Speech Communications Final ch. 5-7 15-18

Nonmaterial and Material components of culture

Material Components: tangible objects like cars, phones, computers, shovels, hammers, etc. Nonmaterial: intangible things that reflect a cultures values and influence personal and social behaviors. 4 most important nonmaterial aspects of culture are: Beliefs, values, norms, and language.

We learn culture in the process of communicating

- As we communicate with others, we come to understand the beliefs, values, norms, and language of our culture. -By observing how others communicate we learn language (dog) and what it means (a pet, a work animal, or food to eat) This allows us to participate in a social world of shared meanings

hypothetical examples

- Speakers use these when they have no real example that adequately makes a point. - not a factual example but can add clarity and depth to a speech.

Cultures are dynamics

- cultures evolve and change over time. - 4 sources of cultural adaption or change: invention, diffusion, cultural calamity, and communication

Quotations (form of evidence)

- exact citations of statements made by others. (also called testimony)

the key word outline

- a less detailed formal outline - includes only key words for each point of the speech which helps trigger the speaker's memory of each point.

Communication

- a relationship with culture - one way it propels change is by naming things in ways that shape how we understand them ( Example: "date rape" was invented in the late 1980s before that their was no term for it.)

personal knowledge

- a source of information - it enhances your credibility because listeners are more likely to perceive you as more credible than someone who is not personally involved with the topic.

the importance of creditability

- a speaker giving a persuasive speech trying to change people needs more credibility than a person giving an informative speech just trying to inform people.

Memorized style

- a speech is memorized word-for-word in advanced and is presented with no script.

Culture

- a way of life; beliefs, understandings, practices, and ways of interpreting experience that are shared by a number of people. - It is a system of ideas values, beliefs, structures, and practices that is communicated by one generation to the next. Example: how we dress, our views of success, the language we use, etc.

Cultural Calamity

- adversity that brings about change in a culture - Example: disasters such as hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, and plagues, which can wipe out countless lives and alter patterns of life for the future.

Culture as systems

- aspects of a culture are interrelated and worth together. It is a coherent system of understandings, traditions, values, communication practices, and ways of living.

Comparisons (form of evidence)

- associations between two things that are similar in some important way or ways - Similes and metaphors are types of comparisons

Diffusion

- borrowing from another culture. - Example: borrowing language (touché) and foods (sushi) from other cultures.

Undetailed examples

- brief references that quickly recount specific instances of something. - Example: "Remember standing in the long lines at the bookstore and paying for more than your tuition at the start of this term'?

Involve listeners

- call for participation - ask rhetorical questions - poll listeners - refer to specific listeners (call them out and ask question)

Functions of evidence

- can be used to make ideas clearer, more compelling, and more dramatic - it strengthens a speaker's opinions - gives a speaker more credibility

beliefs (nonmaterial)

- conceptions of what is true, factual or valid Example: the once believed conception that the world was flat.

Guidelines for effective persuasive speaking

- create common grounds with listeners - adapt to listeners (use understandable words) -avoid fallacious reasoning (bad or incorrect reasoning)

Communication's relationship with culture

- culture is reflected in communication practices; at the same time, communication practices shape cultural life

low-context communication style

- explicit, detailed, and precise. - the spoken word carries most of the meaning, people explicitly say what they want to convey without beating around the bush

outlining speeches

- helps speaker make sure they have enough evidence to support their claim - provides a safety net in case you forget what you intend to say or get off track. - 3 kinds of outlines: working, formal, and key word

the response sought

- in seeking to change listeners in some way, persuasive speeches seek a more powerful response: change rather than acceptance of new information

stories

- included in speeches to personalize their ideas and create identification with listeners. They are often based on personal experiences

high context communication style

- indirect and undetailed communication. -High use of nonverbal elements; voice tone, facial expression, gestures, and eye movement carry significant parts of conversation.

Norms (nonmaterial)

- informal rules that guide how members of a culture act, as well as how they think and feel. They define what is considered to be normal, or appropriate, in particular situations. Example: how to talk to a professor or how to act at a restaurant.

The controversial nature of the purpose

- informative speeches tend to be less controversial than the purposes of persuasive speeches. - they usually aim to give listeners new information: to teach, explain or describe a person, object, event, process, or relationship whereas persuasive speeches aim to change listeners' attitudes beliefs, or behaviors

surveys

- involves asking a number of people about their opinions, views, values, actions, or beliefs.

