns, then finally plain stimuli.

Fantz (1960s)

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) had participants complete 1 hour of pointless tasks. Participants and those who were paid $29 stated that they did not like the task, whilst participants that were paid $1 said that they liked the story. This demonstrates that they felt cognitive dissonance, thus they have to change their attitude to avoid dissonance. This showed that cognitive dissonance requires to feel arousal or discomfort, and cognitive dissonance is stronger when people think they have freely chosen the behaviour when they have had bad consequences.

Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959

Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1950) asked 300 MIT dorm residents to list their closest friends. 41% of people living 1 door away were listed as being close friends, and as the number of doors increase, the chance of being a close friend decreased (4 doors away = 10%).

Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1950)

Friedman and Rosenman (1959) looked at people with type A and B personalities. Type A personalities are competitive, impatient, have excessive job involvement, are hostile, and rely on time urgency. Type B personalities are the opposite. Type A personalities have an increased probability of heart disease. Hostility was the most important aspect because it led to poorer health habits (e.g. less likely to take advice), more conflicts which lead to more stress for the self, receive less stress-reducing support from others, and have greater physiological reactions to stress, which include damage to blood vessels due to the increased heart rate and blood flow.

Friedman and Rosenman (1959), Heart Disease and personality

Friedman et al (1993) looked at if childhood personality predicted longevity. Personality of gifted 11 year olds during 1921-1922 were investigated and 60 later the looked at the records of who were alive and who were dead. They found that low conscientious people had a 35% greater chance of dying before 70. This could be because low conscientiousness and dependability was related to smoking/drinking, but it could not explain the link to early death (Friedman et al, 1995). Highly conscientious and depending people may handle stress better, have better social networks for support, and other health related behaviours. People higher in cheerfulness were also 35% more likely to die before 70 years old. This is not related to smoking or heavy drinking, but it may be because they are overoptimistic about health prospects.

Friedman et al (1993)

Funder, Kolar, and Blackman (1995) compared observer-reports from multiple unacquainted observers from different contexts and looked at the target-observer agreement in the Big Five personality traits between the target and parents, target and college friends, and target and hometown friends. The highest correlation was between target and parents, then target and college friends, and finally target and hometown friends. They also looked at the inter-observer agreement in the Big Five personality traits and found that generally when observers are in the same context, there will be a higher correlation.

Funder, Kolar, and Blackman (1995)

Ghim (1990) habituated 3-4 month old infants to a square, and then showed them illusory squares and other illusory shapes. They found that the infants looked less at illusory squares for they perceived the form. Rather, they were more interested in other shapes.

Ghim (1990)

A Dog's Got Personality (Gosling et al, 2003) looked at if personality exists and can be judged in dogs. It looked at internal consistency reliability, interrater reliability, and predictive validity. They found that there was strong human consensus and high predictive validity.

Gosling et al, 2003 (A Dog's Got Personality)

Wilhelm Wundt argued that individual consciousness was influenced by social customs and morals.

What did Wilhelm Wundt argue?

Harlow (1958) conducted a study with Rhesus Monkeys. Baby monkeys were taken away from their mother and the mother was either replaced with a human surrogate, material surrogate (cloth for comfort and wire for food), or no surrogate at all. Those with human surrogates showed attachment and behaved better than others. Those with material surrogates spent 18 hours with the cloth mother and less than 1 hour with the wire mother. This could be because the cloth appears to provide safety. Presence of the cloth mother in new environments decreased panic. The monkey would start off panicking and wanting as much physical contact with the cloth mother as possible. it would then explore, but continuously go back to the mother for comfort. On the other hand, the wired mother did not affect the monkey's mood even though they nursed him, providing little support for the Drive-Reduction explanation. Those that did not have living mothers cannot socialise or respond to sexual advances well due to the lack of socialisation during the critical period, which was by 3 months. This study indicates that attachment figures provide a balance for exploration and safety, whereby the caregiver becomes a safe base from which the child can explore.

Harlow (1958)

Hatfield et al (1966) asked people to compete personality and aptitude tests before being matched for a social dance. They also rated their physical attractiveness based on societal ideals. When participants rated their dance partner, they found that personality and aptitude were poor predictors for whether or not the individual liked someone, but instead only physical attractiveness mattered.

Hatfield et al (1966) interpersonal attraction

Heider (1958) came up with the Balance theory, which is about attitude consistency. If the belief, the individual, and the world are unbalanced, then they will contradict each other. Attitudes must be balanced to work as a whole (Gestalt psychology).

Heider (1958)

Heider and Simmel (1994) had participants watch a video of shapes moving out of boxes. Even though there was no dialogue and there were only objects, we see every movement as a goal.

Heider and Simmel (1994)

Conscientiousness is associated with self-discipline and impulse control. If one is high on this, then they are more likely to resist temptation. People with high neuroticism may be more likely to experience anxiety, moodiness, and irritability. This can lead to the temptation to use substances to control negative emotions.

How are certain personality traits associated with substance abuse?

Piaget and Inhelder (1956) found that children under 7 give egocentric responses. If someone is looking at a different side from them, they will say that the person opposite will only see what they see.

How are children egocentric?

Infants can be tested by processes that they do automatically, for example making faces, sucking on things, looking at things, and measuring their psychophysical changes.

How are infants tested?

Psychophysical changes in infants can be measured with EEGs, TMS, and galvanic skin response. With EEG, they found that infants have the same brain response when performing an act versus when watching someone perform it.

How are psychophysical changes measured in children?

Altruism can be reciprocated directly or indirectly because our groups or ourselves can benefit from being altruistic.

How can altruism be reciprocated and why?

Attachment can be measured with behaviours at separation and union.

How can attachment be measured? (Very general)

Attachment in adulthood can be measured with the Adult Attachment Interview (Main et al, 1985). During this, earliest relationships are discussed. The content is not measured, but rather how one speaks. The three categories are autonomous, dismissive, and preoccupied.

How can attachment in adulthood be measured?

Personality and longevity can be researched through longitudinal research design across decades and archival data. This must be studied in large scales and have a representative sample.

How can personality and longevity be investigated?

We can get a sense of belonging through social groups, social influences, group behaviours, and intergroup relations.

How can we get a sense of belonging?

We can reduce dissonance by changing attitudes to match the behaviour, reduce the importance of the dissonance, and reduce discomfort by self-affirmation.

How can we reduce cognitive dissonance?

Group dynamics are understood through improving intergroup relations, understanding and controlling aggression, and altruism and justice.

How can we understand group dynamics?

As people become older, they become more reluctant to seek help. Women and attractive people receive more help, and socially anxious people and people high in self-esteem receive less help.

What determines who is more likely to receive help?

Western cultures have a concept of preparing a room for a new baby, something that is not practiced in 90% of the world. Instead, the mother co-sleeps with the child. This is practiced in many Asian cultures. Studies in 1960s found that the North American norm of having separate bedrooms are not found elsewhere, making it a modern phenomenon. Burton and Whiting (1961) sampled 100 societies to find only American parents provide separate bedrooms for infants. Whiting (1964) sampled 136 societies and found 2/3 had shared bedrooms, and the majority of others shared rooms with the parent.

How do cultures differ in sleeping arrangements?

Face are markers of biological 'quality'. The average face is an average of all genes , which is evolutionary advantageous. It helps create more diverse gene pool stronger better mates, and more fertile

How do faces relate to attractiveness?

Relationships with siblings are important determinants of a child's peer relationship success. For example, Bowers et al (1994) found that school bullies are more likely to have had negative sibling relationships.

How do family relationships affect attachment and other relationships?

Positive feelings lead to positive evaluations, whilst negative feelings lead to negative evaluations (Byrne, 1977). This can be direct or indirect. For example, being around someone when something good happens increases the liking for that person. This is more long-lasting in new relationships.

How do feelings affect how we see others?

Genetic factors have been found to relate to attitude formation. Bouchard et al (2003) found that political conservatism seemed heritable. Inherited attitudes are more difficult to change (Crelia & Tesser, 1996) and are more important to people (Olsen et al, 2001).

How do genetic factors affect attitude formation?

Regardless of strength, a negative initial reaction will decrease liking with repeated exposure, whilst positive initial reactions will increase liking with repeated exposure (Swap, 1977).

How do positive and negative exposure affect close relationships?

Stereotypes can affect the way people process social information. For example, information from the environment may seem to confirm the stereotypes when it actually does not, suggesting that stereotypes shape how we perceive the world (Dunning and Sherman, 1997).

How do stereotypes affect cognition?

Messages that acknowledge counterarguments tend to be more successful. This is because it seems as if the persuader has conducted research and is confident in their answer.

How do two-sided messages affect the persuasive power?

We compare our selves to others for judgement with the social self (understanding the self), social perceiver (understanding social world), and social judge (attitudes, emotions, behaviour).

How do we compare our selves to others?

We identify ourselves with lists of traits and social identities, how we think about ourselves (naturally constantly redefine ourselves), the self is intrinsically social (helps us know how we should think, behave, and interact with others), and we naturally have a social relationship with ourselves (view selves from the outside and punish selves when done something wrong.

How do we identify ourselves?

We take other people's perspective and relate to them through communication, persuasion, and close relationships.

How do we take other people's perspective and relate to them?

In developmental psychology, time is referred to as years; months.days . Months however are either n-months-old or x to y months.

How do you refer to age in developmental psychology?

Moscovici states that majority influence (in the comparison paradigm) activates a social comparison process where the participant compares their own response to others. This causes them to conform to the normative response of the group, and any private acceptance will be short-lived.

How does Moscovici explain majority influence?

Moscovici explains minority influence has minorities evoking a validation process. The participant will try to understand why the minority holds said viewpoint consistently. Majority pressures may prevent this from being shown, thus causing there to be private acceptance but not public compliance.

How does Moscovici explain minority influence?

Late adolescents and young adults are the most susceptible to persuasive attempts because they have less stable attitudes and show less resistance towards authority (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). People are generally open to attitude change across their lifespan but core attitudes and values are resistant to change throughout (Visser & Krosnick, 1998).

How does age affect persuasive power?

Anticipation of future interactions increases liking and helps form positive relationships. For example, Darley and Berscheid (1967) gave female students vague information about 2 women, one of which was going to meet the students immediately after. They found that there was more liking towards the woman that they were going to interact with.

How does anticipation of future interaction affect interpersonal attraction?

Attitude strength and consistency may change with influence, such as alcohol.

How does attitude strength and consistency predict the attitude-behaviour link?

Generally if the source of persuasion is more attractive then the persuasive attempt is more successful. This is because they are more likeable, seem more trustworthy, and people want to be like them. It also helps if the source is emotive.

How does attractiveness of the source affect the power of it in persuasion?

Harlow (1958) reared infant monkeys in isolation or with surrogates. When reared in isolation, they were aggressive and could not be communicated or socialised with. However, if they were raised with surrogates, the monkeys would be timid, easily bullied, and have difficulty mating. They concluded that social deprivation caused inadequacy, but this could be reversed in the critical period. Bowlby (1969) also observed when infants and mothers were separated. After growing up, they were found to have bad social skills, even in adulthood.

How does bonding in early childhood affect attachment?

Botox treatment has also been found to cause people to express and detect emotions less, as it paralyses the motor neurons, which may be related to our emotinal expression.

How does botox relate to social cognition and emotions?

Although many aspects of attraction appear universal, people generally prefer to date within their own ethnic group (Liu et al, 1995). However, all cultures rated European Americans as the most attractive. Social factors such as family approval are also important determinant of attraction.

How does culture affect attraction and relationships?

Individualist and collectivist cultures have differences in perceptions of distinctiveness/uniqueness and interdependence. They also have different cultural values (Gardner et al, 1999). Researchers primed US participants with individualistic concepts and found that they endorsed individualist rather than collectivist values. However, those primed with collectivist values did the opposite. Bicultural people have to deal with different cultures which often have different values (Phinney et al, 1990). As a result, they integrate both cultures into their self-concept and use different cultural knowledge and values depending on the context.

How does culture and the self relate?

Day care can affect attachment. Belsky et al (2007) found that when children spend more than 20h per week at childcare, they are more likely to become insecurely attached. However, there are many limitation of this study. It assumes that the child is distressed when the main caregiver is not there, it was only studied in the US, and poor parental care can be overcome by good child care, suggesting quality matters.

How does day care affect attachment?

Factual persuasion appeals to more analytical people (Cacioppo et al, 1983), whilst evaluative persuasion appeal more to disengaged or disinterested people (Chaiken, 1980). This is also dependent on how the original attitude is acquired.

How does factual vs emotional appeal of the persuasive attempt affect the power of the persuasive attempt?

In the West, land was fertile, thus allowing individual farmers to support their own families. However, irrigation in the East was difficult, meaning it was necessary to work together in order to survive and feed their communities.

How does farming affect culture?

Fear arousal is often used in health campaigns as a persuasion technique, but it does not always work. This is because people become denial about the problem if the problem seems unsolvable (Aronson, 1997). It is optimal when it induces a moderate amount of fear (McGuire, 1969). This also works around the scarcity technique (Wochel et al,. 1975).

How does fear arousal of a message affect its persuasive power?

Asch (1995) found that groups of 3-6 elicited greater conformity than just 1 or 2 others being present. If more than 5 people were present, it makes no difference in conformity rates (Milgram, Bickman, & Berkowitz, 1969). Overall, the percentage of people conforming increases as group size increases, but will ultimately reach a plato.

How does group size affect conformity rates?

People may engage in disliked behaviour (e.g. smoking) because the habit is already engrained in our brain, even if we do not like the behaviour (Trafirmow, 2008).

How does habit predict the attitude-behaviour link?

Infant characteristics can affect attachment, for example infant temperament. Irritable/fearful infants might need more parental sensitivity, but also have more anxious mothers. There have been no evidence suggesting that such characteristics are heritable, although it appears that vulnerability could be passed through genes. Generally though, it has been found that parental attachment style and internal working model are similar to that of their offspring.

How does infant characteristic affect attachment?

Attitudes can be specific or general. If the level of specificity on the issue is the same, then the behaviour becomes hypocritical.

How does level of specificity predict the attitude-behaviour link?

The more likeable one is, the more successful the persuasive attempt. This distracts us from the main message and leads our focus towards the characteristics of the source (Chaiken & Eagly, 1983). This is demonstrated in people being favourable towards in-groups rather than out-groups. However, this only has significant effect in audio or visual persuasion and not when it is written. When persuasion is written, it is processed with the content. When persuading visually, people will focus on the body language and tone.

How does likeability of the source affect the power of it in persuasion?

Good feelings enhance positive thinking which can lead to impulsive decision-making. As a result, 'good mood' messages can be persuasive (Bodenhausen, 1993). When people are in a good mood, they will associate it to the message when they see it (Janis et al, 1965).

How does mood affect persuasive power?

Ainsworth (1967) found that Garda infants of Uganda sit, walk, and crawl earlier than Western babies. They were able to stand at 7 months and take independent steps at 9 months (Kilbride & Kilbride, 1975). This early development is believed to have been achieved through certain practices that stimulate muscles, for example wanting the baby to walk earlier in life and thus actively moving the child's legs around. Ainsworth (1967) also reported that Garda infants had an earlier development of language, social behaviour, and prehension (grasping).

How does motor development differ in different cultures.

Mutual liking affects whether one likes the other. This includes the perception of someone liking them. Dittes ad Kelley (1956) placed people into discussion groups and told them that the group members either liked or disliked them. If they were told that they were liked, then they were more attracted to the group. This can be related back to the self-fulfilling prophecy.

How does mutual liking affect relationships?

Parental stress/socioeconomic status (SES) can affect attachment because it can affect depression levels and cause unpredictable childcare arrangements. Lower SES may be related to lower consistency of good childcare. Stress/SES also affects parental sensitivity.

How does parental stress/socioeconomic status affect attachment?

Perceived experts and competent people are more persuasive than those lacking credibility (Chaiken & Maheswaran, 1994). Recent exposure to a non-credible message increases susceptibility to a trustworthy persuasive source (Tormala & Clarkson, 2007), but the sleeper could take place over time if the source is forgotten, thus making source credibility less important (Pratkanis et al, 1988).

How does perceived credibility of the sources affect the power of the persuasive attempt?

All theories of the self argue that we compare ourselves to some 'standard'.

What do all theories of the self have in common?

People may have a need for cognition (NFC) (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) or a need for cognitive closure (NFCC) (Kruglanski et al, 1993). NFC is the extent to which someone derives fulfilment and enjoyment form thinking about others, and NFCC refers to the extent to which a person is close-minded, desiring quick and/or certain answer to questions, and is resistant to ambiguity or disconfirmation.

How does personality and individual differences affect persuasive power?

Western philosophy focuses explanations of the world around the object and its properties, whilst in the East the focus is placed on a field of forces. This allowed them to understand concepts such as tidal flows and magnetism long before Western thinkers did.

How does philosophy affect culture?

Asch (1946) found that information presented first is the most persuasive. People tend to favour arguments that are presented first and often choose the first choice they see in relation to everyday product choices. This is more common if the first set of information stimulates thinking (Haugtvedt & Wegener, 1994), for it forms a strong first impression that is difficult to change.

How does primacy affect persuasive power?

Some people may not want to show conformity because they like consistency, even if the change is good.

How does prior commitment affect conformity rates?

