Speech Exam 2

Attention Getting Techniques

A common misconception is that once you have grabbed your listeners' attention with a snappy introduction, this attention is yours until you relinquish it at the end of the speech. Unfortunately, it takes more than a clever opening to keep an audience listening. People are easily distracted, and unless reengaged, their thoughts may stray every half-minute or so. Activity or movement—appropriate movement of the speaker and a lively treatment of the content that creates a feeling of something happening Reality—references to actual people, events, and places; being specific and concrete rather than abstract Proximity—references to what is close at hand: people in the room, current events, local landmarks, and so on Familiarity—the use of recognized examples, well-known phrases, and commonplace situations Novelty—the opposite of the familiar: startling facts, odd turns of phrase, surprising images, and unusual combinations Suspense—stimulation of curiosity about what will happen next through puzzles or provocative questions Conflict—pros and cons, opposing viewpoints, competing schools of thought Humor—playful remarks, silly or exaggerated images, amusing plays on words, ironic twists of fate, entertaining stories, and the like "The vital"Footnote—references to things that are important to listeners, ranging from matters of survival to anything that saves them time, earns them money, or makes their lives more pleasant

denying the antecedent

A form of faulty reasoning that is related to but less common than affirming the consequent. It assumes that, because X necessarily follows from Y, the absence of Y means the absence of X. However, there may be other causes for Y. (If a major premise states "if and only if Y is present, X will be present," then denying the antecedent is not fallacious.)

Reasoning by Analogy

A form of reasoning in which people can draw conclusions about unknown events based on what is known about similar events. two things that can be placed in the same category. In the process, we assume that, because we know that A and B have a number of characteristics in common, we can conclude that those things we do not know about B are highly likely to resemble their counterparts that we do know about in A.

Deductive Reasoning

A form of reasoning that demonstrates how the relationships among established premises lead to a necessary conclusion. Consists of making verbal statements, or premises, according to formal rules

Logical Orientation

A section of the introduction that provides the intellectual framework for the speech, often stating the thesis sentence and previewing the main points. you show your listeners how you will approach and develop your topic—in effect, giving them an intellectual road map.

Simile

A stylistic device that compares two things from different categories, such as "managing a group of scientists is like herding cats." makes a comparison between two things ordinarily dissimilar: "When she came in from shoveling off the walk, her hands were like ice.

Alliteration

A stylistic device that consists of the repetition of a consonant sound. "Big, brutal bullies" will be more memorable and have more impact than "large, mean bullies."

Assonance

A stylistic device that consists of the repetition of a vowel sound. "People are dreaming of pie in the sky, by and by" repeats the long I sound and is likely to have an impact.

Antithesis

A stylistic device that consists of two contrasting ideas set up in opposition.

Metaphor

A stylistic device that uses language as if there were an identity between two things that belong to different categories—for example, "my job is a nightmare." Every aspect of style can be subtly adjusted—level of formality, use of jargon or abbreviations, selection of figures of speech. Matching words or phrases is important because paying attention to the audience's words gives you clues about how they see the world. If you respect your listeners, you will almost subconsciously scan for terms that reveal that respect.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A systematic arrangement of human needs based on the assumption that people will give priority to more basic needs and fill these at a minimal level before attending to higher needs. The hierarchy proceeds from security needs to belongingness needs to esteem needs to self-actualization needs. In this hierarchy, the lower-level needs have to be met or satisfied before an individual can become concerned with the needs on the next-higher level. For instance, on the topic of physical fitness, you could appeal to your audience at any of the following levels: The effect of exercise in reducing risk of cardiovascular disease appeals to the survival need. Security might be drawn in by mentioning how physically fit people are more likely to be able to resist or evade attackers. The need for belonging can be linked to becoming trim and attractive, as well as to making friends through physical activity. Esteem needs can be tied into the current popularity of fitness and the social desirability of an active image. Fitness can be related to the need for self-actualization—the highs of exercise and the mental and physical challenge of reaching one's potential.