Adapt to diverse listeners

- it is important to speak in ways that include and respect diverse experiences, values, and viewpoints. -Example: a quotation from Jesus will have more impact with Christians than with Muslims.

Cultures are shaped by historical and geographical forces

- just as our family history shapes our identity, the traditions and history of a culture shape its character.

Connect with listeners' values and experiences

- learning what listeners know about a topic to avoid telling them what they already know and to connect the topic with listeners' values and experiences - create common ground by informing listeners that you share a concern, can use "we" language Example: "our neighborhood" ,"we can make", "our community"

Design your speech to enhance learning and retention

- limit the information you present - move from familiar to unfamiliar - repeat important ideas - highlight key material - rely on multiple communication channels (handouts, visuals, etc.)

Motivate listeners to want information

- listeners must be motivated to want what the speaker is providing - in some cases listeners are motivated for their own reasons. Example: listeners will attend a non required CPR class because they want to learn how to perform CPR.

evidence

- material used to support claims a speaker makes. -Types of evidence are: statistics, examples, comparisons, and quotations. Visual aids may be used to represent evidence graphically.

Supplements or replaces verbal communication (function of non verbal communication)

- nonverbal behaviors may repeat verbal behaviors ( saying "yes" while nodding your head) - behaviors may complement or add to words ( when you see a friend you might say "I'm glad to see you" and underline the verbal message with a smile. - you can substitute verbal behaviors with nonverbal behaviors (rolling your eyes to indicate you are annoyed)

Establishes relationship-level meanings (function of nonverbal communication)

- nonverbal communication is often more powerful than verbal language in conveying relationship-level meaning.

Reflects cultural values (function of nonverbal communication)

- nonverbal patterns reflect communication rules of specific cultures and social communities ( Ex: in the united states, a handshake is the most common way to greet someone, whereas Arab men are more likely to kiss each other on both cheeks.)

statistics (form of evidence)

- numbers that summarize many individual cases or demonstrate relationships between phenomena.

The evidence needed

- persuasive speeches need more supporting material than informative speeches do because they are typically seeking to convince listeners.

Haptics (type of nonverbal communication)

- physical touch Example: women tend to touch others to show liking, and intimacy, whereas men more typically rely on touch to assert power and control.

Visual aids (form of evidence)

- presentation of evidence by such visual means as charts, graphs, photographs, and physical objects to reinforce ideas presented verbally or to provides information

detailed examples

- provide more elaborate information than undetailed examples, so they are valuable when listeners aren't familiar with an idea. - They create vivid pictures that can be moving and memorable

Cultural relativism

- recognizes that cultures vary in how they think, act and behave as well as in what they believe and value. It reminds us that something that appears odd or even wrong to us may seem natural or right from the point of view of a different culture.

Extemporaneous Style

- relies on preparation and practice but actual words and nonverbal behaviors aren't memorized.

values (nonmaterial)

- shared views of what is good, right, worthwhile, and important with regard to conduct and existence. Example: developed countries that value strong families provide paid, guaranteed family leave for all workers.

Examples (form of evidence)

- single instances used to make a point, dramatize an idea, or personalize information.

Interviews

- source of information -allows you to gather information, to check the accuracy of ideas you have, and to understand the perspective of people who are experts or who have special experience with your topic. - want to plan ahead and make questions; can be closed- ended questions (questions you can answer in a few words) or open-ended questions (questions that cannot be answered in a few words)

organizing speeches

- speakers should use simple sentences - provide signposts to highlight organization - repeat key ideas - tell listeners what you are going to tell them, present you message, then remind them of the main points (introduction, body, and conclusion)

Conclusion

- summarizes content and provides a memorable final thought - important to restate your thesis and each major point. Example: "today I've identified two key problems with advising: an insufficient number of advisers and inadequate training of advisers. Both of these problems can be solved if you will join me in urging our president to increase the number of advisers and the training they get."

Language (nonmaterial)

- teaches us our cultures beliefs, values, and norms. In the process of learning our language we also learn our cultures values. Example: in America sometimes older people introduce themselves to kids using their first name instead of introducing themselves as Mr. or Mrs. (last name) which is informal in most other countries.