Attitudes are more salient by looking at the self in the mirror or webcam (Diener & Wallborn, 1976). This is because people become more aware of themselves and it reminds them of their values.

How does private self-consciousness predict the attitude-behaviour link?

Information presented last can sometimes be the most persuasive for people will forget what was presented to them first, especially if there is a delay between the sets of information (Miller & Campbell, 1959). This is more likely to be persuasive if they are asked to make a decision immediately after being told the last set of information.

How does recency affect persuasive power?

Repeated exposure is likely to increase liking. Moreland and Beach (1992) found that liking increased as they visited more classes in the term. Mehrabian and Piercy (1993) also found that names were associated with positive and negative experiences, such as baby anames and media, sports, and history.

How does repeated exposure affect interpersonal attraction?

Advertisements are most effective when exposed to the target 2-3 times a week (Tellis, 1987). However, if the target is already familiar with the object being advertised and they initially had a positive reaction, the effect can wear out after repeated exposure.

How does repetition of a message affect its persuasive power?

Self-esteem protects from the terror of death because people with high self-esteem are less affected by mortality salience manipulation (Harmon-Jones et al, 1997).

How does self-esteem protect from the terror of death?

It has been found that people generally have similar attitudes, interest, and values with the person they have a relationship with. Galton (1870/1952) found that wives and husbands have attitudes that are more similar than would occur by chance, and Newcomb (1956, 1961) found that university students rated that peers with similar attitudes and values were more attractive. It is evolutionary advantageous to be similar to others, for dissimilarity may present danger to survival. For example, similar upbringings could mean similar skills and diseases. Self-disclosure to similar people also builds trust and rapport, and mutual self-disclosure increases intimacy and attraction. People with similar geographical backgrounds are more likely to form friendships (Newcomb, 1961). This also applies to having similar names.

How does similarity of attitudes, interests, and values affect relationships?

The more similar the persuader seems to be to the target, the more successful the attempt (Haslam, McGarty, & Turner, 1996). This is because the target becomes more comfortable with the persuader. People can also be influenced by members of their own group, but the strength of the message still matters (Mackie, Worth, & Asuncion, 1990). People who act in a similar way are also more persuasive (Van Baaren et al, 2003).

How does similarity of the source affect the power of it in persuasion?

High status people have more impact than low status people (Driskell & Mullen, 1990), and lower status people are more likely to conform. Milgram (1974) found that blue-collar workers were most influenced by professionals.

How does status affect conformity rates?

Generally, visual and face-to-face persuasion are the most persuasive, as demonstrated with TV adverts on US presidential campaigns (Grush, 1980). However, if the information is complex, then the written form is more effective (Chaiken & Eagly, 1976).

How does the channel of the message affect the persuasive power?

If the message is too distant from the target's attitude, it is likely to be ignored or reacted against (Lord et al, 1979). Just because people see both sides of the argument, it does not mean they will be impartial. this is because they have their own bias which will cause them to react against things that challenge their own opinions.

How does the consistency of the message (in relation to the target) affect its persuasive power?

It is more persuasive when the framing of the message emphasises gain rather than something negative. (Bosveld et al, 1997). This is because people will associate it differently.

How does the framing of the message affect the persuasive power?

Longer messages are more effective if they are strong, but less effective if they are weak (Petty and Cacioppo, 1984). Long weak messages are less impactful than short strong messages (Friedrich et al, 1966).

How does the length of the message affect its persuasive power?

Distractions decrease the ability to form counterarguments, and makes people more persuaded by peripheral cues and weak arguments.

How does the persuasive target's ability to focus determine which information processing route they will take?

As the target's involvement in a topic increases, so doe their motivation to engage in central/systematic processing. This can be affected by NFC and mood.

How does the persuasive target's motivation to process determine which information processing route they will take?

Katz (1960) stated that there are four functions of attitudes: the knowledge function, utilitarian function, value expressive function, and ego defensive function.

What did Katz (1960) say were the different functions of attitudes?

Regan et al (1972) looked at how the power of the situations would affect altruism. Females shoppers were approached by a male who asked them to take his photo. The camera did not work and half the participants were told it was their fault. These participants later saw someone struggling with a broken bag. It was found that participants who were blamed for the camera not working helped much more. This could be because people help others to make themselves feel better.

How does the power of the situation affect altruism?

Nisbett, Masuda, et al proposed that thinking in the West is analytical, whilst in the East it is holistic. The West focuses on salient objects and organises the environment according to categorical rules. In the East, interest is shown in contextual information, and they will utilise perceptual similarities when organising the visual world. In an object-matching task, Asians will match things that are more perceptually similar, whilst Europeans will match with shared characteristics.

How does thinking In the West and East differ?

The attitude-behaviour link depends on multiple observations, thus time frame is important. We will consider situational factors and how often we do this activity per day rather than per year.

How does time frame predict the attitude-behaviour link?

People are more persuaded when the source seems trustworthy, and people are deemed more trustworthy if they speak fast (Miller et al, 1967).

How does trustworthiness of the source affect the power of the persuasive attempt?

Asch (1955) found that it was difficult to dissect if a group was unanimous. However, if someone dissents, conformity only occurs one quarter times as often. Allen (1975) used Asch's paradigm and replaced one of the confederates with a dissenter participant and found conformity reduced drastically. This could be attributed to cohesion, for we want to belong to cohesive groups. It could also be attributed to the increase social support and sharing an isolated viewpoint.

How does unanimity affect conformity rates?

Adorno et al (1950) found that hostility towards Jewish people often coexists with hostility towards other minorities. People that exhibit prejudice have also been found to share authoritarian tendencies.

How is Authoritarianism related to prejudice?

Marxist theory states that different classes have different conflicting interests, an class conflict stems from the ruling class exploiting the working class. This unequal class system is preserved by false consciousness/ideologies to keep people in their place. Class consciousness occurs when people become aware.

How is Marxist theory linked to prejudice?

Aggression is measured by first provoking the participant and then giving them a chance to retaliate.

How is aggression measured?

New-borns are able and will follow stimuli that are face-like. When looking at a stimulus that has all the components of a face but scrambled, they are still more likely to follow the face-like stimulus than others. This occurs even with the most simple stimulus, suggesting that facial recognition is innate.

How is behaviour in infants measured with looking?

People with lower self-esteem are more prone to antisocial acts (e.g. Kirschner, 1992)

How is self-esteem and aggression linked?

Narcissists tend to have extremely high but insecure levels of self-esteem. They can become aggressive in the face of criticism (Baumeister et al, 1996).

How is self-esteem and narcissism linked?

Masuda and Nisbett (2001) showed 20sec vignettes to American Japanese adults and they had to describe what they saw. Sentences were coded for the first mention of the focal object or field. They found that Americans would focus on the object, and the Japanese the field. The Japanese also made 2 times more comments on the relationship between the object and field. They were also given a memory task. They showed the fish in the video with the original background, no background, or novel background. Americans were unaffected by the context change, thus were more likely to recognise the fish despite the background. The Japanese made more errors when context changed, for they naturally matched the object with the background.

Masuda and Nisbett (2001)

Murder rates around the globe differ, indicating that biological influences are not the only cause for aggression.

Is aggression purely based on biology?

It has been found that cognitive dissonance is also present in animals and across cultures.

Is cognitive dissonance the same across cultures and in animals?

It is less likely for minorities to lead to normative influence because of the lack of normative pressure from the majority. Instead, they must rely on informational influence.

Is minority influence more reliant on normative influence or informational influence?

Development of perspective-taking is not simple, for even adults can fail, especially in difficult situations. This is because we are egocentric, despite knowing people have different attitudes. We have had to learn that others have different goals/perspectives/attitudes, rather than knowing instinctively. We naturally become suspicious of those with different attitudes. We have actively understand people.

Is perspective-taking instinctive?

Kellman and Spelke (1983) habituated 4-months-old infants with a rod moving behind a box. They found that the infants looked longer at the broken rod, for the perceive the whole rod in habituation.

Kellman and Spelke (1983)

Kitayama et al (2003) showed a frame with a line inside a box to Americans and Japanese and had them redraw it in a smaller frame. They either had to draw it absolute (line matches original length) or relative (look like original drawing). The Japanese did better in relative tasks whilst the Americans the absolute task. This demonstrated that encoding is different for each group.

Kitayama et al (2003)

Kolar, Funder, and Colvin (1996) compared whether others knew the self better or if it was the other way around. Both self- and observer reports showed validity for predicting behaviour, but single observer reports were slightly better. Accuracy also increased when averaging across observers. This could be due to gaps in self-knowledge (Vazine, 2010), which are blind spots due to a lack or overload of information and biases in self-perception.

Kolar, Funder, and Colvin (1996)

Animal studies are a good way to investigate aggression. Lagerspetz (1979) bred a race of warrior mice and pacifist mice over 26 generations. This was done by breeding the most peaceful mice together and the most aggressive mice together. They found that warrior mice was extremely aggressive and the pacifist mice would not hurt each other.

Lagerspetz (1979) animal studies and aggression

Latane and Darley pumped smoke into a room whilst people were completing a questionnaire. The participants either completed the questionnaire alone, with 2 participants, or 2 passive confederates. The alone condition had the highest percentage that reported smoking, and the condition with confederates had the lowest percentage.

Latane and Darley (1968) Pluralistic ignorance

Lee, Ashton, et al (2009) studied the similarity and assumed similarity between well-acquainted students for the HEXACO factors. It was found that despite actual similarity being low, the assumed similarity was much higher for openness and honesty-humility. For other factors, there was no strong tendency to be similar or different, and there was no "perceived dissimilarity". They also found that there was high self-observer agreement for all 6 personality factors.

Lee, Ashton, et al (2009)

Liszkowski, Carpenter, and Tomasello (2008) found that if a researcher actively places both items down the slide, the child would be confused about which object to retrieve. However, if the researcher 'knocks down' one object, then the child would ravel towards the 'knocked-down' object.

Lizkowski, Carpenter, and Tomasello (2008)

Konrad Lorenz found that geese would follow the first moving object they saw. In his experiment, it was him. He also found that they are more likely to trust the attachment figure's food.

Lorenz and imprinting

Markus (1977) found that participants who wer self-schematic on independence or dependence were able to identify words associated with their schemas more quickly. There were also more able to recall experiences that demonstrated their schemas. On the other hand, aschematic individuals had a similar response time to both adjective types.

Markus (1977)

Masuda and Nisbett (2006) showed photos where there was either a focal change or contextual change. There was insignificant time difference for reaction towards focal change, but American participants did much worse than Japanese participants when detecting contextual information. Americans detected more focal changes, and the Japanese detected more contextual changes, suggesting that each group has culture specific scenes. This is also demonstrated in taking photos.

Masuda and Nisbett (2006)

McCrae et al looked at romantic relationships in 4 different cultures. They specifically examined whether husbands with high extraversion scores have wives with high extraversion scores. Personality traits of both were measured and the correlation between self- and observer reports were calculated. They found a positive but very small correlation between the husband's and wife's personality trait levels. The highest correlation found was with openness.

McCrae et al, romantic relationships (do opposites attract)

Meitzoff (1995) had a researcher's hand slide off a pen lid and looked at if children will interpret it as a failed attempt or that it is just sliding off. 18-months-old would pull the lid off when handed the pen, suggesting they interpret actions as goals, will appreciate failed goals, and we will help complete the goal. However, if the researcher is replaced with a machine, the child will not copy. The child will only copy if the conductor is animate.

Meitzoff (1995)

Metsapelto and Pulkkinen (2003) looked at the parent's personalities at age 33 and parenting styles at age 36. They measured nurturance, restrictiveness, and knowledge of the child's activities, friends, and so on. Nurturance is being affectionate and supportive, and it was found to be associated with high openness and extraversion, but the correlation is not strong. Restrictiveness refers to demanding obedience and being punitive, and it correlated negatively with openness and extraversion. Knowledge of a child's activities, friends, and so on is useful to investigate for we want to know what the parents knows of the child as an individual, not as an ideal.

Metsapelto and Pulkkinen (2003)

Milgram (1965, 1974) studied obedience. He was interested in explaining why people perform atrocities. Participants were told to teach another person a series of paired words and test their memory. Errors were punished with electrical shocks. The learner was the confederate that was trained on how to respond and did not actually receive shocks. They had a schedule of pre-determined responses so that every teacher would hear the same. The teacher was given mild shock samples, and the teacher saw that the learner was strapped to a chair and had an electrode attached to the wrist. The teacher hears that the paste being put on prevents blistering and burning, and that despite the learner complaining about their heart condition and that the shocks being painful it would not cause permanent tissue damage. The teacher had to move high higher levels of shock each time the learner made a mistake or did not respond. The voltage ranged from 15V (slight shock) to 450V (XXX), and the learner stopped responding at 300V. If the teacher wishes to stop, the experimenter will tell the teacher to continue. It was predicted that only 10% would exceed 110V and no one would obey until the end. However, it was found that obedience decreased as shock levels increased, and 63% went up to and beyond 450V. In the condition which the learner could not be seen or heard except for pounding on the wall at 300V and 315V, 65% went to the end. Other findings also included that obedience dropped when the experimenter was more distance (21%), and when no instructions were given, 2.5% persisted until the end. If the teacher can't see or hear the learner, there was almost 100% obedience. Obedience dropped as the learner became closer. In the touch condition, where the participant had to place the learner's hand onto the electrode to activate the shock, obedience was greatly reduced but still went to 30%. Group pressure also affected obedience rates. Two disobedient peers (confederates) reduced complete obedience to 10%, whilst two obedient peers raised complete obedience to 93%. Replications found similar results across the studies. Women and men had the same rates but cross-cultural differences were found.

Milgram (1965, 1974)

Pendry and MacRae (1994) told participants that they would either be working alone (outcome independent) or with an elderly person (outcome dependent) to earn a prize. Outcome dependent individuals ascribed less stereotypical traits to the elderly but only when they are not cognitively busy. It is applied when they are more cognitively busy, such as when they have to recite numbers.

Pendry and MacRae (1994)

Dutton and Apron (1974) had male participants compete a questionnaire, and then cross a shaky/stable bridge to pass it onto a male/female experimenter. It was found that they were more attracted to the female experimenter when put in the arousing situation of crossing a shaky bridge. This is because the arousal felt by crossing the shaky bridge was transferred to the female, resulting in more attraction. This is known as the excitation transfer, when arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal of another.

Physiological Arousal and attraction

Steven Pinker (2011) argued that we are in the least violent era of history and prehistory. This could be related to rights and civilisation. However, it has also been argued that we are evolved to not only be aggressive but have empathy, and our civilisation is getting better at fostering this prosocial side of character. For example, rates of death have dropped and rates of writing on rights and empathetic concern for people of a lower social status have risen. However, empathy and aggression ahve a very weak correlation, for empathy does not have a huge effect on inhibiting aggression.

Pinker (2011) Aggression

Moscovici (1976) investigated minority influence and suggested that the influence of minorities cannot be accounted for by the same principles that explain majority influence. This is because they are few, have no control, and have less access to information. Instead, minority impact depends on their own behavioural style, which is being clear and consistent.

Moscovici (1976)

Persuasive techniques include ingratiation, reciprocity principle, door-in-the-face technique, that's-not-all technique, foot-in-the-door technique, and low-balling.

Name examples of persuasive techniques

Women exposed to benevolent statements believe that society is fairer (Jost & Kay, 2005), benevolent sexists re more likely to want to restrict pregnant women's freedom (Sutton et al, 2011), and benevolent sexists are more likely to blame ate rape victims (Viki & Adams, 2002)

Negatives of benevolent sexism

Newcomb, Bukowski, and Pattee (1993) conducted a meta-analysis of studies regarding personality characteristics and social relationships. They found differences between children in the extent to which they were liked and disliked by their peers. "Average" children fell in the middle of the scale. Popular children, those that are liked by many and disliked by few, were low in aggression and high in sociability. Rejected children are those disliked by many and liked by few. They are high in aggression and low in sociability, which may be because they do not put self in social situations and they are trusted less thus are liked less. Neglected children are disliked and liked by few, and they are low in aggression and sociability Controversial children are liked and disliked by many, and they are high in aggression and sociability.

Newcomb, Bukowski, an Pattee (1993)

Noftle and Shaver (2006) looked at self-report measures of Big Five and adult attachment styles in 2 student samples. They found that anxious attachment was related to low emotional stability and low conscientiousness. Avoidant attachment was only weakly related to personality.

Noftle and Shaver (2006)

Overall, personality must be distinctive, comprehensive, latently present (exists naturally within the person), consistent, and stable.

Overall, what must personality be?

Poropat (2009) conducted a meta-analysis of over 100 studies and found the correlation between conscientiousness and grade point average was .25. There was similar findings across different levels of education. This could be because self-discipline, organization, and diligence leads to greater effort, efficiency, and attention to detail in completing work. At elementary school level, these also has positive associations with agreeableness, emotional stability, extraversion, and openness to experience.

Prorpat, 2009 (Academic performance and personality)

Regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997, 1998) builds on self-discrepancy theory and suggests that people have two distinct regulatory systems: promotion and prevention. Promotion is approach orientated in constructing the self, and prevention is cautious and avoidant in doing so. Individual differences, mood, and context can affect which system people take. If people are confronted with loss then prevention is used, but if confronted with win then promotion is used. Friedman and Forster (2001) found that if the promotion approach is used, then it increase creativity regardless of the mood. This is because one is more open and therefore will want to try more.