Oral Style

A written essay exists as a time machine: It allows a reader to return to a place where the eye had been a few seconds or many years before, or to jump ahead at will. Public speech is closely connected to time: Words are uttered, and immediately start to fade. Although technology allows us to record speeches, these rebroadcasts often lose their contextual meaning when replayed. Listeners have but one contact with each word, and memory is the only instant replay. Because a listener cannot look back or ahead, _____ ____ uses more repetition, signposting, internal summaries, and internal previews to ensure comprehension and make the organization clear. (See Chapter 12.) Shorter sentences and words of fewer syllables are characteristic of _____ _____ as well. Sentence fragments are more acceptable in speaking, as are contractions. Even in a formal setting, a speech will still be more colloquial than an essay on the same topic.

Vary the Rhythm of your sentences

Although oral style is characterized by simpler, shorter phrases with fewer different words, you are not trying to breed boredom. The "sing-songiness" associated with children's rhymes can creep into a speech if you fail to pay attention to how you are stringing your sentences and phrases together. Use parallelisms and repetition sparingly. The choppiness of this tedious passage results from the sameness of sentence length and structure. Recasting the sentences will create a more fluid and graceful paragraph:

Logical Closure

Although you have already demonstrated the interconnectedness of your points and ideas in the body of the speech by the use of transitions and internal previews and summaries, you still need to tie it all together for your audience at the end. Summarize the Main Ideas, Reestablish Your Topic's Connection to a Larger Context

Hasty Generalization

An error in inductive reasoning that results from making a premature inductive leap and basing a generalization on insufficient data. entails making a premature inductive "leap" based on insufficient evidence. Assumptions should be based on representative information. Making generalizations based on small samples can lead to this fallacy in reasoning. Consider the following:

Slippery Slope Fallacy

An error in reasoning that claims the first step in some direction must result in going to dangerous lengths in that direction. consists of making the false assumption that taking the first step in any direction will inevitably lead to going to dangerous lengths in that direction.

Ad Hominem

An error in reasoning that consists of attacking a person identified with a position instead of refuting the position itself. attacks a person based on some attribute or circumstance rather than addressing their ideas. This strategy is widely used and can be recognized by attempts to redirect the discussion away from the issues toward some personal frailty of those involved

Extending an argument to the Absurtd

An error in reasoning that makes a potentially sound argument appear groundless by extending it to a point where it can be easily ridiculed.

Circular Reasoning

An error in reasoning that occurs when a speaker assumes the truth of the conclusion and uses that as the starting point for developing an argument, instead of building a case for the conclusion by creating a valid line of reasoning. assumes as one of its premises the very conclusion it sets out to establish.

False Dichotomy

An error of reasoning that results from assuming that there are only two clear-cut alternatives in a situation when there are, in fact, many intermediate alternatives. reasoning based on an either/or statement when the two alternatives are not really mutually exclusive or when other alternatives exist. Many speeches set up artificial choices:

Faulty Reversal of an if-then statment

Another kind of deductive reasoning is based on an "if X, then Y" relationship. A common fallacy results from a faulty reversal of an __ ____ ________. This fallacy known as affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent , occurs when a speaker assumes that, because Y necessarily follows X, the reverse is also true: that X necessarily follows Y. Political candidates so fear this kind of faulty reasoning by voters that they often publicly repudiate the endorsement of extreme groups and their supporters. They cannot count on the electorate to recognize the difference between a group endorsing a candidate and a candidate endorsing a group. Guilt by association is the most common manifestation of this fallacy.

Build your Credibility through your words

As you prepare your speech outline and select your supporting evidence and examples, think about ways to communicate your competence, concern, trustworthiness, and dynamism. The following suggestions are especially relevant in the opening minutes of the speech, when the audience is forming its first impressions. (See Chapter 13.) But many credibility boosters can be woven throughout the entire speech as well.

Internal Preview

At some point after the first point has been developed, a speaker forecasts the remaining points to be covered. a kind of connective that provides a link by forecasting the points that are yet to be developed.

Internal Summary

At some point before the last point is developed, a speaker restates the points that have been covered so far. a kind of connective that provides a link among parts of the speech by recapping what has been covered so far.