Invention

- the creation of tools, ideas, and practices. - Example: The wheel, medical inventions, etc.

Library and Online Research

- the internet - indexes - databases and search engines - reference works

Guidelines for Visual aids

- visual aid should be large enough and clear enough to be seen clearly by all listeners - should be simple and uncluttered - should be safe and nondistracting (example: don't bring in a real firearm as a visual aid) - avoid visual overload

Regulates interaction (function of nonverbal communication)

- we use our eyes and body posture to indicate that we want to enter a conversation, speakers step back from a podium to indicate that they have finished a speech, we invite people to speak by looking directly at them, often after asking a question.

Build credibility with listeners

- when giving an informative speech, you should demonstrate that you have some expertise relevant to your topic. ( say something so the listener knows what you are talking about) - You may show that you have personal experience for example like saying " I took a CPR course"

Kinesics (type of nonverbal communication)

-body positions, body motions, facial expressions, and gestures. Example: someone who sits with arms crossed and looks downwards seems to say, "don't bother me."

Impromptu Style

-involves little preparation. - speaker speaks off the cuff, organizing ideas as they talk and working with evidence that is already familiar with them. Examples: making a comment in class or answering a question you hadn't anticipated in an interview

Difference with persuasive and informative speaking

1. persuasive speeches tend to have more controversial purposes 2. persuasive speeches seek more powerful responses from listeners 3. persuasive speeches need more and better proof 4. persuasive speeches require the speaker to earn greater credibility

Guidelines for effective informative speaking

1. provide listeners with a clear thesis statement 2. connect with listeners' values and experiences 3. motivate listeners to want information 4.build credibility with listeners 5.adapt to diverse listeners 6. organize so listeners can follow easily 7. design your speech to enhance learning and retention 8.involve listeners

Systematic desensitization (reducing communication apprehension)

1. teaches people how to relax physiologically and then helps them practice feeling relaxed as they imagine themselves in progressively difficult communication situations.

Cognitive Restructuring (reducing communication apprehension)

2. involves teaching people how to revise how they think about speaking situations.

Positive visualization (reducing communication apprehension)

3. a person visualizes themselves communication effectively in progressively challenging speaking situations.

Introduction

4 GOALS: 1. gets listeners' attention and motivates them to listen 2. it presents a clear thesis statement 3. it enhances the speakers credibility 4. it previews how the speech will be developed (previews the body)

Skills Training

4. assumes that lack of speaking skills causes us to be apprehensive about speaking. This method focuses on teaching people skills such as how to start conversations, organize ideas, build strong introductions, and support claims.

social communities

A group of people who live within a dominant culture yet who also have common distinctive experiences and patterns of communicating example: gay men, lesbians, intersexual, transsexuals, transgendered people, and bisexuals experience difficulty in a society that defines them as marginal.

motivated sequence

A pattern for organizing persuasive speeches that consists of 5 steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

persuasive speaking

Aims to change others by prompting them to think, feel, believe, or act differently. For example: changing someone's attitude towards policies or candidates for office

pathos (pillar of persuasion)

Emotional Appeals emotional proofs address the more subjective reasons for ones beliefs in people, ideas, causes, and courses of action.

Post Hoc, Ergo propter hoc (fallacy)

Means " after this, therefore because of this" ---- which means "false Cause" " The amount of ice cream consumption correlates to the number of crimes"--- Ice cream consumption isn't the cause of crime. The nice weather is the cause of crime.

Ad Hominem arguments (fallacy)

Rejecting someone's argument because of who they are not because of their idea. " You can't trust what George Boxwood says about the importance of a strong military. After all, he never served a day in the military."

Similar and different from verbal communication

Similarities: Like verbal communication, nonverbal behavior: - is symbolic which means its ambiguous, abstract, and arbitrary. - culture bound - both can be intentional or unintentional Differences: - nonverbal communication is seen to be more honest - it is multi-channeled (can be seen, felt, heard, smelled, and tasted) - tends to flow continually via body movements, facial expressions, etc.

Listeners' attitudes

Speakers have an ethical responsibility to give respectful consideration to listeners' attitudes and positions. Doing so encourages reciprocal respect from listeners for the ideas you present.

