Speech Science Exam 4: Ch. 11-13 (includes CNs)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *inability to turn the head*
Spinal Accessory (XI)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *shrugging your shoulders*
Spinal Accessory (XI)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *turning the head from side to side*
Spinal Accessory (XI)
A projection that transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body.
axon
Axons extend longer distances than dendrites and originate from a small bump at the cell body called the ____.
axon hillock
A patient comes to you after having dental work performed on her maxillary molar. The patient appears to be numb. You suspect the dentist used anesthesia and targeted which cranial nerve & type?
Trigeminal (V)-sensory
Techniques for imaging _____ are based on blood flow within the brain, brain metabolism of oxygen and glucose, electrical properties of brain physiology, or some combo.
brain function
Cranial nerves originate in the ____ and extend to muscles and glands in the head and neck areas.
brain stem
The ____ is a collective term for 3 separate but tightly linked structures: the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla.
brain stem
The ____ is crucially important and is involved in many reflexes involved in respiration, body temp, swallowing, and digestion, as well as the site of the cranial nerves.
brain stem
_____ velocity is the speed at which electrochemical impulses move through a neural pathway.
conduction velocity
The *outermost* meningeal layer is that is a tough, membranous connective tissue that has two parts, the *periosteal layer* that attaches to the cranium and the *meningeal layer*. This layer is well supplied with blood vessels and nerves.
dura mater
Bring nutrients from the blood vessels to each neuron and remove the waste products of metabolism; different types are located in different areas of the NS.
glial cells
Type of connective tissue in the nervous system that perform a variety of functions, such as metabolic support, secretion of cerebrospinal fluid, response to injury, and insulation.
glial cells
The ____ the cell, the more heavily it is myelinated and the faster the conduction rate.
larger
The _____ structures form a bridge between the autonomic and voluntary responses to changes in the environment.
limbic
The _____ lobe is involved in emotional, sexual function, feeding behavior, and temperature regulation.
limbic (as well as the limbic system in general)
The ____ lobe is connected to the brain stem and hypothalamus (important for bodily regulation), as well as to the prefrontal cortex (higher intellectual functions and personality characteristics) of the frontal lobe.
limbic lobe
An axon that synapses with a skeletal muscle fiber is called the ____.
neuromuscular joint
Highly specialized structures that receive, process, and transmit information to, from and within the NS.
neuron
The most numerous neurons of the cortex are called ____.
pyramidal cells
The _____ tract originates primarily in the sensorimotor areas of the cerebral cortex. Most descending fibers decussate at the pyramids of the medulla and synapse with the neurons in the anterior horns of the spinal cord.
pyramidal tract
The effect of a neurotransmitter at any given synapse is determined by the nature of the _____ to which it binds.
receptor
Specialized nerve cells that respond to changes in the organism or its environment and transmit these responses to the NS.
receptors
Thalamic nuclei that receive and transmit impulses to and from *specific* coritcal areas.
relay nuclei
When the potassium channels open and ions escape into the extracellular fluid, the cell membrane reverts back to the negatively charged state, this is called ____.
repolarization
Electrical voltage across the nerve cell membrane at rest with a negative charge of 270 mV within the cell and a positive electrical charge in the extracellular fluid, resulting in polarization. The level at which it has to reach the threshold to fire.
resting membrane potential (RMP)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sense of bitter taste*
*Glossopharyngeal* (IX) posterior part of the tongue
The two major pathways of the UMN are the ____ & ____.
corticospinal and corticonuclear
When _____ reaches a threshold, a large electrical signal is generated.
depolarization
What 2 current imaging techniques depict brain structure?
1. CT 2. MRI
There are 3 types of motor units, each associated with a different type of muscle fiber. They are..
1. Type S (slow) 2. Type FF (fast fatigable) 3. Type FR (fatigue resistant)
What are the 2 major pathways of UMN?
1. corticospinal 2. corticonuclear (corticobulbar)
Brain function can be imaged with what 5 techniques?