Engage audience Attention

Because you will be preoccupied with all the things going on at the beginning of your speech, you don't want to risk leaving your opening sentences to the inspiration of the moment. You need strong opening material that will capture your audience's interest and carry the speech forward. Start with a sentence that leaves no doubt you are beginning. Avoid false starts and apologetic or tentative phrases: "Can you hear me now?" or "Before I begin . ..." Tone is almost as important as content here. Your immediate purpose is to command the attention of your audience. Techniques such as suspense, novelty, humor, and conflict are effective, and you will probably use them throughout your speech; they are nearly mandatory in your introduction.

Opposition

But, though, however On the other hand Conversely, on the contrary Yet In spite of Nonetheless, nevertheless

Repetition

By repeating keywords or phrases, you make your listeners feel that your points are snowballing to a certain conclusion. Use parallel structure to emphasize relationships. Sometimes, a syntactic construction is repeated, such as the questions and brief answers in this paragraph:

Statistical Evidence

Data that has been systematically collected and coded in numerical form so that speakers can capture a broad number of cases or make formal comparative statements. In the case of the literacy topic discussed earlier, it would not be feasible to discuss, by name, all the students who illustrate your point. It would simply take too much time to give enough examples to show the seriousness of the problem.

Common Attention Pitfalls

Don't risk losing the goodwill of your audience by using questionable material. It is a safe bet that ethnic jokes, off -color humor, and vulgarities will offend someone in every audience. Knowledge of your listeners will also help you make a judgment about the inclusion of a slightly risqué remark or politically loaded story. Insults or ridicule—unless stylized as in a "roast"—should be avoided unless you are very sure the object of your put-down genuinely enjoys public teasing. Better to use self-effacing humor than to belittle anyone in your audience. Don't Let a Story or Joke Take Over Your Speech, don't Tell Jokes You Can't Tell Well, Don't Let Audience Participation Cause You to Lose Control

Review Checklist - Connecting with Your Audience

Establish credibility. Establish common ground. Refer to the setting or occasion. Flatter your audience. Refer to the person who introduced you or to some other person present. Use self-deprecating humor.

Cronological

First, second, third After Following Finally

Keep your Attention to Intrest

Generating sustained interest in your topic is easier than capturing attention, losing it, and attempting to recapture it. When audience members become more than merely attentive, but actually interested, they begin to take a more active role. Pushing distractions aside, they put forth the effort to stay with you, even through complicated lines of thought or technical material.

Competence

Image prior to speech: Do you have education, experience, or credentials to make you an expert on this topic? Does your audience know that? Content of speech: Have you researched broadly and deeply? Does your speech reflect this with well-documented, factual information? Delivery: Does your delivery connote competence? Do you seem to be on top of your information, well organized, and composed?

Concern

Image prior to speech: If you have a history of generosity or selflessness on relevant issues, is it known? (For example, have you volunteered your time, informed yourself thoroughly, or made a sacrifice of some sort?) Content of speech: Do you stress the audience's needs and goals throughout the speech? Delivery: Is your delivery warm, unaffected, friendly, and responsive to the audience?

Dynamism

Image prior to speech: Is your image that of an active, assertive person, a leader rather than a follower, a doer rather than an observer? Content of speech: Does your speech have a sense of movement? Do the ideas build to a climax? Is your language lively and colorful? Delivery: Is your delivery animated, energetic, and enthusiastic?

Trustworthiness

Image prior to speech: Is your record one of honesty and integrity? Content of speech: Do you make an effort to be fair in presenting evidence, acknowledging the limitations of your data and opinions, and conceding those parts of opposing viewpoints that have validity?

Jargon

Informal or technical terms that relate to a particular activity or group; the use of this sets apart the practitioners or group members.

Provide Psychological Closure

Making your main points fit together logically for your audience is not enough. Your listeners should walk away psychologically satisfied with your speech—you need to have touched them. When you plan your conclusion, think not only about what you want your listeners to understand and agree with, but also about what they need and how you want them to feel at the end of the speech.

Present your Credentials

Most inexperienced speakers find it difficult to blow their own horns and do not do as much credibility building as they should. Do not be reluctant to provide information about your qualifications to speak. Do this even if you think your audience should remember you from the last speech you gave.