Organizing so listeners can follow easily

Telling them what your are talking about Example: " I'm going to explain a new procedure that will increase your efficiency and income"

Ethnocentrism

The use of ones own culture and its practices as the standard for interpreting the values, beliefs, norms and communication of other cultures. It fosters negative judgments of anything that differs from our own ways.

Listeners' expectations

Two-sided: in educational settings, listeners are likely to expect speakers to discuss more than one side of an issue One-sided: At a campaign rally, candidates often present only their own side because they are speaking to committed supporters.

the formal outline

a complete outline of a speech it includes: all main points, sub points, supporting materials, and transitions, along with a bibliography of sources used.

Deductive Reasoning

a form of reasoning in which a general premise followed by a specific claim establishes a conclusion. "All men are mortal. Joe is a man. Therefore Joe is mortal. If the first two statements are true, then the conclusion must be true"

Inductive Reasoning

a form of reasoning that begins with specific instances and forms general conclusions based on them. "Today, I left for work at eight o'clock and I arrived on time. Therefore, every day that I leave the house at eight o'clock, I will arrive to work on time."

Toulmin Model of Reasoning

a representation of effective reasoning that includes 5 components: claim, grounds (evidence), warrant ( link between grounds and claim), qualifier, and rebuttal.

The working outline

a sketch of main ideas and their relationships; used by and intended only for the speaker.

nonverbal communication

all aspects of communication other than words themselves. (handshakes, patting someone on the back, or highfives)

Communication Apprehension

anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication encounters. It is common and can be constructive

The bandwagon appeal (fallacy)

argues that because most people believe or act a particular way, you should too.

either-or Logic (fallacy)

argument where there are only two options "you either do this, or you do this"

slippery slope (fallacy)

claims that once we take the first step, more and more steps inevitably will follow until some unacceptable consequence results. "you shouldn't go dancing because dancing will lead to alcohol consumption, and alcohol consumption will lead to drug abuse, and drug abuse will lead to..."

Communication expresses and sustains culture

communication is a mirror of a cultures values and a primary means of keeping them woven into the fabric of everyday life. -Example: in Asian cultures " I will be 60 tomorrow" means " I am old enough to deserve respect" but in western cultures they tend to prize youth and have many negative words for seniority ( ex. over the hill)

ethos (pillar of persuasion)

credibility appeals of a speaker For example: they have integrity, can be trusted, they know what they're talking about, etc.

Halo effect (fallacy)

happens when we generalize a persons authority or expertise in a particular area to other areas that are irrelevant to the person's experience and knowledge.

Manuscript style

involves speaking from the complete manuscript of a speech. After planning, researching, organizing, and outlining a presentation the speaker then writes word-for-word text and practices the presentation.

logos (pillar of persuasion)

logical appeals using evidence to back up a claim

hasty generalization (fallacy)

making a conclusion based on little evidence " Three congressional representatives have had affairs. Therefore, members of congress are adulterers."

Informative speaking

presentations that aim to increase listener's knowledge, understanding, or abilities

Oral style- Presenting speeches

refers to speakers' visual, vocal, and verbal communication with listeners. - visual delivery concerns a speakers appearance, facial expressions, eye contact, posture, gestures, movement during a presentation, and visual aids. - vocal delivery includes: volume, pitch, pronunciation, articulation, inflection, pauses, and speaking rate. Verbal delivery consists of word choices and sentence structure.

red herring arguments (fallacy)

speakers who try to deflect listeners from relevant issues. They have a point of diverting the listener from something the speaker can't or doesn't want to address

terminal credibility

the credibility of a speaker at the end of a presentation. It's cumulative expertise, goodwill, and trustworthiness listeners attribute to a speaker---- a combination of initial and derived credibility.

initial credibility

the expertise and trustworthiness recognized by listeners before a presentation begins. Example: most listeners would grant General Colin Powell high initial credibility on issues of military goals and strategies.

derived credibility

the expertise and trustworthiness that listeners confer on speakers as a result of how speakers communicate during presentations.

Listeners' knowledge

what an audience already knows or believes about a topic should influence decisions on whether to present one or more sides of an issue. Listeners who are well informed about topic are likely to be aware of more than one side, so your credibility will be enhanced if you include all sides.

Transitions

words and sentences that connect the ideas and main points in a speech so that listeners can follow a speaker.