Regulatory Focus Theory (Higgins, 1997, 1998)

Repacholi and Gopnick (1997) showed a child the option of biscuits or broccoli. The child will prefer the biscuit and offer it to the researcher. The researcher will express distress when eating the biscuit and show preference towards the broccoli. When the researcher asks for something, the child will give the researcher the broccoli. This shows that children understand desires and that others may have a different attitude than them on the same issue.

Repacholi and Gopnick (1997)

Beliefs and attitudes are focused on a particular domain or object rather than a general style of behaving, thinking, and/or feeling.

What do beliefs and attitudes focus on?

Segall et al (1966) used to Miller-Lyer Illusion to assess a range of populations with a variety of basic illusions that are "known" to be universally perceived. Line A was adjusted until it appeared to look like line B, and they found that perception of line length can be affected by many factors. People with longer points of subjective equality (PSE) were less likely to perceive the illusion (think that it is real), and there were differences between cultures. This even applies to children, demonstrating that children express cultural bias. It was suggested that exposure to elements such as 'carpentered corners' found frequently in modern environments perpetuate this illusion, for 'carpentered corners' are not found in nature, thus they are not factored into perception when not living with it. Corners are not part of evolutionary history but rather incorporated over-time. Thie suggests that illusion is a culturally evolved by-product.

Segall et al (1966) Miller-Lyer Illusion

The Self-Other Knowledge Asymmetry model (SOKA-model) (Vazire, 2010) looks at the observability and evaluativeness of our traits. "Internal" traits have low observability and are primarily thoughts and feelings, making ourselves more accurate than others about these traits.. "External traits have high observability and are primarily overt behaviours, meaning others are more accurate than selves on said traits. Traits that are highly evaluative lead to more biases in self-reports, ultimately making others more accurate then selves. This is because they are not interpreting the behaviour in a biased manner. This is supported by Vazire (2010).

Self-Other Knowledge Asymmetry model (SOKA-model, Vazire, 2010)

Self-discrepancy theory (HIggins, 1987) focuses on the awareness of discrepancies between the actual self and perceived and ought self. It consists of the actual self (how the person sees the self at the present time), ideal self (how the person would like to see themselves), and ought self (how a person thinks they ought to be). Discrepancies lead to psychological discomfort, for example discrepancies between the actual and ideal self leads to sadness and disappointment, and discrepancies between the actual and ought self leads to annoyance and frustration. This could lead to self-regulation, which is attempting to match behaviour with the ideal/ought self.

Self-discrepancie theory (Higgins, 1987)

Social comparison (Festinger, 1954) is when we evaluate the validity of our own attitudes and beliefs by comparing it to others. When a belief is shared, it suggest that the belief has some basis and it makes us feel good. Similar personalities, interpersonal skills, and communication skills are more compatible.

Social comparison (Festinger, 1954)

Items in personality inventories refer to situations.

What do items in personality inventories refer to?

The self-evaluation maintenance model (Tesser, 1988) is the ability to maintain self-esteem when making upward comparison. This is by exaggerating the abilities of the 'better' person to 'know' that the standard is too unachievable, downwardly socially comparing the self with another, avoiding the comparison person, and devaluing the dimension on which the other person is better. This approach is not always adopted.

Self-evaluation maintenance model (Tesser, 1988)

Sherif (1935, 1937) studied informational influence on conformity. He was interested in the emergence of social norms and whether we use others as a reference. Participants were seated in the dark and asked to observe a pinpoint of light. Due to the autokinetic effect, the eyes vibrate causing the light to appear to move. The light then disappears and participants were asked to estimate how much the light moved. This was then repeated but the participants were told the estimates of two other participants. It was found that a group norm emerged over time, and that even after separating participants from the group the group norm still persists, showing that participants rely on the group norm when giving responses individually. Overall, an ambiguous stimulus led to an internal frame of reference. Due to the differential judgements of others, the frame of reference was questioned and abandoned, thus forming a new joint frame of reference. This study is supported by Jacobs and Campbell (1961) who repeated the same experiment abut with one naive participant and he rest as confederates. This was to see if a majority could influence the participant's decision. They found that the group norm persisted.

Sheif (1935, 1937)

Sherif (1954, 1958, 1961) had 11 year old boys that were unknown to each other as participants. Groups were divided into Eagles and Rattlers and they did not see the other group. They were then placed into intergroup competition and one group regardless of ability. there was then intergroup reconciliation, during which they had to fix the conflict. Contact and superordinate goals (goals that both groups need to achieve) reduced conflict, and the introduction of superordinate goals reduced ethnocentrism.

Sherif, 1954, 958, 96

Social Impact Theory (Latane) proposes that the amount influence a person experiences in group settings depend on strength of the group (power or social status), immediacy of the group (physical or psychological distance), and the number of people in the group exerting social influence.

Social Impact Theory

Plato believed in the innate knowledge of infants, whilst Aristotle believed that nurture was more important. However, they both believed that he welfare of society was dependent on raising children well.

What did Plato and Aristotle believe about infants?

Tajfel et al (1970) studied minimal group paradigm. British school boys of the same school and age were asked to judge unfamiliar paintings and were then randomly assigned to an artist. They were then told to allocate point to two boys, one from each group. It was found that generally they would assign in favour to in groups, even if it means losing money. This suggests that people strive to maintain superiority of heir own group. Other characteristics found also include fairness, maximum joint profit, and favouritism.

Tajfel et al (1970)

It has been found that Americans are highly individualistic, and students are more individualistic than non-educated individuals. There is also weaker conformity motivations among non-college educated Americans, which is similar to East Asian samples. Working-class Americans are more interdependent and holistic than middle-class. US students have been found to have more favourable views of other groups in society than others, for the exhibit positive views of racial diversity and mask negative intergroup attitudes. A meta-analysis comparing college and non-college students found differences in attitudes, gender, perception, and social desirability.

Talk about Americans, cultures within America, and behaviour

Piaget believed that peers have a greater influence than adults on cognitive development, and that disagreements within peers cause sociocognitive conflict, which motivates change. However, Vygotsky thought that adults/older children have greatest influence than peers, for children learn most when they are working within their ZPD. Ames and Murray (1982) studied 6-7 year olds who failed the pre-test conservation task. These children when paired with others who had different wrong answers, and they were split into two conditions. This was to either listen to the other child's response with the other and agree on an answer. Those who discussed showed the most improvement in conservation post-tests.

Talk about Piaget, Vygotsky, and adult and peer influences

Piaget argued that culture has minimal influence on cognitive development, whilst Vygotsky stated that culture has massive influence on cognitive development. Dasen (1977) argued that children in some non-Western cultures consistently performed differently on Piagetian tasks, and Price-Williams et al (1969) found that Mexican children from pottery-making families pass conservation tasks earlier than European children.

Talk about Piaget, Vygotsky, and the influence of culture

Piaget argued that cognitive development is largely independent of language, whilst Vygotsky stated that langauge is critical for cognitive development. Balamore and Wozniak (1984) found that 3 and 4 year olds performed better in tasks when used private speech, compared to children who did not use private speech.

Talk about Piaget, Vygotsky, and the relation between language and thought

Vygotsky's theory placed great emphasis on culture and society. he was very interested in the relation between language and thinking, and saw culture and social organisations as having an important influence on development of children's minds. Children were seen to be social beings that were shaped by their cultural contexts, and they are both learners and teachers. He believed that cognitive change originates in social interaction. Key ideas in Vygotsky's theory include social constructivism, elementary and higher cognitive functions, social origins of thinking, internalisation, private speech and inner speech, zone of proximal development, and scaffolding.

Talk about Vygotsky and developmental psychology

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the distance between the actual development level and level of potential development (Vygotsky, 1978). The actual development level is determined by independent problem solving, meaning the child can complete it successfully without assistance. The level of potential development is determined through problem solving with adult guidance or in collaboration with more able peers. These are tasks that a child can't accomplish even with considerable assistance and support. The ZPD is in between, and involves tasks that a child can accomplish only with some assistance and support.

Talk about ZPD and Vygotsky's theory

Ageism is being prejudice against people with older ages. levy et al (2009) had participants compete the ageism scale and found that 25% who endorsed ageist stereotypes had a cardiovascular event within 30 years (compared to 13%). This could be a result of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) flashed primers on a screen (elderly stereotype) and found that those who saw the elderly primer walked more slowly down the corridor than the control.

Talk about ageism

In sports games, people are more likely to be aggressive when their team has lost because they could not achieve a goal (frustration-aggression hypothesis), or more likely be aggressive when the team has won because they saw that the team's aggression was rewarded (SLT). However, studies have shown that regardless of the outcome, aggression is increased. This may be because aggression was correlated with the intention to go out drinking, rather than happiness. Cultures with more aggressive sports are generally more violent, and people who play combative sports are also more aggressive off the field. When players wear black uniform or coloured stripes, they tend to be more aggressive.

Talk about aggression and sports

The "warrior gene" is MAOA on the X-chromosome (Gibbons, 2004). This has been linked to low serotonin levels. Bradley Waldroup was a murderer that had MAOA, which was used as a defence for aggression. MAOA may interact with environmental triggers to produce aggression and psychopath. However, Caspi et al (2002) suggested that it may perhaps be only among whites, for the heritage is based in western/northern Europe. Nonetheless, only 34% of white people have the gene, and they are not violent. It might be better to look at the Y-chromosome, for statistics suggest that 85% of serious violent crimes are committed by men.

Talk about aggression and the "warrior gene"

Alcohol is preferred by people who are violent when they are sober, and people are more likely to become aggressive when they are intoxicated. It has been found in the bloodstreams of offenders in 50% of rapes and violent crimes and in the bloodstreams of victims and/or offenders in 65% of offenders. Alcohol reduces self-awareness and the ability to consider consequences, and it interacts with testosterone among mice and men (deBold & Miczek, 1985). Alcohol is also a social idea, which could attribute to aggression. Begue et al (2009) had fake alcohol which produced powerful placebo effects, for people became more aggressive. This could be partly due to alcohol-related expectencies, as people who have that cognitive association are more prone to this. It was also found that showing alcoholic imagery to even kids increases their aggression in laboratory tasks.

Talk about alcohol and aggression

Anxious/ambivalent attachment styles have inconsistent caregivers. The individual is anxious and worried about reciprocation.

Talk about anxious/ambivalent attachment styles

Average faces are considered to be the most attractive across most cultures (the averageness effect), although there are wide variations. Prototypical faces are more attractive than real faces because they come closer to the mental prototype of a face and therefore more familiar and easier to process. This is also affected by perceptual fluency, which is when something is more easily processed, the more liked it is.

Talk about average faces and attractiveness

Avoident attachment styles have a distant caregiver. The individual finds intimacy difficult for the fear of rejection.

Talk about avoident attachment styles

Some evidence suggests that testosterone facilitates aggression. Chronically high testosterone individuals may be more aggressive, report feeling more restless and tense, and more likely to be in prison for unprovoked violent crime. However, studies have supported the null hypothesis. Serotonin levels have also been related to aggression, for it seems to suppress aggression (Berman et al, 2009). Male participants who reported high aggression levels were given either placebo or paroxetine, a drug that activates serotonin. They then provoked participants, and the control group was much more aggressive, whilst paroxetine participants' aggression levels stayed the same.

Talk about biochemical influences and aggression

Biodata is looking at one's life outcome data, which are records of a person's life relevant to an individual's personality. This includes phone bills, speeding tickets, and grade point averages. These are objective behavioural indicators, but it is unclear what information is relevant or accurate as indicators for traits of interest.

Talk about biodata and measuring personality

Collective action from other groups such as use of in group privileges to campaign can be altruistic because it does not necessarily benefit the self but will massively benefit others. Mallet et al (2008) found that such altruistic action is associated with perspective taking, empathy, and guilt about in groups historical actions.

Talk about collective action from other groups and altruism

Consent is a big issue with children, for they may not understand it and often the parent will give consent for the child. They must have adequate information (e.g. understands and can ask more questions), have the capacity to consent (under 16's and fail the mental capacity act can't), be free from coercion (e.g. social circumstances, payments), be able to withdraw or modify consent, and be able to ask for destruction of their contribution by ability to end study, having ability to contact researcher after the study, and the consent is ongoing.

Talk about consent in developmental psychology

Cross et al (1997) found that 94% of Americans rated themselves to be better than the average academic. However, in Mexico and Chie there are negated above-average effects, for they reversed it. They see others as above average and the self as below.

Talk about culture and above-average effects

The perception of colour corresponds to the colour terms of the speakers language. This causes equally spaced colours to be judged unequally by different language speakers. The Himba of Namibia do not distinguish or show evidence of discrimination between blue-green, suggesting they see it as one colour. However, they do distinguish between colour boundaries that English speakers do not. Such results have also been found in toddlers, suggesting that people remember colours in different ways. This has also been applied to the Berinmo of Papua New Guinea, whom only have 5 colour terms in their language. They found that colours appeared more similar to the Berinmo than English speakers and within-category discrimination was harder to perform. This theory is not fully understood or accepted.

Talk about culture and perception of colour

English speakers have been found to typically use egocentric references, whilst most languages use allosteric language. 4-year-old and primates appear to use allosteric reasoning, and 8-years-old acquiring an egocentric language will shift to an egocentric bias.

Talk about culture and spatial coding

Asch and Milgram found that attitudes fail to determine behaviour when external influences override them. Asch found that participants were correct on their own but not in groups, and Milgram found that the power of the experimenter was often stronger than the participant's wishes (many were visually distressed).

What did Asch and MIlgram find?

Direct observations are directly observing a person's behaviour. Frequency and intensity indicates certain traits, and it can be observed in a natural habitat or artificial setting. This is extremely informative but also time-consuming, expensive, and is a lot of effort. It does however use an unbiased observer, meaning the results would be objective.

Talk about direct observations and measuring personality

Donations are altruistic because generally the person acting will not see the outcome. It was found that lower income workers would tend to give more to charity. Callan et al (2016) also found that high subjective social status leads to feeling less deprived, which is associated with more giving. However, when personal relative deprivation is controlled for, a negative relationship between subjective social status and giving was found. This may be because one must be comfortable with their own condition before parting with their resources to help others.

Talk about donations and altruism

Freud suggested that the death instinct is born out of frustration. Lorenz (1976) suggested that humans have aggressive energy, which is a biologically adaptive energy that continually builds up and eventually needs to be released. This combined ideas from Freud and Darwin and had a similar conclusion to Hobbes that aggression is inevitable. However, this is difficult to test and cartharsis does not actually work (supported by many theories).

Talk about early theories of biological causes of aggression

Eye-tracking can be used to tell where the baby is looking at and what they want to focus on the most. Generally, the bigger the circle, the more attention the child has placed onto that area. It has been found that they are generally most attracted to the face first, and then they look at the surrounding objects. If the face is inverted, then they will look at the inverted face longer and the object less. This is an automatic response for 6-months-old. This could be because many adults show inverted faces, such as in cribs, cars, and bed.

Talk about eye-tracking and measuring an infant's behaviour

Many studies suggest that male lecturers in universities are evaluated more positively by students than female lecturers, which has real life consequences as student evaluations are a measure of teaching effectiveness and can influence the lecturer's pay an chances of promotion. Boring, Ottoboni, and stark (2016) examined 23001 evaluations of 379 lecturers by 4423 students in first year university courses in USA and France. There was a statistically significant bias against female lecturers, even in objective aspects such as assignment return. It was not possible to adjust for it depended on too many factors. Gender bias is enough to cause more effective lecturers to receive lower valuations, and students are more likely to be unaware of the gender bias in their evaluations. However, awareness o the bias and its consequences can help prevent it.

Talk about gender bias in teaching evaluations

Raine (1993) studied the twins of convicts and found that half of monozygotic twins also have a criminal record. However, only 1/5 of dizygotic twins have criminal records. Tellegen et al (1988) also found that if one monozygotic twin reported high levels of aggression, so did the other. This did not apply to dizygotic twins. Behaviour was also more similar for monozygotic twins when they are apart than when together, which was the opposite for dizygotic twins. However, the problem with looking at twin studies is that there is a shared prenatal environment, which means they could have been affected by hormones, diets, and drugs, which would influence the development of the fetus and translate into behaviour. They could share the same environment before separation. Monozygotic twins also look similar, which could have caused them to be treated with the same level of hostility. The results found are also different to self-reports because aggression in monozygotic twins are not especially similar in the lab.

Talk about genetics (twin studies) and aggression

Gustation refers to taste. Steiner found that infant facial expressions indicate that infants are sensitive to different tastes, for they relax muscles when food is sweet, and purse lips when it is sour. Neonates can learn to like a taste that initially evoked negative response, for example Harris (1997) found that a disliked taste can become preferred if it is given at times of hunger.

Talk about gustation in infants

Heroism is altruistic because it is generally an immediate action that happens quickly (episodic). It is strength intensive and physically dangerous. Eagly (2009) found that this tends to be male, which could be attributed to physical factors such as being stronger, taller, and more physically intimidation.