1. fMRI 2. PET 3. SPECT 4. TMS 5. qEEG
What are the two major types of tissues that make up the brain?
1. glial cells 2. neurons
What are the 4 major *motor* pathways in the spinal cord?
1. lateral vesibulospinal tract 2. lateral corticospinal tract 3. anterior corticospinal tract 4. rubrospinal tract
What are the 3 ways to classify neurons?
1. number of processes (unipolar/bipolar/multipolar) 2. function (motor/sensory/interneuron) 3. type of neurotransmitter contained within its vesicles (dopaminergic/cholinergic/serotonergic)
All neurons have essentially the same structure, consisting of what 3 parts?
1. soma (cell body) 2. dendrite 3. axon
There are two types of summation of impulses: ____ & ____.
1. temporal 2. spatial
The _____ supplies blood to portions of the frontal and parietal lobes, the corpus callosum, the basal ganglia, and part of the internal capsule.
Anterior Cerebral Arteries (ACA)
Giant pyramidal cells are called _____ and are located primarily in the motor cortex.
Betz cells
_____ is located at the most inferior portion of the motor strip and is responsible for sequencing and controlling the motor movements required for the production of speech.
Broca's area
_____ is located in the lateral portion of the inferior region of the motor strip (primary motor cortex).
Broca's area
Innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, and collaborates with the Vagus nerve in activation of palatal, laryngeal, and pharyngeal muscles. *motor* to larynx, chest, shoulder
CN XI - Spinal Accessory Nerve
Innervates the muscles of the tongue with the exception of the palatoglossus; *motor* to tongue
CN XII - Hypoglossal Nerve
Each nerve (tract) decussates to the opposite hemisphere via the anterior commissure, therefore there is not a loss of smell (anosmia) following the lesion of one ____
CN I - Olfactory Nerve
Serves the sense of smell, taste
CN I - Olfactory Nerve
Communicates visual information to the brain, vision
CN II - Optic Nerve
There will be blindness (loss of right and left visual fields) from the ipsilateral eye
CN II - Optic Nerve
Provide innervations for eye movement; eye, eyelid movement
CN III - Occulomotor Nerve
Lower motor neuron paralysis (flaccid) of the ipsilateral extrinsic eye muscles (superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, inferior oblique) and levator palpebrae superioris muscle.
CN III - Occulomotor nerve
Lower motor neuron paralysis of the superior oblique extrinsic eye muscle. Primary physical sign of diplopia. The patient may tilt his head toward the shoulder of the side opposite the paralyzed muscle in order to compensate for the diplopia.
CN IV - Trochlear Nerve
Provide innervations for eye movement
CN IV - Trochlear Nerve
Serves the posterior tongue taste receptors, as well as somatic sense from the tongue, faces, pharynx, and Eustachian tube. The stylopharyngeus and superior pharyngeal constrictor muscles receive motor innervations via this nerve. *sensation* from posterior tongue, soft palate, pharynx *motor* to pharynx
CN IX - Glossopharyngeal Nerve
Innervates muscles of mastication and the tensory veli palatini, and communicates sensation from the face, mouth, teeth, mucosal lining, and tongue; *sensation* from face *motor* to masseters, palate, pharynx
CN V - Trigeminal Nerve
Jaw will deviate and point to the paralyzed side. Loss of ipsilateral jaw jerk reflex. Fibrillation, weakness, and atrophy of muscles of mastication. Loss of proprioceptive input from/to the muscles of mastication may result in the relaxation of the ipsilateral muscles of facial expression.
CN V - Trigeminal Nerve
Loss of general sensations from areas innervated by opthalamic (V1), maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3) nerves. Lower motor neuron paralysis of muscles of mastication on the ipsilateral side. Loss of direct and consensual corneal reflexes due to loss of input from the cornea via the ophthalmic nerve (V1).
CN V - Trigeminal Nerve
Diplopia (double vision) due to loss of innervation of the lateral rectus extrinsic eye muscle. The ipsilateral eye (affected) will be adducted (pointing toward nose) due to the unopposed action of the innervated medial rectus muscle.