Slang

Nonstandard words and expressions. words and phrases that are nonstandard substitutions for more formal language—can enrich the texture of your language when used in appropriate situations.

Personification

Objects or ideas can be brought to life by imbuing them with human qualities. We know that a room cannot really be "cheerful," that winds do not actually "whisper," and that the economy cannot possibly "limp." Nevertheless, all of these images are potent because they reflect human behavior.

Psychological Orientation

Once you've gained the audience's attention, you need to help your audience take interest in your speech. This requires orienting the audience to you and your topic by creating a bond with your listeners and generating enthusiasm about your topic. Note the two parts of this process: establishing a personal bond with your listeners and motivating them to think about your topic.

Part to Whole

One such Another The first (second, third) of these For instance, for example Illustrative of this A case in point Let me give you an example

Respectful and Inclusive Language

Referring to a group or individuals by the name they prefer is a sign of respect. When changes are made, those changes are often symbolic of a new status or image. For those used to the word Negro, the transition to black in the late 1960s caused some problems, yet now the term seems natural. In fact, many people use it in interchangeably with the term African American. Today, many adult females want to be called women, not gals, girls, or ladies. It is not possible to please everyone or to be on top of every trend. (Is it Mexican American, Chicano, Hispanic, or Latino? There are differences in the meanings of these terms and the preferences as to their use.) What you can do is make a reasonable effort to learn which reference people prefer. You can make a commitment to flexibility. Acknowledge that it is worth the temporary inconvenience of changing a language habit if that change is highly symbolic and important to the person or people involved.

Equality

Similarly, additionally Another Of equal importance Also, moreover

Cause Effect

So, since, thus Therefore, hence Consequently, as a result Due to Because

Tests of Factual Examples

Specific instances used to illustrate a more general point. Brief examples are used when the audience is assumed to be familiar with the case, such as "it hurts about as much as a pinprick." Extended examples are used when the audience is not familiar with the case, so more details are required to make the point, such as "let me tell you about my Uncle George's experience..." \ Are Sufficient Examples Given? Are the Examples Representative?

Language of listeners

Speech consists not of messages sent, but of meanings jointly constructed within the context of a discourse community. Among the many possible ways to talk about a topic, the most effective way is the one that overlaps and resonates with your listeners. When you use phrases and metaphors that are comfortable for your audience, you're creating a bond that goes beyond the literal definitions of the words you use and lays the foundation for more communication. This sort of bonding is particularly important with an unfavorable audience.

Statistical Fallacies

The Fallacy of the Average A critic once said, with tongue in cheek, that a person could stand with one foot on a block of ice and one foot in a fire and be statistically comfortable. Although the average can be a useful tool for analysis, it sometimes gives a picture absurdly at odds with reality. The Fallacy of the Unknown Base When speakers use percentages and proportions, they can imply that a large population has been sampled. In fact, data are sometimes reported in this manner to give credence to unscientific or skimpy evidence: "Two out of three dentists recommend this whitening toothpaste." Most listeners would see this as shorthand for "We polled 300 dentists around the country, and 200 of them recommended this toothpaste." How valid would this recommendation seem if it came to light that in reality only three were polled? The Fallacy of the Atypical or Arbitrary Time Frame An executive of a computer circuit board company told the authors of this book that sales in February were double those of the previous month. These data could be misleading unless you know that January is always the worst month in the yearly cycle of the computer industry. If the executive had compared February to November, the month in the cycle in which the pre-Christmas home computer and video game buying frenzy reaches its peak, then the picture would have been quite different. A more valid example to demonstrate company growth would have compared February with February of the previous year.

Clincher

The closing sentence of a speech conclusion that gives a sense of finality and has a powerful impact. A carefully thought-out clincher replaces the "trailing off" phenomenon that can ruin a good speech. It is just as important to plan your last sentence as it is your first. Every speech needs a powerful, memorable closing—in a word

Connective Words

The connectives you choose should make clear the organizational structure of the speech. The logical structure of your speech is revealed through the connective terms used. Notice in the examples below the emphasized words used to reveal the logical structure of ideas.