Talk about heroism and altruism

It has been argued that people are emotionally and automatically averse to doing direct physical harm, despite our violent history. This is demonstrated in moral psychology, specifically in the trolley problem. 90% of people said that they would kill someone to save a fire, but only 10% would push someone off a bridge to save a fire, even though it is the same moral dilemma. This aversion seesm to be relatively universal across cultures, suggesting that aversion could be hardwired.

Talk about humans being emotionally and automatically averse to doing physical harm

Infancy is the time period between birth and 2 years of age. It is a period of relative helplessness during which we are dependent on the caregiver for survival. The child needs to acquire a vast repertoire of skills and knowledge to eventually reach reproductive age.

Talk about infancy and survival

Informational influence leads to acceptance or conversion. When the task in ambiguous, others can be a useful source of information. This is due to the desire to be correct, and that we rate others' judgements better than our own. This is akin to conversion.

Talk about informational influence

Intergroup dimensions of crime is committed much more often by men than women. They may be motivated partly due to ideologies supporting power and dominance over women, and it affects all women through fear.

Talk about intergroup dimensions of fear.

Love is not always a condition for marriage. Gupta and Singh (1982) measured years of marriage and scores on love scales, and compared the scores of arranged marriages to 'love' marriages. It was found that in arranged marriages, love increased as time passed, In 'love' marriages, love decreased as time passed. This is also linked to divorce rates.

Talk about love and marriage

Hovland et al found that there were 4 steps in persuasion: attention, comprehension, acceptance, and retention.

What did Hovland et al found in regards to persuasion?

Impression management (Goffman, 1959) is managing impression gien to others.

What is impression management?

Lynching is an example of group-based aggression, for It is one social group against another. Lynching specifically is intergroup hate crime. Mullen (1986) looked at archival studies of lynchings and found that they were public, proud, and documented. The more lynchers, the more horrific the violence. This could be because of deindividuation/loss of self focus. As the size of the crowd grew bigger and the ratio between the lynched and lynchers grew, people focused on group norms instead of their own moral standards.

Talk about lynching and aggression

Delgado (1967) wired electrodes to the amygdala of animals and provoked the animals. They found that aggression could be stopped by activating the electrode. This suggests that aggression is hard-wired and instinctive, for parts of the brain appear to be responsible for anger, and aggressive tendencies.

Talk about neuroanatomy and aggression

Normative influence is to get along with the crowd. This is to gain approval or avoid disapproval, and one must suppress disagreement. This also means the person wants to be liked and avoid being disliked. This is akin to compliance.

Talk about normative influence

Observer reports are analogous to self-report, for they are conducted in the same manner, but someone else provides information about the 'target' person. The observer can be anyone but must know the target well. This might be more objective. We also naturally broadcast our personality everywhere, making it easy for people to observe. However, some aspects of personality might never really be observed, for observations are done in a limited range of contexts.

Talk about observer reports and measuring personality

Perspective-taking involves an understanding that others have different views. Level 1 perspective-taking is understanding that you and I see different things, and level 2 perspective-taking is knowing you and I see the same things in different ways. The simplest perspective to take is a visual perspective. By 18 months, children are able to fit their perspective to yours by changing behaviour such as crawling around the barrier to see what you are looking at. O'Neill (1996) also found that 24-months-old children are able to point out objects that are hidden to them.

Talk about perspective-taking

Natural selection can lead to changes to an organism's phenotype and a population's heritable traits. This can cause changes in the population and thus lead to certain social phenotypes to be common. The change in phenotypes happens through mutations during gene transcription and environmental input.

Talk about phenotypes and behaviour

Language is seen as the most important psychological tool, as it is a tool of thought and makes us to start thinking in language. At first, language and thought are independent, and only social speech occurred. At around 3 years old, language and thought start to converge, leading to private or egocentric speech. At around 6-7 years old, children start to think in speech, leading to inner speech. The overall development is social speech, private speech, and inner speech. This is an example of how a psychological tool comes to mediate mental activities.

Talk about private and inner speech in term's of Vygotsky's theory

Psychological measurements are used to make meaningful comparisons among people. This is done by calculating statistics (e.g. investigating relations between variables). This may be difficult in personality psychology because there is no meaningful zero level, there are no absolute amounts of a variable, and there is no use of ratios. However, a well-designed psychological measurement would have equal differences between scores, giving equal differences in trait levels.

Talk about psychological measurements

Secure attachment styles have a responsive caregiver that is well-liked and trusted. There is no fear in letting one's guard down and the individual feels calm in the relationship. This is low in avoidance and anxiety.

Talk about secure attachment styles

Self-reports are structured questionnaires, meaning everyone gets the same questions and there is a fixed set of response alternatives for every question. This is the most widely used method of measuring personality. Most personality inventories will assess several personality traits, and each trait is assessed with several items to allow for good reliability and content validity. It will also include items that suggest the opposite of the trait. This balances out the tendency to agree or disagree with statements. It is efficient, low cost, and accurate if people know their behaviours, thoughts, and feelings (gaps in self-knowledge) and are willing to report.

Talk about self-reports and measuring personality

Hostile sexism suggests that women pose as a threat to men's positions, whilst benevolent sexism states that women are wonderful and necessary for men's happiness. This causes attitudes towards women ambivalent (Glick & Fiske, 1996), and justifies women's consignment to subordinate roles.

Talk about sexism towards women

Social Learning Theory (Bandura) suggests that aggression is often rewarding for the perpetrator, which can reinforce aggressive behaviour. Even merely watching others rewarded can influence behaviour. This is known as vicarious conditioning. This is because aggression is most likely when we are aroused, and it seems safe and rewarding to aggress. This was demonstrated in Bandura's Bobo doll study. However, there could have been research bias for the children may have known what the researcher wanted.

Talk about social learning theory and aggression

Bakeman et al (199)) investigated the !Kung, who are largely hunter-gatherers that go frequently on forage missions. However, the mean adult works around 3 days per week. They spend time together and engage in social contact. The mobile life prevents them from gathering possessions, so objects that are kept are valued and shared. It was found that children's first words are usually verbs such as "here take this" and "give it to me". This is attributed to the culture of sharing, whilst in the west, the first words produced are usually nouns.

Talk about the !Kung (Bakeman et al, 1990)

The biological approach looks at the genetics, hormonal, and neurochemical explanations of behaviour, and the psychoanalytic approach looks at the innate drives of sex and aggression and social upbringing during childhood. Cognitive psychology suggests that schemas, perception, and memory are constantly changed by the environment. Humanism emphasises basic physical needs and how society influences self-perception, and behaviourism believes that all behaviours is learnt from the environment through conditioning.

Talk about the general developmental arguments going from nature to nurture

Milgram and Zimbardo argued that in their experiments, there was the 'power of the situation'. There was normative pressure, certain situations are 'evil', and moral judgement was suspended. There was also 'The Lucifer Effect', which is being in a situation that expects evil leads to individuals being evil. These studies allow 'evil' to flourish and people were commanded by people in leadership roles who were told to be 'evil' (Haslam & Reicher, 2007). This can reflect situations of real life tyranny. However, one cannot attribute the results to just the situation. People often choose to be in certain positions (Blass, 1991) and it was found that fewer people volunteered for a 'psychological study of a prison life' than a psychological study' (Carnahan & McFarland, 2007), which suggests there are important psychological differences between the two groups.

Talk about the 'power of the situation' in Milgram and Zimbardo's experiments

The Big Five Framework is the most commonly used personality inventory. The Big Five Inventory (BFI) has 44 items, the NEO Personality Inventory Revised (NEO-PI-R) has 240 items, and the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) has 60 items. This all comes out of five factors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Talk about the Big Five Framework

The HEXACO Personality Inventory Revised (HEXACO-PI-R) is a personality inventory that is extremely commonly used. There are three versions: 200, 100, and 60 item version. It includes 6 items: Honesty-humility (sincerity, fairness, greed avoidance, modesty), Emotionality (to what extent someone would feel/be emotional), extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

Talk about the HEXACO Personality Inventory Revised

The Sally/Anne task has Sally place a ball into a basket, which Anne then moves. Children are asked where Sally will look first. Children are aware of where the item was originally placed and where it has been moved. It is expected that 5-year-olds will pass and say that Sally will look in the basket first. This applies across cultures therefore it must have a developmental basis.

Talk about the Sally/Anne task

The strange situation (Ainsworth, 1978) is a series of separation and reunions at 3 minutes each. This is based on Bowlby's attachment theory. The parent is alone with the child, allowing the parent to act as a secure base. The stranger enters to talk to the parent, during which we can see the child's reaction to the stranger. The parent then leaves and the stranger is responsive to the child. Separation distress from the child is combated with reassurance. The parent returns and comforts the child whilst the stranger leaves, which is the reunion of parent and child. The parent then leaves again, leaving the child along and inducing separation distress. The stranger then returns and offers comfort, during which we can see that the child has the ability to be soothed by the stranger. The parent finally returns and offers comfort, which is another reunion.

Talk about the Strange Situation (Ainsworth, 1978)

Birds have a focused vision on small areas to allow for bug-hunting and foraging. Flies have poor visual acuity and a high sampling rate (can see in slow motion). Sharks have no colour vision but are able to see in muddy waters, and chameleons have monocular vision, meaning each eye can move individually. Snakes are not able to see colours but can see heat.

Talk about the animal evolutionary adaptations for vision

The cerebral cortex has around 10 billion neurons, each with multiple connections with other neurons. It is divided into 2 hemispheres, each with 4 lobes. The lobes are occipital (vision), temporal (hearing, speech), parietal (spatial perception), and frontal (motor control).

Talk about the cerebral cortex

Keller (2007) conducted a longitudinal study to look at the development of German and Cameroonian Nso children at 3-6 months. German families tend to be nuclear, whilst Cameroonian Nso are multigenerational. Education is high in German children, but there is no formal education with the Cameroonian Nso. Social experiences in Germany are dyadic, embellished, and left on their own at times. Cameroonian Nso children have constant body contact and social care. Motor development is left at their own pace in German children, but is fundamental for Cameroonian Nso babies. Objects are encouraged and shown to German children, but are rare and no toys are allowed for Cameroonian Nso children. Goals for German children include psychological autonomy, independence, and self-assured, all surrounding the theme of individualism. Cameroonian Nso goals are interdependence, being respectful, and be socially approved, revolving around collectivism. Lohaus et al (2008) also found that Nso infants showed accelerated development relative to German infants, and the most prominent difference is in sitting with support. At 3-months-old, 94.5% of Nso children and 6.8% of German children can sit with support. However, language development took place earlier in German children.

Talk about the development of German and Cameroonian Nso children

Eastern culture are generally collectivist and emphasise the importance of the group over the individual. Oh the other hand, Western cultures are generally individualist and the pursuit of individual or personal goals are encouraged.

Talk about the differences between Eastern and Western culture

The ego defensive function of attitude is that attitudes protect us from psychological threats. Greenberg et al (1992) found that self-esteem (positive attitudes towards the self) make people feel less anxious about dying. Ditto and Lopez (1992) also found that people disbelieved scientific tests when the results are threatening.

Talk about the ego defensive function of attitude (Katz, 1960)

Frustration is caused by the blocking of the goal. It increase when the motivation to achieve the goal is strong, they expect to achieve the goal, and the blocking is complete. The frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard, 1939) suggested that frustration always leads to some form of aggression. Burnstein and Worschel (1962) conducted an experimental study of people playing a game, during which the confederate of the group would disrupt group problem solving, due to their hearing aid malfunction or that they were not paying attention. They found that when the frustrating person cannot control their behaviour, such as the hearing aid not working, frustration can lead to irritation/anger, but not aggression. This suggests how we interpret someone's behaviour affects aggression. Berkowitz found that frustration leads to anger and anger is more likely to lead to aggression when cues in the environment or cognitive script reminds people of aggressive behaviour, for example when a gun is shown or they have been primed.

Talk about the frustration-aggression hypothesis

With older children, we can look at their imitation, communication, morality, executive function, and self-awareness for behaviour.

What activities in older children can we look at for behaviour?

The habituation/dishabituation paradigm is to first show a child something continuously until they get bored, leading them to be habituated. Something new is then shown to them. If they are bored, they are habituated, meaning no change will be demonstrated. However, if they are interested in the new stimulus, they become dishabituated. Although it is not necessary, they just need to recognise that the object is new. This could be because it is a violation of expectation, meaning babies are surprised to see unexpected items. Through this paradigm, it has been found that 45-hours-old children look longer at a strangers face.

Talk about the habituation/dishabituation paradigm

Freud suspected that there were implicit or unconscious attitudes. However, the Freudian/psychodynamic approach fell out of favour and behaviourism took over. The cognitive revolution in Psychology 1960s had psychologists discover people having attitudes they can't report and can't tell where they came from. Valirs and Ray (1969) faked fast or slow heart beats for participants to listen to, and slower heartbeats correlated to being less scared, thus suggesting observing behaviour can change attitude.

Talk about the history of implicit attitudes in psychology

The hourglass figure and masculine faces are supposed to indicate fertility ad status. When ovulating, women prefer the smell of t-shirts worn by symmetrical-faced face. They also earn more money as strippers than when not ovulating.

Talk about the hourglass figure in terms of close relationships

The knowledge function of attitude (Katz, 1960) is that attitudes function as schemas to help us make sense of information in a complex social world and help us focus on the important characteristics of an attitude object, which should be dealt with quickly and effectively. Lowenstein (1994) found that participants would give up their payment to receive an answer for a trivial question.

Talk about the knowledge function of attitude (Katz, 1960)

The limitations of the strange situation is that it only measures behaviour, every relationship differs, and it is not necessarily appropriate for all cultures. Japanese and Korean infants have different types of insecure attachments, and differences can also be caused by day care, for children are used to separation. Clinginess may also mean for a greater mother-infant closeness.

Talk about the limitations of the strange situation

Humans naturally have the need to affiliate, but there can be broad variations in this need. Some prefer to be alone, some affiliate due to a fer of death, and some affiliate by being in troublesome situations. This can be measured with the need for affiliation scale.

Talk about the need to affiliate

There are appears to be a causation relationship between media/computer games and aggression. Aron (1975) found that an average child views around 8000 murders by their late teens. Experiments and correlational studies show that violent TV and computer games contribute to aggression, and recent meta-analysis show that the effect is getting stronger. Huesmann (2007) found that the link between consumption of media violence and aggressive behaviour is stronger than man other interesting and important relationships such as calcium intake and bone mass. This could be because levels of explicitness and realism ahs increased over time, and the more realistic, the more active participation, meaning the more realism.

Talk about the relationship between media/computer games and aggression

Vygotsky believed that there were two categories of cognitive functions. Elementary cognitive functions are not unique to humans and are innate. These are involuntary and unconscious. Examples include attention, sensation, perception, and memory. On the other hand, higher cognitive functions are unique to humans and are socially constructed. These are voluntary and conscious. An example would be memory strategies.

Talk about the role of cognitive functions in Vygotsky's theory

The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development. It occurs at 0-2 years old. This is when children begin to interact with the environment, during which they learn through senses and motoric actions. These include looking, sucking, grasping, and listening. Such innate reflexes become deliberate actions on objects and the self in order to learn how things work. These form mental representations of actions, which are what has to be done physically can be done mentally, meaning one can think about things before acting. During this stage, the child begins to develop habits, hand-eye coordination, experimentation and creativity, trial and error experiments, and object permanence. They will also begin to use symbols/mental representations.

Talk about the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Piaget and Vygotsky's theories are both genuinely developmental and considers biological influences on cognitive development. It also emphasises the importance of qualitative changes on the development, and recognizes there are social influences even in prison. However, Piaget argued about different types of developmental processes, and each theory will have elative importance for adult and peer influences. Evidence on influence of culture on cognitive development can also be seen in the relations between language and thought. They are also both domain-general, and proclaim discontinuous development in stages.

Talk about the similarities and differences of Vygotsky's and Piaget's theories.

The three mountain's experiment is to have children sitting on one side of the model and the researcher places a doll on another side. The child has to say what the doll sees. It forces the child to rely on mental rotation, and they could not physically move. It was found that 4-year-old children cannot do level 2 perspective-taking (i.e. can't say that the doll will see different things) but 7-year-old children can. However, in the policeman version, it was found that 4-year-old children could take perspectives. This may be because we are better to detect when there are cheaters. This shows that method of experimentation is crucial and can affect results.

Talk about the three mountain's experiment

The utilitarian function of attitude helps us obtain rewards and avoid punishment. For example, it is seen to be cool to be prejudiced against drug dealers, the KKK, or illegal immigrants, but not against disabled people (Crandall et al, 2012). British children learn at around the age of 8 or earlier to not express prejudice attitudes (Rutland et al, 2005).

Talk about the utilitarian function of attitude (Katz, 1960)

The value expressive function of attitude suggest that attitudes may allow people to express deep-seated values. De Bono et al (1987) found that when attitudes are value-expressive, they are harder to change. Attitudes can express values, but it can also be socially adjustive (say what people want to hear).

Talk about the value expressive function of attitude (Katz, 1960)

Generally participants of psychological studies are university students. Arnett (2008) found that undergrads are 4000 times more likely to take part in psychological studies than others. It was also found that in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67% of American samples were undergraduates, and 89% of other samples are undergraduate students. Wintre (2001) has also found that the dependence on undergraduate samples has not decreased over time.