CN VI - Abducens
Provide innervations for eye movement
CN VI - Abducens
Innervates muscles of facial expression, and the sensory component serves taste of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue; *sensation* from anterior tongue *motor* to facial muscles
CN VII - Facial Nerve
Lower motor neuron paralysis (Bell's Palsy) of the ipsilateral muscles of facial expression.
CN VII - Facial Nerve
Mediates auditory and vestibular sensation; hearing, balance
CN VIII - Vestibulocochlear Nerve
Somatic sensation of pain, touch, and temperature from the region of the ear drum; pain sense from the pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and other regions; motor innervation for the intrinsic muscles of the larynx. *sensation* from viscera *motor* to larynx, pharynx, viscera
CN X - Vagus Nerve
The ___ is involved in all aspects of information processing, including interpretation of all incoming sensations; integration of sensory information across modalities; planning, organization, and monitoring of goal-directed behavior, including motor behavior; and memory, language, and abstract functioning in general.
CNS
The _____ nervous system consists of the *brain* and *spinal cord*.
Central Nervous System
A ____ image is constructed from numerous scans of the brain structure (which appears gray) as the x-ray and the x-ray detectors rotate around the individual's head. This results in many angles at which the structure is scanned, in order to provide cross-sections. These scans are useful for examining injuries in quick slices.
Computerized Tomography (CT)
Advantages of ____ include short imaging times and widespread availability of the technology and excellent variation between tissues of varying densities. Typically it is used to diagnose tumors, cerebrovascular disease, head trauma, and cerebral atrophy.
Computerized Tomography (CT)
An x-ray technique that is sensitive to the density of tissues, so the x-rays are absorbed differently by the different parts of the body. The denser the tissue, the more radiation energy it absorbs, resulting in a lighter x-ray image.
Computerized Tomography (CT)
____ scan is often the first test done to evaluate a patient who has suffered a stroke because contrast dyes can be injected to allow detection of blockages or problems with the blood vessels.
Computerized Tomography (CT)
____ is a technique of recording the electrical potentials generated by the brain. They are used to detect abnormalities related to electrical activity in the brain. It tracks and records brain wave patterns.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *stimulating the salivary secretions*
Facial (VII)
A patient presents with a smile that is lopsided, which cranial nerve has been damaged?
Facial (VII)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *inability to frown*
Facial (VII)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *paralysis of one side of the face*
Facial (VII)
The cranial nerve that would innervate the orbicularis oris and the stapedius muscle is...
Facial (VII)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *smiling*
Facial (VII)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sense of sweet taste*
Facial (VII) *anterior part of the tongue*
____ measures tiny metabolic changes that take place in an active part of the brain. The technique works by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen levels that occur in response to neural activity. This has been shown useful for the parts of the brain that are involved in a particular mental or cognitive process.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *inability to taste bitter substances*
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
A patient presents with a tongue that deviates to one side on protrusion. What cranial nerve is damaged?
Hypoglossal (XII)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *inability to lick the lips*
Hypoglossal (XII)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *tongue movements associated with swallowing*
Hypoglossal (XII)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *tongue movements associated with talking*
Hypoglossal (XII)
A major advantage of ___ is that it doesn't use radiation and therefore poses no health risks. In addition, it can distinguish between soft tissues such as gray and white matter, CSF, and vascular structures. However, takes longer than CT and is more expensive.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
____ is a noninvasive imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues. Show the brain in high resolution and are used to diagnose a wide variety of brain disorders. Process that knocks atoms off their axis temporarily.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
The ____ provides blood to the temporal lobe, motor strip, & Wernicke's area.