Semantic Fallacy

The connotative nature of words can lead to faulty reasoning, This misuse of the meanings of words can be funny, such as in "not a single burglar was arrested this month; they must all have been married." However, subtle and dangerous shifts in definition can occur in various critical parts of an argument This misuse of the meanings of words can be funny, such as in "not a single burglar was arrested this month; they must all have been married." However, subtle and dangerous shifts in definition can occur in various critical parts of an argument

Post Hoc Fallacy

The error in reasoning that results from assuming that, because one event followed another event, it is caused by that event. The tests of causation must be met or the relationship might be coincidental or correlational. translates as "after the event, therefore because of the event." It is natural to try to understand the world around us by looking for cause-effect patterns wherever possible. So strong is this motivation that we are frequently guilty confusing sequence with cause, like Chanticleer the rooster, who firmly believed that it was his predawn crowing that caused the sun to rise each day.

Core Values

The innermost circle contains _____ ____, the ones so central to a person that to change one of them would amount to a basic alteration of that person's self-concept.

Casual Reasoning

The justification for an argument claiming that one thing is the direct result of another. A causal claim should not be confused with mere coincidence or correlation. the backbone of all speeches that deal with policy and problem solving. In most cases, if a person says, "I don't favor your policy (or program, or solution)," what that person is really saying is, "I disagree with you that X causes Y." This means you must carefully scrutinize the relationship between two events to satisfy yourself

affirming the consequent

The most common form of the faulty reversal of an if—then statement. A person reasons that because X necessarily follows Y, the opposite is also true. Just because "if there is a rainbow, it is raining," it does not mean that every time it is raining there is a rainbow.

Integral Values

The next band out from the center contains the authority values, the values that are influenced by and shared with groups and individuals most significant to the person

Inductive Reasoning

The simplest and most common kind of reasoning is induction. Induction assumes an orderly universe: a universe where we believe that much of what has happened before will happen again. We step in front of oncoming traffic because we believe from previous experiences that the cars will obey the traffic signals. Dozens of times a day, we draw inferences based on past experiences and expectations derived from those experiences. involves making an educated guess about something that is based on a subset of known factors.

Peripheral Values

These form the outer band.Footnote These are the more-or-less-incidental evaluations, easily made or changed.

Hyperbole

To emphasize a point, you may deliberately overstate it in a way that is clearly fanciful and not meant to be taken literally:

Altruist

Values being in tune with nature, preserving the environment, justice, social responsibility, helpfulness, equality, social tolerance, and social stability.

Fun seeker

Values excitement, leisure, individuality, pleasure, enjoying life, having fun, adventure, and variety.

Creative

Values open-mindedness, beauty, fulfilling work, self-esteem, creativity, self-reliance, freedom, curiousity, knowledge, wisdom, learning, internationalism, and music.

Striver

Values power, status, ambition, health and fitness, material security, courage, perseverance, public image, and wealth.

Devout

Values spirituality, tradition, duty, obedience, respecting ancestors, traditional gender roles, faith, and modesty.

Cite Sources Smoothly

When you have chosen appropriate definitions, facts, examples, statistics, and testimony, you still have to marshal these supporting materials and integrate them effectively. You want to emphasize the quality of your materials, make them clear and understandable, and incorporate them appropriately in relation to the points they support.

Summary

With the exception of short speeches, such as a speech of introduction or acceptance, you should include a summary, which clearly restates your thesis and main ideas. Although there are sometimes good reasons not to state your thesis and main points in your introduction, these do not apply to the conclusion. In a technical or argumentative speech, it can be particularly useful to restate your thesis and main points exactly, including the logical steps you ask your audience to consider.

False Starts

apologetic or tentative phrases: "Can you hear me now?" or "Before I begin . ..."

Intimate

lationships, enduring love, romance, friendship, and sex.

Build your Credibility before your Speech

n a speech class, you know you have a certain image. Consider this image as your personal "brand." Based on daily classroom interactions, you can tell if you are considered serious, funny, prompt, lazy, cheerful, argumentative, intelligent, informed, and so on. Perceptions of your brand will affect the way your speeches are received. A similar situation exists if you are to speak in front of the service group or professional association to which you belong.

Parallel Structure

the repetition of phrases, clauses, or sentences that have the same grammatical structure