Talk about university students and psychological studies

Virtual relationships are a result of psychological proximity. Social networking and online dating allow for relationships that would not normally happen, and when forming relationships online one can conceal their negative aspects (Whitty & Joinson, 2008). Despite the psychological proximity, Kraut et al (1998) found that increased time online was associated with feelings of loneliness and depression, for people would only see the positives of other's lives and not the reality.

Talk about virtual relationships

Vision is the most powerful sense in humans. Eyes and brain increase 3-4 times in volume, whilst the body increases around 21 times in volume. The eyes and brain are already relatively well-developed at birth. It has been found that neonates focus at 30cm regardless of the object distance, for it promotes attention to important stimuli such as the mother's face and breast, and limits distraction to other objects. Visual systems are anatomically present at birth but not mature. The cornea, lens, and retina are immature, and coordinated eye movement are not possible. Ocular motive movement does develop by 6 months.

Talk about vision in humans

Before birth, the brains of prenatal babies can support basic sensory and motor functions. At 10-26 weeks post-conception, the rate of brain growth is around 250,000 per minute (Cowan, 1979).

Talk bout fetal neural development.

Warneken and Tomasello (2006) had researchers fail at stacking. The child is motivated to see the stacking complete, thus will help. The researcher would also collide with an unopened cupboard, to which the child will open to cupboard to allow the books to be placed. During this the researcher does not speak or make eye contact with the child. This means we naturally interpret things as goals and will help to achieve it despite a lack of interaction.

Warneken and Tomasello (2006)

Length, consistency, repetition, fear arousal, factual vs emotional appeal

What about the message can affect its persuasive power?

Bowlby's stages of attachment are to first identify the primary care giver via voice, smell and sight. They then get close to the caregiver by drawing attention to the self, move towards the caregiver when separated, and seek proximity. When separated, they will protest and experience stranger anxiety, meaning they are afraid of anyone that is not the caregiver. This occurs after early infancy. This requires cognitive skills such as knowing who the caregiver is and object permanence.

What are Bowlby's stages of attachment?

According to Piaget, the 4 stages of development are Sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operations.

What are Piaget's 4 stages of development?

Attitudes are a person's evaluations of various aspects of their social world (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). they are preferences regarding attitude objects, which are the things that the attitude is about. These can be positive, negative, or ambivalent (Glick & Fiske, 1996).

What are attitudes?

When conducting studies in social psychology, one must consider how to sample participants, reliability, validity, statistical significance, replicability, and ethics.

What are considerations that one should have when conducting studies in social psychology?

Subtle forms of racism are credentialling and modern racism.

What are examples of subtle forms of racism?

Explicit attitudes are typically conscious and measured by asking people directly on attitude scales or by observing their behaviour

What are explicit attitudes?

External sources of self-esteem include social acceptance (Leary et al, 2001).

What are external sources of self-esteem?

Factors that are associated with interpersonal attraction are physical (appearance, proximity) and psychological (attitude similarity, mutual liking).

What are factors associated with interpersonal attraction?

Motivated social cognition has accuracy motivation, self-esteem motivation, cognitive consistency, and affirming control.

What are factors involved in motivated social cognition?

Self-presentation involves impression management, self-monitoring, and motives that drive strategic self-presentation.

What are factors involved in self-presentation?

Parental stress/socioeconomic status, daycare, and infant characteristics can affect attachment.

What are factors that can affect attachment?

The go-no go attention task and implicit attitude test looks t reaction time and accuracy data to test for positive or negative mental associations with an attitude object. These are performance-reaction tasks.

What are go-no go attention task and implicit attitude test and how does it measure emotions?

ideologies are interrelated and widely shared sets of beliefs about how social and political systems re and should be. These shape attitudes towards gender, race, danger, and tidiness.

What are ideologies?

Implicit attitudes are typically unconscious and measured without people asking 'out loud'. This is good to study when people are unwilling or unable to report certain attitudes such as unwanted prejudice, sadism, and undesirable traits.

What are implicit attitudes?

Intentions and desires are linked but are not the same. Intentions are in the moment, whilst desires are long-term.

What are intentions and desires?

Intergroup relations are the basis of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. These can occur in different contexts, and can continuously happen in a vicious cycle.

What are intergroup relations the basis of?

Internal sources of self-esteem include emotions, self-schemas, and how flexibly one evaluates themselves (Pelham & Swan, 1989).

What are internal sources of self-esteem?

Limitations of self- and observer reports include socially desirable and undesirable responses in both reports, and they mot necessarily be in the same direction. More sources of information mean less bias.

What are limitations of self- and observer reports?

Mental abilities are one's maximum level of performance rather than their typical style of behaving, thinking, and/or feeling.

What are mental abilities?

Mental representations/symbols are internalised images or words that represent something.

What are mental representations?

Qualitative methods are words, open-ended questions, and are rich it data. Examples include thematic analysis, conversational analysis, narrative analysis, discourse analysis, and interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)

What are qualitative methods of data collection?

Quantitative methods are scales and numbers. Examples include surveys, questionnaires, (field) experiments, archival studies, observations, and case studies.

What are quantitative methods of data collection?

Schemas are basic components of intelligence and categories of the mind that help understand the world better. Our interpretation of the world takes place through mental schemas.

What are schemas?

Self-schemas are different dimensions of the self that determines thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in specific contexts. They can influence aspects of daily lives and be about the desired/undesired selves. It is important to have multiple or 'spare' schemas to focus on. Self-schematic dimensions are important whilst self-aschematic dimensions are unimportant.

What are self-schemas?

Social emotion is emotions people experience toward other groups (Smith, 1993, 1999). It has been found to be able to reduce conflict (e.g. guilt) but some emotions can perpetuate conflict and aggression(e.g. satisfaction after aggression). Anxiety perpetuates unhealthy and conflicted relationships.

What are social emotions?

Social representations are beliefs about the social world formed through processes of social interactions (Moscovici, 1963). They found that attitudes are formed by out group and cultural membership and are built up by social and cultural practices. This theory attracted criticism for it provides a theory but does not say how it works (Potter & Litton, 1985).

What are social representations?

Considerations for research with children include suitability of the task/question/language, suitability of test environment, test situation (e.g. power differential - must please adult so demand characteristic), demeanour (more likely to show understanding of object permanence when adult is not present/silent), and tracking ability across ages (e.g. longitudinal = hard to conduct but within participants, cross-sectional = between participants and may have cohort effects - common life experiences accounting for differences in behaviour).

What are some considerations for research with children?

Motives that drive strategic self-presentation (Jones & Pittman, 1982) include to be seen as competent, to be liked, to make people think they are dangerous, to be seen as morally respectable, and to be seen as helpless and in need of sympathy.

What are some motives that drive strategic self-presentation?

Stereotypes refer to cognition/attitudes. Thy are simplified but widely shared beliefs about characteristics of groups and its members.

What are stereotypes?

According to the BPS ethical principles, research must have respect for autonomy and dignity of persons, scientific value, social responsibility, and maximises benefit and minimises harm.

What are the BPS ethical principles?

Biological causes of aggression include early theories about how we release aggression on animals, genetics, neuroanatomy, and neurochemistry.

What are the biological causes of aggression?

Strong attitudes last a long time, can be hard to change, and an be accessed immediately without having to think about why an attitude object is good or bad. This is because strong attitudes mean more to us, whilst we have to think more about the reasons behind weak attitudes.

What are the characteristics of strong attitudes?

Self-esteem helps with mood regulation (Heimpet et al, 2002), protect from terror of death, aggression, and narcissism.

What are the consequences of self-esteem?

According to Piaget, it occurs as the result of the process within the individual, making it the individual's active participant in development. Piaget argued that development took as a result of process within the individual, and the individual is an active participant in the development. Vygotsky on the other hand, believes dependence involves the internalisation of the process that originally occurred between individuals.

What are the differences in developmental processes (Piaget & Vygotsy).

The different attachment phases are preattachment, early attachment, separation protest, and goal-corrected/reciprocal relationship.

What are the different attachment phases?

In social psychology, quantitative and qualitative methods are used. Qualitative methods are often used to inform quantitative results.

What are the different general methods of data collection used in social psychology?

Free choice paradigm, effort justification paradigm, induced compliance paradigm, and hypocrisy paradigm.

What are the different paradigms that cognitive dissonance can cause?

The different periods are prenatal period, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood.

What are the different periods that are looked at when studying developmental psychology?

California Psychological Inventory (CPI), 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF), Eysenk Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), Non-verbal Personality Questionnaire (NPQ), Big Five Framework (BFI), HEXSCO Personality Inventory Revised (HEXACO-PI-R)

What are the different personality inventories?

The three different types of attachment styles are secure, avoident, and anxious/ambivalent.

What are the different types of attachment styles?

The different types of attachments are avoidant, secure, resistant/ambivalent, and disorganized.

What are the different types of attachments found in the strange situation?

The different types of conformity are compliance, obedience, and acceptance. Compliance is doing as one is asked and required by formal regulations. This changes behaviours but not beliefs. Obedience is doing as one is told by an authority figure, and acceptance is changing behaviour and beliefs.

What are the different types of conformity?

There are two different types of consistency: diachronic consistency and synchronic consistency.

What are the different types of consistency?

There are two types of love: compassionate love and companionate love.

What are the different types of love?

The different types of parental sensitivity are secure, avoidant, and resistant.

What are the different types of parental sensitivity?

The different types of reliability include internal-consistency reliability, inter-rater reliability, and the test-retest reliability.

What are the different types of reliability?

The two different special coding systems are allocentric and egocentric.

What are the different types of spatial coding systems?

The different types of validity are content validity, construct validity, and criterion validity.

What are the different types of validity?

External rewards for helping include reciprocal rewards and enhanced reputation.

What are the external rewards for helping?

Johnson et al (1989) found that men helped more when bravery or heroism are involved, whilst women are more likely to help in long-term caring (Becker & Eagly, 2004).

What are the gender differences in willingness to help/being altruistic?

Our development can be continuous (linear) or in stages (milestones, progressions), domain-specific or general development, or nature vs nurture (empiricist theory).

What are the general theories on how we develop?

The attitude-behaviour link is predicted by private self-consciousness, time frame, attitude strength and consistency, level of specificity, and habit.

What can predict the attitude-behaviour link?

Kelly (2000) found the implications of self-presentation for therapy include that people should engage in positive self-presentations, this should be reinforced by the therapist, and people should withhold information that undermines a positive impression. This is controversial but it has good evidence suggesting that self-disclosures are sometimes detrimental to recovery.

What are the implications of self-presentation for therapy?

Internal rewards for helping are enhanced self-esteem and lower empathetic distress.

What are the internal rewards for helping?

One criticism of Piaget's theory is that it underestimates the cognitive abilities of infants and children, and overestimates cognitive abilities of adolescents and adults. There has been evidence found for earlier competence. Baillargeon found that the concept of object permanence can occur as young as 3.5 months, and some evidence has been found that concrete operational thinking can occur before 7 years old. McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974) and Donaldson (1982) found that if the experimenter disarranged an array of coins in order to mess up the game, 16% are able to conserve. However, if it was the naughty teddy, then 62% are able to conserve. Many studies have also found that only a small percentage of adults pass the Piagetian test of formal operational thinking. Many of his methods were also overcomplex, and although he got what develops correct, when it develops is wrong. he also underestimated the role of cultural and social influences, and formal education on cognition.

What are the limitations of Piaget's theory?

The limitations of pre-operational cognition is that the child begins to use reasoning, but it is mainly intuitive rather than illogical. They also can't coordinate or integrate multiple mental actions, and they are too young to perform mental operations, for they are egocentric and lack the ability to conserve.

What are the limitations of pre-operational cognition?

Long-term effects of having a secure attachment style means that one is better adjusted and has better social skills. They may also have higher self-esteem. The individual may also have closer relationships with their peers, exhibit more prosocial behaviour, and are better at reading other's emotions. They may also be less anxious, depressed, socially withdrawn, aggressive, and delinquent. They may also have more positive internal working models.

What are the long term effects of having a secure attachment style?

Long term effects of having an insecure-avoidant attachment style means one will have less social support, and are more likely to have earlier sexual experiences and take part in more risky sexual behaviours. Insecure children may also learn to inhibit emotional expressiveness and not seek comfort.

What are the long term effects of having an insecure-avoidant attachment style?

Attractive people are more likely to go on dates, receive better marks in university, are more likely to be successful in job interviews, likely to earn more money, and likely to be treated better by the legal system. This is due to physical attractiveness stereotypes, which is that we tend to assume attractive people possess other desirable traits in addition to their looks (which may be self-fulfilling). However, it can also attract negative interpersonal relationships, such as stalking, harassment and negative comments.

What are the pros and cons of being attractive?

The method of using personality questionnaires and correlational research is quantifiable, and it can be used to study a wide range of variables. It can also assess many variables and large samples are easily obtained. One big limitation is that it is not possible to establish causality and biases could be present. A partial solution is doing a longitudinal study. This does not give for controlled settings therefore possible confounds could lead to the inclusion of control variables.

What are the strengths and limitations of using personality questionaires and correlational research?

Piaget's theory is complex and comprehensive, and it emphasises the role of the child, which was evolutionary. It also introduced countless new concepts and research methods, and there is considerable continuity between Piaet's ideas and modern cognitive developmental psychology.

What are the strengths of Piaget's theory?

The strength of Vygotsky's theory is that it helps explain cultural variations, and has implications for the education on a child's development. However, it says little about biological influences on cognitive development. It also does not fully explain how processes are internalised and it minimises contributions from the individual.

What are the strengths of Vygotsky's theory?

According to Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991), the two main dimensions of attachment styles are anxious attachment dimension and avoidant attachment dimension.

What are the two main dimensions of attachment styles?

Values are enduring, evaluative beliefs about general aspects of life that go beyond specific objects and situations (Maio, 2010). There are more or less 10 universal values (Schwarz, 1992), and it includes security, tradition, autonomy, and power.

What are values?

At 2-years-old, the child can talk (may be shy to strangers), understands higher level language, and has a sense of self (i.e. knows the self exists and knows the self is in the mirror).

What behaviours can 2-years-old do?

At 6 months, infants are able to grab, suck, make faces (not necessarily controlled faces), and look

What behaviours can 6-months-old do?

At 18 months, children are able to understand basic instructions, walking, more locomotion, and better grasping (adjusts to object).

What behaviours can 8-months-old do?

Attractiveness, likeability, similarity, perceived credibility, expertise, trustworthiness

What can affect the power of the source in persuasion?

Facial Electromyography, electroencephalography, go-no go attention tasks, and implicit attitude tests

What can be used to measure implicit attitudes?

Reactance, forewarning/prior knowledge, counter-arguing, attitude inoculation, selective avoidance, attitude polarisation, biased assimilation, hostile media bias, cognitive dissonance

What can cause persuasion to not work?

Culture can affect thoughts, perception, and cognition, rather than only language, attachment, and motor development.

What can culture affect?

The sclera was believed to have been developed because it enables more efficient interaction, as the sclera can show where or what someone is looking at.

What do people believe caused the sclera to develop?

Stereotype threat and stereotype lift both demonstrate that stereotypes can change behaviour to allow for verification of the stereotype.

What do stereotype threat and stereotype lift demonstrate?

Cialdini (1991) argues that there is no true or pure altruism, for everything is done with an ulterior motive.

What does Cialdini argue about altruism?

Across situations in the definition of personality means it is consistent over a variety of situations.

What does across situations mean in the definition of personality?

Across time in the definition of personality means there is a relatively stable pattern that can be observed in the long run, meaning at least a few years).

What does across time in the definition of personality mean?

Agreeableness refers to trust, straight-forwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, and tender mindedness.

What does agreeableness in the Big Five Framework refer to?

Attachment behaviours such as crying and clinging indicate the fundamental need to affiliate. Different attachment styles are associated with relationship success in later life.

What does attachment behaviour show?

Basic research looks at fundamental questions about people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.

What does basic research look at?

Being functionally close to something means one is close to useful objects.

What does being functionally close mean?

Conscientiousness refers to competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation.

What does conscientiousness in the Big Five Framework refer to?

In the definition of personality, it refers to differences among individuals. This means in direct or indirect comparison with others' psychological traits.

What does differences among individuals in the definition of personality mean?

Extraversion refer to warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and positive emotions.

What does extraversion in the Big Five Framework refer to?

In the definition of personality, it refers to traits being displayed in some conceptually related ways. This means traits are expressed by various behaviours, thoughts, and feelings.

What does in some conceptually related ways mean in the definition of personality?

Neuroticism refers to anxiety, anger hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability.

What does neuroticism in the Big Five Framework refer to?

Openness to experience refers to fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, and values.

What does openness to experience in the Big Five Framework refer to?

Personality psychology tries to answer what are the major dimensions/factors of personality, how they are related to each other and organised, causes of individual differences in personality (e.g. nature vs nurture), and real-world consequences of these differences (personality as an explanation for an individual's behaviour). It also aims to understand why and how individuals differ and to predict differences and similarities between individuals across a wide range of settings. This includes abnormality, criminality, relationships, academic performance, and so on.

What does personality psychology try to answer?

In the definition of personality, it refers to the tendency to behave, think, or feel. This is the likelihood of showing some behaviours or having some thoughts of feelings. These may not always be displayed but they may have an inclination or predisposition to exhibit those thoughts, feelings, or behaviour. This refers to all aspects of a person.

What does the tendency to behave, think, or feel refer to in the definition of personality?

Theory of reasoned action/theory of planned behaviour states that attitudes towards behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control affects behavioural intentions, which then affects behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980).

What does the theory of reasoned action/theory of planned behaviour state?

Epistemic needs that have been linked to intergroup perceptions include dogmatism, need for cognitive closure, and need for personal structure.

What epistemic needs have been linked to intergroup perceptions?

Ethical issues when conducting research include the importance of research, withdrawal, consent, and deception.

What ethical issues should be considered when conducted experiments?

Facial symmetry and prototypical faces are evolutionary explanations for why we form close relationships.

What evolutionary explanations can explain how were form evolutionary explanations.

The evaluation of personality measures requires looking at reliability and validity.

What experimental factors must we look at when evaluating personality measures?

Factors that affect altruism include the power of the situation, personality, gender, and who receives the help.

What factors affect altruism?

Persuasive target's ability to focus and persuasive target's motivation to process

What factors determine which information processing route the persuasive target will take?

Two-sided messages, the channel, framing, primacy, recency

What factors of methods can affect the persuasive power?

Gender, age, personality and individual differences, mood

What factors of the target/audience can affect the persuasive power?

Factors that affect passing the Sally/Anne task include motive for transfer (e.g. deceit), time frame explicit (where will one look first), children may have moved the objects themselves, the target object has been removed completely, and dolls have no mental representation. However, it has been found that there is no difference between using humans and dolls.

What facts affect passing the Sally/Anne Task?

If someone has more siblings, they will develop Theory of Mind earlier and faster. The exposure to language and language ability will also be different (e.g. knowing how to use language). Talking about feelings will also make someone more likely to develop ToM earlier. Girls tend to pass earlier than boys, but this could be attributed to gender expectations. People with autism spectrum disorder make little to no eye contact and have language delays. This affects play and friendships and leads to developing ToM later or have a reduced ToM.

What individual factors affect passing ToM tests?

Individual/task-related factors that would maximise conformity include if the task is difficult or participants feel incompetent or insecure.

What individual/task-relate factors would maximise conformity?

Electroencephalography (EEG) registers neural activity associated with positive or negative reactions. This has high temporal resolution and is hard for the participant to control.

What is EEG and how does it measure emotions?

Facial Electromyography (EMG) registers emotional expressions via electrical signals in the muscle. This has high temporal resolution and as it measures implicit attitudes, it is hard for the participant to control.

What is EMG and how does it measure emotions?

Equity theory states that outcomes must be proportionate to contributions and fairness (Hatfield et al, 1987). Both sides should be equal in reward, costs, and inputs for an equitable relationship and are happy with them. People, whether they are under-benefitting or over-benefitting, will attempt to restore balance to maintain a successful relationship (Adams, 1965), and social norms can have a very powerful impact on it.

What is Equity Theory (Hatfield et al, 1987)?

Freud's Drive-Reduction Explanation for attachment is that we want food, which the mother can provide. Once the child receives the food, the need is satisfied, thus leading to pleasure. Because the mother provides food, the mother is associated with pleasure, thus leading to an attachment to the mother. However, this is an extremely transactional view of attachment.

What is Freud's Drive-Reduction explanation?

Gestalt Psychology stated that it is important to look at the whole picture (a wide variety of factors) rather than specific aspects, for example needs and desires, not just rewards and punishments.

What is Gestalt Psychology?

Rusbult's Investment Model of Commitment (1983) states that people weigh up rewards, costs, and comparisons in a relationship. If the rewards, costs and comparison level lead to satisfaction with a relationship, and the satisfaction with the relationship, level of investment, and quality of alternatives leads to commitment, then it leads to stability in a relationship. This could explain why people stay in abusive relationships.

What is Rusbult's Investment Model of Commitment?

Sternberg's theory of love (1988) states that love involves intimacy passion, and commitment. The combination and extent of it determines the kind of love.

What is Sternberg's theory of love?

WEIRD populations are western, educated, industrialised, rich, and democratic. This leads to generalisation problems. Analysis of journals across 6 disciplines of psychology from 2003-2007 was completed and it was found that 68% of participants are from the US, and 96% of participants were from Western industrialised countries. 73% of authors were from the US, and 99% of authors were from Western countries. 96% of samples in psychological studies came from countries comprising of 12% of the world's population.

What is a WEIRD population and why is this significant?

One way to measure self-concept clarity is through diary studies. This is when participants keep track of daily activities or events for a particular period of time. Nezlek and Plesko (2001) had over 100 participants complete self-concept clarity scales for twice a week up to 10 weeks. They found that some days people's self-concepts were clearer than others, and that when it is unclear it is due to bad/stressful events.

What is a way to measure self-concept clarity?

Accommodation is changes In lens shape that change focus

What is accommodation?

Accommodation is modifying existing schemas or creating new schemas that fit reality. This is used when facing disequilibrium in order to return to equilibrium.

What is accommodation?

Accuracy motivation is a self-assessment. It is used to find out more about the self objectively and accurately (Trope, 1986). This allows for certainty of abilities and performance in particular situations.

What is accuracy motivation?

Adaptation refers to the main driving force of cognitive change. Cognitive development/learning helps adapting to the environment.

What is adaptation?

Affective forecasting error is when people overestimate emotional impact that positive and negative life events will have on them.

What is affective forecasting error?

Affirming control is an illusion of control. It is seeing if the self has control over the situation, and a lack of control is associated with anxiety. Sometimes, we pretend we have control even in random events. We tend to overestimate the degree of control over events (Langer, 1975), and we want to maintain the feeling of control.

What is affirming control in motivated social cognition?

Allocentric spatial coding systems encode and define objects in relation to other objects.

What is allocentric spatial coding system?

An alternative to the strange situation is Q-sort (Waters et al, 1995). Researchers would observe 1-4 year olds and record their behaviour such as smiling and following. However, researchers have to be trained and do several hours of observations. Nonetheless, research from this type of study has found to relate well to the Strange Situation.

What is an alternative to the strange situation?

An attachment figure provides a balance between safety and exploration. This is generally the primary caregiver.

What is an attachment figure?

Analytical thinking style has the attention on the focal object. They will focus on attributes of the object, and have a belief that the object is detached from the field. There is a use of formal logic and abstract thought. Taxonomic categorization is used and is probably rooted in Greek.

What is analytical thinking?

Attitude inoculation is when one presents people with a weak and attitude-inconsistent argument prior to a strong persuasive attempt. This helps them resist the message (McGuire, 1961). This inoculates them because they are more able to generate counter-arguments, especially for later arguments about the same topic.

What is attitude inoculation?

Attitude polarisation is the tendency to evaluate mixed information in a way that strengthens their pre-existing attitudes (Pomerantz et al, 1995), for example filtering information to support themselves. This protects their original attitude.

What is attitude polarisation?

Autonomous attachment is when one acknowledges the importance of relationships, and talks freely about past and present attachments. The individual would also have insight into the motives and feelings of others.

What is autonomous attachment?

Avoidant attachment dimension is the tendency to feel uncomfortable when emotionally close to one's partner.

What is avoidant attachment dimension?

Avoidant parental sensitivity is over-stimulating the child. The parent talks energetically when the child is not attending. The parent can also be controlling and sometimes rejecting, for the child is not pleasing.

What is avoidant parental sensitivity?

Behaviourism looks at the impact of rewards and punishments on attitudes and behaviours, for they are influential in understanding social development. This is because social processes can influence people.

What is behaviourism?

Biased assimilation is the tendency to evaluate counter-attitudinal information as biased or unreliable (Lord et al, 1985). This protects their original attitude.

What is biased assimilation?

Category accentuation is maximising the differences between categories and minimises the differences within categories (Tajfel & Wilkes, 1963). Categorisation can distort perceptions of group and judgements of individual. We may also experience the outgroup homogeneity effect.

What is category accentuation?

Classical conditioning is when a stimulus eventually evokes positive or negative reactions through repeated pairing with other stimuli (eg. Pavlov, 1927). This often occurs subliminally. This is also known s evaluative conditioning.

What is classical conditioning?

Cognitive consistency is self-verification. It reinforces self-view, whether it is positive or negative, to achieve consistency (Kwang & Swann, 2010_.

What is cognitive consistency in motivated social cognition?

Cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant psychological state which occurs when people notice their attitudes and behaviours are inconsistent with each other (Festinger, 1957), which makes them feel uncomfortable.

What is cognitive dissonance?

Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort or psychological stress experienced by someone who is simultaneously holding contradictory beliefs.

What is cognitive dissonance?

Commitment is the wish or intention to stay in a relationship (Adams & Jones, 1997). This includes dedication to the partner, positive attraction to the partner or relationship, and the perception that leaving the relationship is too costly.

What is commitment?

Companionate love is deep and secure feelings (Hatfield, 1987) that are unfrenzied. This is common in relationships that were once passionate.

What is companionate love?

Compassionate love is intense feelings and uncontrollable thoughts. There is deep longing, physical 'symptoms', and feelings of being 'in love' (Berscheid, 1997). There is a release of dopamine that is associated with rewards (Aron et al, 2005) and the brain reward system is activated.

What is compassionate love?

Complimentarity states that opposites do attract, especially when looking for a fling. However, people who appear opposite may be similar in fundamental ways, thus suggesting that similarity is more important.

What is complimentarity?

Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure (Kiesler & Kiesler, 1969). It can also be defined as the convergence of one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours with an external standard.

What is conformity?

Conservation is being aware that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Piaget and Inhelder (1974) showed children two glasses with the same amount of water, and poured one glass into a taller glass. They found that children under 7 could not conserve, for they said that the taller glass had more water.

What is conservation?

Constructivism refers to how knowledge develops, and argues that innate endowments and experiences are necessary but not sufficient. Instead, we must actively engage with the world to construct knowledge.

What is constructivism?

Convergent validity is correspondence with measures assessing similar (positive relations) or opposite (negative relations) characteristics.

What is convergent validity?

Correspondence bias is the tendency to think that when a person acts a certain way they must possess the associated traits.

What is correspondence bias?

Counter-arguing is when people actively resist persuasion attempts by addressing and arguing against attitude-incongruent arguments directly. Eagly et al (1999) found that participants thought of more supporting arguments when exposed to a message that was consistent with pre-existing attitudes of their own, whilst those exposed to the message that was inconsistent with their own attitudes thought of more opposing arguments.

What is counter-arguing?

Credentialling i showing more prejudice after having had the opportunity to demonstrate that the self is not prejudiced (Monin & Miller, 2001).

What is credentialling?

Critical thinking is appraising each part of every evidence and think of other explanations other than the one stated.

What is critical thinking?

Imprinting is attaching to the first moving object seen. This may not be the caregiver. This found with newborns in most species, for they will recognise and seek proximity to their attachment figure. It takes place during a critical period and is irreversible.

What is imprinting?

Culture shock is experiencing difficulty and understanding an unfamiliar culture. This is because adaptation to some cultures are harder than others. Unreality and elation can lead to fantasia. This then leads to disorientation, for the lack of familiarity is challenging. Finally, it leads to acceptance of reality, experimentation, and adaptation.

What is culture shock?

Culture is the collective products or ideas that exist as a unit and define a particular social group at a particular time. It is dynamic and is transmitted across generations.

What is culture?

Dehumanization is when others looking different, having different customs, and more make them seem less than human (Summer, 1966). Dehumanisation can legitimise any action done against that group (Haslam, 2006). This includes predominantly believing that perceived differences are genetically-based, eugenics movement, Nazi Germany, and the Apartheid.

What is dehumanization?

Developmental psychology focuses on when abilities or traits develop and the underlying mechanisms that underpin their emergence. It is a scientific approach which aims to explain growth, change, and consistency through the lifespan.

What is developmental psychology?

Diachronic consistency is intraindividual consistency, meaning one's own self remains consistent and being stable over time.

What is diachronic consistency?

Discriminant validity is correspondence with measures assessing characteristics unrelated to the one the scale is intended to measure.

What is discriminant validity?

Discrimination is behavioural, for it is treating someone worse because of their group membership.

What is discrimination?

Dismissing avoidant attachment styles have discomfort opening up but there is no fear about them leaving. This is high in avoidance but low on anxiety.

What is dismissing avoidant attachment style?

Dismissive attachment is when the individual finds what happened in childhood to be unimportant, and that personal relationship are not of much significance. When talking about past relationships, it is sparse, has little detail, and is unemotional.

What is dismissive attachment?

Disorganised attachment means there is no coherent internal working model.

What is disorganised attachment (Internal Working Model)?

dogmatism is the tendency to tolerate mutually inconsistent beliefs by isolating them in memory (Rokeach, 1960). This is related to prejudice.

What is dogmatism?

Downward social comparison is comparing the self to others with worse conditions. This can have a positive effect on self-concept (Willis, 1981).

What is downward social comparison?

Early attachment is the second attachment phase that occurs up to 7 months. The child will orient to the main caregivers, and show preference towards familiar caregivers. For example, they may be more likelyto smile at them.

What is early attachment?

Ego depletion states that self-control and willpower are finite resources that can be used up.

What is ego depletion?

Egocentric spatial coding systems represents object location in relation to the self.

What is egocentric spatial coding system?

Embodied social cognition is the ability to perceive one's own bodily position (proprioception) which plays a role in thoughts, feelings, and actions.

What is embodied social cognition?

Equilibrium and disequilibrium are concepts. Equilibrium is harmony between schemas and experiences, and disequilibrium is conflict between schemas and experiences. If there is disequilibrium, then it leads to adaptation. This can be via assimilation or accommodation.

What is equilibrium and disequilibrium?

Face-ism bias is the media placing more focus on the men's faces and women's bodies (Archer et al, 1983).

What is face-ism bias?

Fearful-avoidant attachment styles are less open, the individual invests less resources, and there is a fear of the opposite leaving. This is high in avoidance and anxiety.

What is fearful-avoidant attachment style?

First-order ToM is attributing beliefs. This can be measured by measuring language referring to desires or beliefs. If desire terms appear before belief terms, it suggests that there is developmental progression. However, to properly measure it, we must look at cases where belief is different to reality. This is known as false belief.

What is first-order Theory of Mind?

Forewarning is when prior knowledge of a persuasion attempt renders the attempt less effective (Cialdini & Petty, 1979). This is because it allows time for the target to conduct research and produce counter arguments. This is more effective with important issues compared to trivial ones.

What is forewarning?

Genetic bottlenecks is when populations become critically small.

What is genetic bottlenecks?

Goal-corrected/reciprocal relationship is the fourth attachment phase. It occurs from 2 year onwards. They will negotiate with the caregiver and accommodate to their needs. they will also share responsibility for maintaining contact. This develops at around the same time as mental representations. The Internal Working Model (mental representation of relationships) guides relationships.

What is goal-corrected/reciprocal relationship?

Heterochronous development is when different systems develop at different rates. This happens to the sensory systems in humans.

What is heterochronous development?

Holistic thinking focuses on the context in general and the field surrounding the object. There is interest in the relationship between the object and field, and there is reliance on experimental knowledge, not formal logic. Thematic categorization is used and it is rooted in Taoism, Chinese Buddhism, and Confucianism.

What is holistic thinking?

Hostile media bias is the tendency to view counter-attitudinal media as biased and untrustworthy (Vallone et al, 1985). this is derived from biased assimilation.

What is hostile media bias?

Ingratiation is making the target like you in order to persuade them. however, this can backfire if it is too obvious, for example there is too much flattery. This can lead to suspicion of ulterior motives (Gordon, 1996).

What is ingratiation?

Insecure-avoidant attachment is one of the attachment styles in the Internal Working Model. The caregiver is rejecting and the self does not expect much upon reunion. They have to be self-reliant and emotionally strong, forcing them to become oppositional and tries to avoid all feelings. Others are conditionally available, but the self might be rejecting/hostile/punishing. They also don't feel safe around others and don't want to depend on them.

What is insecure-avoidant attachment (Internal Working Model)?

Insecure-resistant attachment is one of the attachment styles in the Internal Working Model. The caregiver is cold and the self is unloved and ineffective. They may allow for some closeness but relationships tend to be short-lived. Others are unavailable, unreliable, and disinterested.

What is insecure-resistant attachment (Internal Working Model)?

Instrumental conditioning is behaviour followed by a positive response is more likely to be repeated. This relates to utilitarian function of attitudes.

What is instrumental conditioning and how does it relate to attitude formation??

A child's cultural development appears on two planes: social and psychological. It appears on the social plane first. Psychological planes are developed through internalisation, which is the reformulation of social functions into psychological functions.

What is internalisation in Vygotsky's theory?

Low-balling is most employed by used car salesmen and certain restaurants. Once the target has committed, the persuader will add an unattractive condition that the target has to go through. Since the target has committed, they are more likely to comply.

What is low-balling?

Modern racism replaced 'old-fashioned' racism. This includes aversive racism, which is avoiding interaction with ethnic minorities (Dovidio & Gaertner, 1998).

What is modern racism?

Multiple role theory states that the complexity of the self is important, because it is beneficial to our well-being and health to have multiple self identities. This is because it opens up new experiences, but can also risk failure and frustration. Self-schemas that are too extreme or well-partitioned can have negative effects, for example priming schemas can have extreme effects on one's mood. The quality vs quantity of roles is important to help adapt to multiple situations and the self needs to 'gel' because if not it can cause cognitive dissonance.

What is multiple role theory?

Neonatal imitation is when newly born children copy behaviours of their parents or others.

What is neonatal imitation?

Object permanence is understanding an object can exist even though it cannot be seen or heard. Up to about 8-9 months, the child will not search for a hidden object. By 8-12 months, infants will search for an object in the place they last found it, instead of in the new place (A-not-B error). Afterwards, object permanence will have developed.

What is object permanence?

Objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) states that objectification changes the way in which women are treated by others and how they themselves feel, think and act. Frequent objectification can lead to self objectification (Calogero, 2004), which has been linked to the severity of striving for thinness (Calogro et al, 2005)

What is objectification theory?

Observational learning (Bandura, 1977) is when an individual's attitudes (and behaviours) are influenced by observing others. This influences attitudes towards unfamiliar social groups.

What is observational learning and how does it relate to attitude formation?

Ontogeny is the developmental lifespan of a single organism.

What is ontogeny?

The outgroup homogeneity effect states that we have a tendency to see people within the same group as more similar than they actually are. This can lead to ingroup bias, which is liking someone who share characteristics with us.

What is outgroup homogeneity?

Parental sensitivity refers to the reactivity between parents and child. This affects attachment.

What is parental sensitivity?

Partner regulation is actively attempting to change one's partner to make them closer to one's ideal.

What is partner regulation?

Personality psychology is the study of how people come to be who they are. It looks at describing one's typical and general style of behaving, thinking, and feeling. This includes all types of psychological individual differences (differential psychology). It studies beliefs and attitudes, mental abilities, vocational interests, sexuality, and personality disorder.

What is personality psychology?

Phylogeny is the evolutionary origins of a species.

What is phylogeny?

Pluralistic ignorance is when people wrongly assume based on the actions of others that they endorse a norm.

What is pluralistic ignorance?

Preattachment is the first attachment phase that occurs up to 6 weeks. The child will recognise the mother's smell, voice, and face. They are not attached, meaning separation is okay. They will produce innate signals such as crying that summons the caregiver.

What is preattachment?

Prejudice are emotions. They are negative affective reactions towards a group.

What is prejudice?

Preoccupied attachment style is being comfortable with opening one's self, but have a fear of the partner leaving. This is high in anxiety but low on avoidance.

What is preoccupied attachment style?

Preoccupied attachment is when the description of early relationships are lengthy and with no clear structure. The individual acknowledges the significance of past experiences but has not resolved them. Past experiences are talked about with feelings, almost as if they are re-experiencing it in the interview.

What is preoccupied attachment?

Private self-awareness is the awareness of the private aspects of one's self. This can have positive consequences if focusing on the positive aspects of the self. If one focuses on the negatives, it can lead to depression. Scheier and Carver (1977) had participants read positive or negative statements about the self. They found that emotional responses were more extreme when participants read statements whilst looking at a mirror. This is because it makes use more privately aware, thus more likely to adhere to attitudes than change them. Diener and Wallborn (1976) also said that it make us more moral.

What is private self-awareness?

Private self-consciousness is chronic private self-awareness and concern about private aspects of the self (Fenigstein et al, 1975). This can have positive or negative effects.

What is private self-consciousness?

Public self-awareness is the awareness of the public aspects of the self and how these aspects may be seen by others. This can be debilitating but leads people to adhere to norms and societal standards of behaviour in specific situations (Froming, Allen, & Jensen, 1985).

What is public self-awareness?

Public self-consciousness is chronic public self-awareness and concern about how one is evaluated by others (Fenigstein et al, 1975). For example, people are less likely to litter if they are aware of others. This is a personality trait.

What is public self-consciousness?

Reactance is when people act strongly against blatant or persistent influence attempts because they are direct threats to personal freedom. This is also known as the boomerang effect, which is when threats to personal freedom lead to defiant responses. This tends to happen when influence attempts are blatant.

What is reactance?

Realistic Group Conflict Theory (Sherif, 1966) is when groups struggle for material welfare.

What is realistic group conflict theory?

Reliability refers to the degree to which a measure produces consistent results.

What is reliability?

Resistant parental sensitivity is inconsistent parental sensitivity. Sometimes they will respond, be anxious/depressed, and sometimes over-bearing. By 3-6, children will try to control the caregivers' conversations and activities, and could be overly helpful or overly aggressive.

What is resistant parental sensitivity?

Right-wing authoritarianism (Altmeyer, 1998) is conventionalism (save tradition), authoritarian aggression (must stay in box), and authoritarian submission (naturally conform).

What is right-wing authoritarianism?

Scaffolding is providing appropriate assistance in the ZPD to allow for optimal learning. This was introduced by Wood, Bruner, and Rostos (1976).

What is scaffolding?

Second-order Tom is attributing beliefs about beliefs. This means we think about what others think on what they are thinking about. This allows us to understand jokes, sarcasm, lies, effective bullying, and deception. This appears at around 6-8 years but develops throughout life. However, it can develop at 4 years old.

What is second-order theory of mind?

Secure attachment is one of the attachment styles in the Internal Working Model. The caregiver if often available and will return after separation. The self is lovable, worthy, and effective, Others are also available, responsive, and interested, and the elf knows that good things are possible. Parental sensitivity is constantly responsive.

What is secure attachment (Internal Working Model)?

Secure parental sensitivity is that the parent is consistently responsive. They are able to read the child's signals, respond quickly, and have good coordination. There is mind-mindedness, meaning the parent knows that the child is an individual with thoughts and feelings, and they discuss mental states, such as how everyone is feeling. This relates to symbolic play at age 2 and theory of mind at age 4. The parent must be available, have time, and is secure.

What is secure parental sensitivity?

Selective avoidance is a person's tendency to filter out information which is inconsistent with their pre-existing attitudes (Martin et al, 2003). This is paired with people being more likely to pay attention to messages that are consistent with their own opinion.

What is selective avoidance?

Self-awareness is the psychological state of being aware of one's characteristics, feelings, and behaviours. This develops over time from around 18 months old.

What is self-awareness?

Self-concept clarity is the extent to which self-schemas are clearly and confidently defined, consistent with each other, and stable across time (Campbell et al, 1996). It is important to have a strong and unified sense of self that has many facets. This bolsters psychological well-being and self-esteem, as well as helping deal with stresses and injustices.

What is self-concept clarity?

Self-concept is a complete set of beliefs people have about themselves (Markus, 1977). This is made of self-schemas.

What is self-concept?

Self-esteem motivation is self-enhancement that helps alter negative views (Kunda, 1990). It makes the self seem better by evaluating positive feedback more regularly, taking credit for success and deflecting blame (self-serving attribution bias, Zuckerman, 1979), and recognising more attractive 'morphed' pictures of the self (Eply & Whitchurch, 2008)

What is self-esteem motivation?

Self esteem is a person's subjective appraisal of the elf as intrinsically positive or negative (Rosenberg, 1968). This is influenced by upbringing and surrounding (Baumeister et al, 2003), such as by authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative parenting styles. These can have chronic individual differences and it changes throughout one's lifespan. The sources of it are internal or external.

What is self-esteem?

Self-monitoring is controlling how one presents themselves depending on the person and situation (Sydner, 1974) and how much people engage in self-presentation.

What is self-monitoring?

Self-perception theory (Bem, 1967)states that people learn about themselves by examining their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. This effect can occur by imagining the behaviour, suggesting the activity rather than behaviour is more important.

What is self-perception theory?

Separation protest is the third attachment phase that occurs up to 2 years. the child will actively seek contact with the caregivers, and will experience separation anxiety. The child will also use the caregiver as a safe base for exploration.

What is separation protest?

Social comparison theory suggests that in order to learn about and define the self, we compare ourselves to others (Festinger, 1954). This includes upward social comparison, downward social comparison, and temporal comparisons.

What is social comparison theory?

Social constructivism is one of the key ideas in Vygotsky's theory. It states that knowledge is constructed through social interaction, for example we learn from helping or with the help of others. Children are viewed as an apprentice rather than a scientist (Rogoff, 1990).

What is social constructivism in terms of Vygotsky's theory?

Social dominance orientation (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) relates to prejudice because it has been found that people high in SO favour status hierarchies. This includes racism, sexism, and other non-egalitarian attitudes. They do not like anything that impacts structure or their in-group.

What is social dominance orientation?

Social exchange theory is an economic approach regarding cost and rewards. The more rewards a person offers, the more attracted we will be towards them (Thibaut & kelly, 1959). We naturally look at the gains, losses and whether or not we will have a better relationship with someone else. The evaluation of the relationship depends on rewards gain from the relationship cost of the relationship, the relationship they deserve, and the likelihood to have a better relationship with someone else. The social exchange formula states that the outcome is rewards minus cost. This gives a comparison level for alternatives to see if it costs too much or if it is not worth it.

What is social exchange theory?

Social Identity Theory (Tajfel et al, 1971) is when we see our own groups more positively in relation to others.

What is social identity theory?

Social influence is the effect that others have on our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour. This can be demonstrated in conformity, compliance, and obedience.

What is social influence?

Social psychology studies how people think about, influence, and relate to each other. It attempts to look for universal behaviour, and uses the individual (self), group (people and the social world), and context to try and find it. It uses systematic observations and descriptions and measures or manipulates social situations.

What is social psychology?

Social reflection is deriving self-esteem from achievements of close others if the domain of achievement is not self-relevant or the self is also exceptional in this domain.

What is social reflection?

Social smiling is when infants just smile at anything, not necessarily because they are happy.

What is social smiling?

Stereoscopic vision is the ability to better able judge distances. This is because we lived on trees and had to jump between locations.

What is stereoscopic vision?

Stereotype lift is knowing the stereotype that the outgroup would do bad, thus doing well themselves.

What is stereotype lift?

Stereotype threat is when people are tested and belong to a group that is stereotypically expected to not do well, they become anxious and confirm the stereotype (Steele, 1997).

What is stereotype threat?

Symbolic interactionism (e.g. Mead, 1934) is seeing the self from the outside, seeing the self as others would see us, being aware of the self is a crucial part of being able to control ourselves, adhering to social norms, and learning how to change.

What is symbolic interactionism?

Synchronic consistency is interindividiual consistency. Members of groups must have the same opinions as each other. This is powerful within a minority.

What is synchronic consistency?

Temporal comparison is comparing the present self with past self or the self of anticipated future (Albert, 1977). This can able people to boost their self-esteem by denigrating their past self (Wilson & Ross, 2001) and making the value of the post self expendable in pursuit of esteem for the present self. This is because if the past self is negative, it makes the present self look better, and if the present self feels great then the past self must have been worse.

What is temporal comparison?

The 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF) was originally constructed in 1949 by Cattel. It measures 16 traits that can be combined into 5 broader traits and is a factor-analytic approach.

What is the 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire?

The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is a personality inventory that has over 400 items regarding various psychological characteristics and 'everyday' characteristics. It is based on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) which was originally intended to measure mental illness.

What is the California Psychological Inventory?

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM, Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) states that variations in persuasion is dependent on the likelihood of the participant engaging in elaboration (thinking) of the arguments relevant to the study. When people think carefully about the message, they attend to its central cues (e.g. scientific arguments), and have been persuaded via the central route). This generally occurs when there is high ability or motivation. However, if people are persuaded by the more superficial aspects of a message, they are attending to its peripheral cues (e.g. glossy images) and have been persuaded via the peripheral route). This occurs when there is low ability or motivation.

What is the ELM?

The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson, 1987) states that some actions are driven by empathy and a genuine desire to help.

What is the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis?

The Eysenk Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a personality inventory that looks at three basic dimensions of personality. It looks at the biological basis of personality.

What is the Eysenk Personality Questionnaire?

The Internal Working Model looks at attachment. It is less concerned with physical proximity and suggests that we have a set of expectations about our attachment figures. This means our past experiences guide our present behaviour. The four types of attachment styles are secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganised.

What is the Internal Working Model?

The Mental Capacity Act states that a person is unable to make a decision if they are unable to understand the information relevant to the decision, retain the information, use or weight the information, and communicate their decision by any means.

What is the Mental Capacity Act?

The Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire (NPQ) is a personality inventory. The items are cartoon sketches and it measures a wide variety of traits.

What is the Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire?

The Rouge Test is placing a dot on a child's head without them knowing and asking them to identify the person in the mirror. Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1978) found that under 18 months, children are unable to recognise themselves, suggesting they have no self awareness. However, over 18 months of age children were able to recognise themselves.

What is the Rouge Test?

The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) was developed by Cloninger et al, and it looks at the basic biological dimensions of temperament and additional character dimensions. This is a personality inventory.

What is the Temperament and Character Inventory?

The Yale approach to communication and persuasion found that there are three sets of items that can affect the power of persuasion: the source, message, and target.

What is the Yale approach to communication and persuasion?

The adult equivalent of insecure-resistant attachment is preoccupied.

What is the adult equivalent of insecure-resistant attachment?

The adult equivalent to secure attachment is autonomous.

What is the adult equivalent of secure attachment?

The adult equivalent to insecure-avoidant attachment is dismissive.

What is the adult equivalent to insecure-avoidant attachment?

Adolescence ranges between 11 and 18 years.

What is the age range for adolescence?

The age range for early adulthood is 18-25 years.

What is the age range for early adulthood?

Early childhood is from 2-6 years.

What is the age range for early childhood?

Infancy and toddlerhood is from birth to 2 years, but toddlerhood can go up to 4 years.

What is the age range for infancy and toddlerhood?

The age range for middle childhood is 6-11 years.

What is the age range for middle childhood?

The prenatal period is from conception to birth.

What is the age range for prenatal period?

The biological basis of self-awareness is the anterior cingulate cortex. This is responsible for controlling and monitoring intentional behaviour and is activated when people become self-aware.

What is the biological basis for self-awareness?

The catharsis hypothesis states that the main function of sport today lies in the cathartic discharge of aggressive urge.

What is the catharsis hypothesis?

The collective mind was coined by 19th century German scholars meaning that groups of people tend to think in the same way.

What is the collective mind?

Concrete operational is the third stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development. It occurs at 7-11 years old. This is when we learn rules such as conservation and logical thinking. Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning and thinking is much more flexible and organised. Children will be able to perform operations, which are coordinated sets of mental representations. However, thinking is still concrete and not abstract. During this stage, the child begins to develop the fundamentals of logic, the ability to do simple mathematical operations (e.g. knowing if one can add, one can also subtract), ability to sort objects (e.g. if a is bigger than b and b is bigger than c, then a is bigger than c), the ability to classify objects, and the ability to combine, order, and transform objects in their mind. This means their thinking becomes more flexible.

What is the concrete operational stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

The conditioned head-turn procedure is when an infant is placed into a sound attenuated room, and is taught to turn their head tin the direction of the sound whenever there is a change in stimulus. The infant is exposed to a language that was not previously in their environment, and they found that the infant is able to distinguish between sounds within the unknown language. This stops when the child is 10-month-old (they stop being a universal listener.

What is the conditioned head-turn procedure?

The constructivist approach believes that humans build knowledge as they continue through life. James (1890) suggested that it is impossible to be born and instantly understand all senses of the environment. Piaget said that infant perception is highly impoverished at birth, and infants could perceive light but not complex forms, for vision develops slowly. Extreme nuturists would argue that the development of the mind is based and comes from the external world.

What is the constructivist approach to developmental psychology?

A set of psychological traits and mechanisms within an individual that refer to differences among individuals in a typical tendency to behave, think, or feel in some conceptually related ways, across a variety of relevant situations, and across some fairly long period of time (Ashton, 2013)

What is the contemporary definition of personality?

Strong messages includes facts and are central to the issue. Weak messages are peripheral.

What is the difference between strong and weak messages?

The door-in-the-face technique is making a large, unrealistic request before making a smaller, more realistic one that is more likely to be successful. This is related to reciprocity. Cialdini et al (1975) asked university students if they were willing to supervise delinquent juveniles on a zoo trip, to which 83% said no. However, when first asked if they would take part in a 2 year counselling program with delinquents, to which all said no, 50% would say yes to the trip. This only works if the same person makes the request.

What is the door-in-the-face technique?

The effort justification paradigm is when one takes part in a difficult task for no reason.

What is the effort justification paradigm?

The foot-in-the-door technique (Freedman & Fraser, 1966) has the persuader ask for a small favour which is universally granted. They will then ask for a bigger favour. Since the target being asked has already committed, they are more likely to grant the larger request.

What is the foot-in-the-door technique?

Formal operational is the fourth stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development. This happens at 11 years old and above. Children will be able to transcend concrete situations and think about the future. They will also understand the world through abstract thinking and scientific reasoning. During this stage, the individual will develop the ability to hypothesizes, test, and re-evaluate the hypotheses. They will also be able to think more flexibly, rationally, and systematically, meaning they think about thoughts and operate on operations, not just concrete objects. They will also be able to think about abstract concepts such as space and time, and they will have the ability to do logically planned problem solving. For example, children under 12 will not be able to solve the pendulum problem, for they will perform unsystematic experiments and draw incorrect conclusions. However, adolescents will produce multiple hypotheses and systematically test one at a time.

What is the formal operational stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

The free choice paradigm is when one has a choice of two or more alternatives, is made aware of the positives of one not being chosen, and have to list the negatives of the one chosen.

What is the free choice paradigm?

The heuristic-systematic model (Chaiken, 1987) is a dual process model. It states that there are two different types of processing: systematic and heuristic. These are not necessarily related to peripheral and central routes. Systematic processing occurs when targets actively scan and process the arguments presented. Heuristic processing occurs when people do not carefully consider the arguments, but resort to cognitive 'shortcuts' (heuristics). This is easier to apply to make quick judgements about something rather than having to weigh up all the pros and cons. Kruglanski et al (2006) proposed it to be a unimodel, where the two processes are functionally equivalent in the persuasion process.

What is the heuristic-systematic model?

The hypocrisy paradigm is making people publicly promote socially desirable behaviour to then reveal to them that they did not exhibit said behaviour in the past.

What is the hypocrisy paradigm?

The ideographic approach examines unique combinations of very specific features that make a given person different to everyone else. It also potentially looks at their origins. Qualitative methods used include case studies, interviews, and narratives, which may be expensive, ineffective, and time-consuming. It looks specifically at a relatively small segment of personality that stands out in anyone. It is difficult to generate/detect general laws of personality. It does however provide an in-depth understanding of the individual, even though it is not possible to test for validity.

What is the ideographic approach?

Illusory correlation bias is when people stereotype and correlate group memberships and individual characteristics together due to two distinct events occurring together. This leads to committing a crucial cognitive error, for example assuming that the minority is more pron to undesirable behaviours despite majority and minority populations both being equally likely (Fiedler, 2004). This could be explained by naturally faulty memory causing people to not accurately encode rations, which can cause estimates to be biased (Fiedler, 1991). We are also generally in favour of the majority as our memory of the minority is weaker of begin with anyway. Rothbart (1981) found hat people were more accurate at accessing common events. Additionally, we often lose sensitive information about individuals.

What is the illusory correlation bias?

The implicit association test (IAT) has participants sit behind a computer screen and press different keys to match a concept. Where an attitude exists, reaction time is much faster when concepts share a response key than when they don't. This was used to measure strengths of associations between groups and concepts and groups that experience prejudice and discrimination have become associated with said concepts. For example, African Americans have been mentally associated by White Americans with oppression. Uhlmann et al (2006) found that the stronger the associations, the more prejudice shown.

What is the implicit association test?

The induced compliance paradigm is when one is forced to carry out and act that is inconsistent with their beliefs.

What is the induced compliance paradigm?

Intergroup anxiety model (Stephan & Stephan, 1985) is when people expect to feel embarrassed and uncomfortable, to be exploited, and to be negatively evaluated by outgroup and ingroup. Threats that elicit anxiety leads to the inability to stop prejudice (Amodio, 2009).

What is the intergroup anxiety model?

Intergroup emotions theory states that the nature of emotion depends on the group's relative power and status (Mackie & Smith, 2002). Powerful groups can lead to experiences of anger and thus aggression, whilst powerless groups may experience fear and thus avoidance.

What is the intergroup emotions theory?

Evolution suggests that altruism is rewarding. This applies to animals though. This is because helping kin promotes successful reproduction. Burnstein et al (1984) looked at the likelihood of helping in everyday life and in real life situations. Siblings are more likely to help in real life situations than in everyday situations, cousins are equally likely to help in both conditions, and nephews and acquaintances are more likely to help in everyday situations that in real life situations. This suggests that people are more likely to help those with similar genetics. Altruism also attracts mates (sexual selection).

What is the link between altruism and evolution?

It has been found that aspects of our own personality could lead to satisfaction with marriage even though most people would feel unhappy. Certain traits could also elicit positive behaviours which would thus enhance the relationship quality. Watson et al (2004) had 291 recently married couples complete the Iowa Marital Assessment Project. This looks at happiness with marriage, sexual satisfaction, and level of conflict within the marriage. It was found that the participant's own level of agreeableness and emotional stability was related to marital satisfaction, for example agreeable and stable people were more satisfied with their marriage. They also found that neither similarity nor dissimilarity between spouses were associated with higher levels of marital satisfaction.

What is the link between marital satisfaction and personality?

Bodily feelings such as warmth has also been found to affect emotions. Ijzerman and Semin (2009) found that a warm environment makes people like strangers more, whilst being social excluded can make one feel colder (Ijzerman et al, 2012).

What is the link between temperature and emotions?

The marshmallow test is used to test executive functions of older children. They found that if one an wait, they are more likely to succeed in life. It is also a good predictor for income, grades, and likelihood to go to prison. However, it has not been confirmed as to whether it can be trained to be better.

What is the marshmallow test?

The matching phenomenon states that we tend to be attracted to those with similar physical attractiveness to ourselves. Matched couples tend to have longer-lasting relationships. In order to reach above their own attractiveness level, people can compensate for their looks to make themselves attractive in others ways. This could be with wealth, humour, or social circle. This is done for equity and asset matching., and to exchange for what they want, which is an evolutionary instinct (Buss & Schmidt, 1993).

What is the matching phenomenon?

The mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968, 2001) states that although new things make us uncomfortable, for it is potentially threatening, the more exposed we are to it the more familiar we become with it. If there is no harm and we are familiar, it leads to liking it. It does not require the person to take any action towards or have thoughts about the attitude object. An evolutionary explanation for this is that as we become more familiar we are more likely to have control over the outcome.

What is the mere exposure effect?

The nativist approach suggests that we are naturally born with certain abilities. Gibson suggested that perceptual systems have evolved, and Haith and Benson (1998) state that we are born with greater capacities for perceiving and acting in the world than observable behaviour suggests. We are "precocious infant. Extreme naturists would argue that the majority of information required to build a brain exists within the genes.

What is the nativist approach to developmental psychology?

The need for personal structure is preferring structure in most situations, and in terms of stereotyping, stereotypes provide structure. Neuberg and Neusom (1993) found that high personal need for structure participants assigned more stereotypically female straights to a women despite both descriptions of a women being the same.

What is the need for personal structure and how does it relate to intergroup perceptions?

The nomothetic approach looks at the way in which any given person can be similar to some people and yet different from others. However, it generally focuses on large groups of people and measures the variable to then find out how these variables are related. It uses quantitative methods such as questionnaires and direct observations to find the general laws of personality. It is a more superficial understanding of a specific individual.

What is the nomothetic approach?

The pre-operational stage is the second stage off Piaget's stages of cognitive development and it occurs at 2-7 years. We begin to represent the world symbolically, for schemas are fully representational, meaning we have mental images of various items. Children learn through imitation and play, and there will be improvements in memory and symbolic thinking. This would be through language, drawing pictures, and pretend play. They will have full object permanence, and begin to use language to present objects and ideas. Children also become egocentric, for they cannot look at the world through anyone else's eyes but their own, and they do not understand concepts of conservation.

What is the pre-operational stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

The reciprocity principle is when you do a favour for a person before asking them to do something for you. People are more likely to be persuaded after receiving a favour (Regan, 1971). Reciprocity can depend on social penalties, and failure to reciprocate can result in being called a 'free-loader'.

What is the reciprocity principle?

The reinforcement-affect model (Byrne & Clone, 1970) found that people are liked or disliked depending on their association with positive or negative feeling, even if the person has nothing to do with the reward (Lott & Lott, 1972). Griffit (1970) had students evaluate someone whilst sitting in a pleasant and comfortable room or an unpleasant and hot room. The person was rated more positively if the participant was in the nice room.

What is the reinforcement-affect model (Byrne & Clone, 1970)?

If self-esteem is based on a large range of factors, then people are more likely to have higher self-esteem. However, if it is based on a narrow set of factors, it can lead to lower self-esteem (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001).

What is the relation between self-esteem and the amount of factors it is based on?

Cognitive development occurs as a function of the child's interaction with partners are more knowledgeable than themselves (MKO). Such social interaction leads to the development of elementary cognitive functions into higher cognitive functions.

What is the role of social origins for higher cognitive functions such as thinking in Vygotsky's theory?

Sexual strategies theory states that human attraction is part of a sexual strategy to maximise the chance of transmitting genes. This explains why males prefer youth, physical health, and attractiveness (reproductive status and fertility), whilst females preferred status, maturity, and resources (ability to provide for mother and child).

What is the sexual strategies theory?

The sleeper effect is believing in an untrustworthy source overtime, especially if it is after a discontinue cue.

What is the sleeper effect?

The smarties experiment shows children a smarties box, but then on the inside it is presented to be pencils. The children would have originally thought that there were smarties within the box. They are then asked what a person who has not seen the inside will think is on the inside. If children say smarties, they demonstrate second-order ToM, for they took perspective. However, if they say pencils, then they failed, for they are thinking that reality is what is in people's head and reflect their own past beliefs. Generally, success is found at around 4 years. It has also been found that it becomes difficult to remember what the self originally though.

What is the smarties unexpected content experiment?

The sociometer theory (Leary et al, 2001) states that people are motivated to maintain high self-esteem and they do this to ensure they are socially accepted. Self-esteem acts as a barometer of social inclusion. Signs of social exclusion leads to reduced self-esteem, which cause aversive emotions, and ultimately leads to modifying behaviour and seeking reinclusion.

What is the sociometer theory?

The strength model of self-control suggests that self-control cannot be maintained for an unlimited amount of time (Baumeister et al, 1998). However, it can be practiced.

What is the strength model of self-control?

The struggle for superiority is wanting your own group to be better than others. There may be collaboration within groups but competition between groups.

What is the struggle for superiority?

The that's-not-all technique is often used in retail (Burger, 1986). The persuader will offer the buyer something at a high price, and will wait for a while. It is likely that the buyer will say no, to which they will be offered an incentive. As the consumer feels that they owe the persuader something because they are generous, the consumer will make a purchase.

What is the that's-not=all technique?

Theory of Mind allows us to predict the actions of others. This is through their intentions and goals, desires, perspectives, and beliefs. We do this through first-order and second-order Theory of Mind.

What is theory of mind?

Trichromatic colour vision is the ability to distinguish between around 10 million colours. This allows us to distinguish between foods and maximise return on foraged food.

What is trichromatic colour vision?

Type A attachment is avoidant. This makes up 20% of attachment. The individual is not distressed by separation, but they would conspicuously avoid interaction and ignore the attachment figure on reunion

What is type A attachment?

Type B attachment is secure. This makes up 70% of attachment styles. The individual will explore with their caregiver as the base. They will maintain proximity and interaction, and may or may not be distressed upon departure. The individual will enthusiastically greet the caregiver upon return.

What is type B attachment?

Type C attachment makes up 10%. This is resistant/ambivalent. The individual is clingy and they won't explore. There is distress upon separation, and the individual is difficult to comfort on return, for they will seek and resist contact on return.

What is type C attachment?

Type D attachment is disorganized. The individual lacks a coherent strategy to handle stress. This makes up a small minority.

What is type D attachment?

Upward social comparison is comparing the self to others with better circumstances or something that we aspire to. This can have a negative effect on self esteem (Collins, 1996).

What is upward social comparison?

Volunteering is altruistic behaviour that rose over time. This involves giving up time, effort, and resources to others. However, a selfish aspect would be it looks good to employers.

What is volunteering in terms of altruism?

Machiavellians are people who lack empathy, focus on self-interest and personal gain, have cynical disregard for mortality, and manipulate others to gain their own benefits. These people are less likely to be altruistic/help.

What kind of people are less likely to be altruistic?

People are more likely to be altruistic if they are high in just wold beliefs, are empathetic, and have widened feelings of responsibility.

What kind of people are more likely to be altruistic?

Research on genetics can be dangerous because it can be seen as a racial slur. Lea et al (2005) found that the MAOA gene explains higher violent offending rates among New Zealand and Maori, but Merriman and Cameron (2007) found that there was no supporting evidence, and we can't say that more Maori have the MAOA gene when compared to others.

What limitations are there in investigating genetics?

Motivations that influence social cognition include finding out more about a topic, protecting or enhancing self-esteem, ensuring cognitive consistency, and feeling like we are in control of the world we live in.

What motivations influence social cognition?

During the Pleistocene epoch, the human species evolved the parent-infant bond. The infant would be protected by the parents from predators at all times, never be left along, and was fed on demand. As a result, humans developed a mother-infant relationship with continuous skin-to-skin contact and attention to infant signals. The closeness between mother and child has been found to be common across cultures and species.

What occurred during the Pleistocene epoch?

Familiarity and proximity facilitates attraction. Little and Perret (2002) found that people preferred faces of the opposite sex that has been morphed with their own face, suggesting that people prefer faces that look like their own. Additionally, the propinquity effects (Festinger et al, 1950) suggests that proximity can be equivalent to friendship. Often people are friends with neighbours that live closest to them (geographical proximity). The internet creates psychological proximity too. However, proximity can sometimes lead to hostility, such as domestic violence and neighbourhood disputes. this is the slow effect of negativity.

What role does familiarity and proximity play in attraction?

Historical and cultural contexts can influence social psychology.

What types of context can influence research and theories within social psychology?

Following, boredom, preference, first look (what attracts their attention first)

What types of infant looking behaviour can be studied?

Personality inventories use a combination of self- and observer reports. Self-reports are obtained from a sample of 'target' persons as well as observer reports about the same 'target' persons from others. It has been that that there is high agreement between self-and observer reports, supporting the construct validity of the personality inventory scale. HEXACO-PI has correlations ranging from .55-.65 in a sample of over 300 college students (Lee & Ashton, 2006), and NEO-PI-R has correlations at about .6 with spouses as observers and .4 with friends or neighbours as observers. This means there is convergent validity of the scales. However it could also means that targets and observers have the same inaccurate opinion about the target's personality traits.

What types of reports to personality inventories use?

Thomas Hobbes (1651) argued that human nature is vicious, and it is curbed by modern society and civilisation. Our basic nature is bestial, nasty, brutish, and short, but laws and social norms hold us back. This is supported by the fact that within-species aggression can be expected to be more common among territorial and social species (Darwin's evolutionary theory), and humans are both social and territorial.

What was Hobbes' view on human aggression?

John-Jacques Rousseau (1754) suggests that human nature is gentle, and that agriculture, technology, and urbanisation fuel violence. This is because it led to inequality, we have tools to hurt each other, and the idea of having something to defend leads to aggression.

What was Rousseau's view on human aggression?

Bystanders help when they have been drinking, they are friends, and believe others around them would also help. The last point is particularly prominent if it is within the in-group.

When do bystanders help?

Generally, persuasion via the central/systemic route is more effective and peripheral route persuasion often results in temporary or superficial attitude change.

Which route of information processing is more effective in persuasion?

John-Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Hobbes had opposing views on human aggression.

Who had opposing views on human aggression?

People are influenced to rejection and to obtain important information.

Why are people influenced?

Social animals are aggressive because they must compete for status, thus giving them more chance to be aggressive.

Why are social animals aggressive?

Territorial species are aggressive because they must compete for territory and protect.

Why are territorial species aggressive?

New species develop from old species and are more suited to the new environment, causing new species to thrive and the old to become extinct.

Why are there more new species alive than old species?

People break up due to cultural differences, adultery, behaviour, desertion, separation, and other reasons.

Why do people break up?

People do not help because of diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.

Why do people not help?

We have a vested interest in our self-concepts because we want consistency and control over ourselves. If it is wrong, we may not believe it if it is inconsistent.

Why do we have a vested interest in our self-concepts?

Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination could be explained by limitations of human as information processors. We do not have enough space in our working memory to process everyone as an individual. Fiske and Taylor (1991) found that people rely on short-cuts or heuristics for information, and Dijker and Koomen (1996) found that people draw on stereotypes to gain knowledge about people they barely know. However, stereotypes are not always used. Depending on the outcome with another person we decide whether to use stereotypes or cognitive resources more. If one is going to meet and interact with a person then accuracy is more important.

Why do we have stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination?

Children may not be able to demonstrate first-level ToM because they can't generate representations or reason about beliefs, they don't understand conversational conventions (e.g. don't understand what they have been asked), and they know the correct answer but can't stop themselves from giving the wrong answer (lacks inhibition).

Why may children not be able to demonstrate first-level ToM?

Woodward (1998) studied the habituation paradigm. The child is habituated with a hand touching the ball and not the teddy. They are then shown a different scenario where the ball and teddy switch place. 6-months-old children find it weird if the hand does not touch the ball, meaning children are able to understand goals at 6-months-old. This is then repeated but a stick is used to tough. They would then find it weird if the stick changed path, as the interpret inanimate objects as not having goals.

Woodward (1998)

The Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo, 1971) was a 2 week experiment with 24 participants assigned as prisoners or guards. The prisoners were arrested, cuffed, and taken to prison. They were also processed like real prisoners. The guards were dressed in khakis and wore sunglasses as a way to individuate themselves. A prisoner rebellion sparked authoritarian guard behaviour and lead to degradation and harassment of the prisoners. It could also be argued that the right of withdrawal was taken away. This led to the experiment to be stopped after 6 days.

Zimbardo, 1971

Women tend to be more susceptible to persuasive attempts than men, especially when it is face-to-face. This could be because women are more cooperation focused and social sensitive (Eagly, & Carli, 1981). however, it still depends on the topic of persuasion and familiarity to females versus males (Sistrunk & McDavid, 1971).

how does gender affect persuasive power?