Middle Cerebral Arteries (MCA)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *inability to focus the lens of the eye*
Oculomotor (III)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *inability to move the eyeball*
Oculomotor (III)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *inability to open the eyelid*
Oculomotor (III)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *adjusting the amount of light entering the eyes*
Oculomotor (III)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *focusing the lenses of the eyes*
Oculomotor (III)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *moving the eyes*
Oculomotor (III)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *raising the eyelids*
Oculomotor (III)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *anosmia* (loss of smell)
Olfactory (I)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sense of smell*
Olfactory (I)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *blindness*
Optic (II)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sense of sight*
Optic (II)
One of the most studied evoked potentials is the ____, which is a positive peak that occurs approximately 300 msec after an auditory or visual stimulus. Both the latency of the ___ in terms of how long it takes for the response to occur after the initial stimulus and the amplitude of the resulting response can be measured and provide important info--an increased latency suggests that the person takes longer to process info.
P300
The ____ has been used extensively in Alzheimer's disease as a marker of cognitive function.
P300 potential
_____ studies have been used to identify Parkinson's disease before the appearance of clinical symptoms, as well as to show the progression of the disease.
PET
____ & ____ studies demonstrate differences in neural function between people who stutter and normally fluent speakers.
PET & SPECT
The ____ constitutes the final common pathway to all body structures.
PNS
The ____ transmits information to and from the CNS. The cranial and spinal nerves receive and integrate input from various parts of the brain and from sensory receptors before they fan out to all muscles and glands in the body.
PNS
The ____ nervous system consists of the *cranial and spinal nerves* in the somatic system, as well as the autonomic system.
Peripheral Nervous System
____ is a test that examines the brain's blood flow and metabolic activity. It is based on identifying the distribution of an injected radioactive substance called a tracer, combined with a chemical in the patient's brain. More active areas absorb more of the tracer and vice versa. Scanner rotates around the patient, providing colored 3D images.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
The ____ provides blood to portions of the temporal and occipital lobes, as well as to the upper midbrain and the cerebellum.
Posterior Cerebral Artery (PCA)
Glial cells that form myelin sheaths around nerves in the PNS.
Schwann cells
____ is used to examine how blood flows through the veins and arteries in the brain. It is based on similar principles to PET, but a radioisotope is used instead; however, this causes more exposure to radiation.
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sensory impulses from the upper teeth*
Trigeminal (V)
Your patient presents with a jaw/mandible that deviates to one side when chewing or talking. You suspect which CN?
Trigeminal (V)
_____ is a technique that is based on inducing weak electric currents in the brain to cause neurons to fire. A coil of wire enclosed in plastic is placed next to the individual's skull and produces a magnetic field that creates the current. Widely used to measure neuromuscular function in evals and treatment of many neuromuscular disorders.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sensory impulses from the lower teeth*
Trigeminal (V)
Type of motor unit that is associated with light-colored larger fibers that generate large amounts of force for brief amounts of time. They are activated by large-diameter, fast-conducting nerves and dominate in muscles associated with rapid movements. Muscles innervated by this are referred to as fast twitch.
Type FF (fast fatigable)
Type of motor unit that share characteristics of the other two types. These muscles generate nearly but not quite as much force as fast twitch muscles but are more fatigue resistant and can therefore sustain contraction for longer periods than can fast twitch muscles.
Type FR (fatigue resistant)
Type of motor unit that is associated with dark red muscle fibers. These fibers do not generate much force and do not fatigue easily. They are activated by small-diameter motor neurons that have slower conduction rates. These fibers are found in large numbers in muscles that are associated with maintaining posture. Postural muscles are called slow twitch muscles and can continue to contract for long periods of time.
Type S (slow)
A patient presents with an asymmetrical elevation of the velum upon phonation of 'ah', but you do NOT suspect the tensor veli palatini. Which CN do you suspect is involved?
Vagus (X)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *deafness*
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
Destruction or impairment of which cranial nerve would cause: *loss of balance*
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sense of equilibrium*
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
Which cranial nerve is most closely associated with: *sense of hearing*
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
_____ is part of the receptive speech association cortex, essential for the decoding and comprehension of speech.
Wernicke's area
Brief period following an action potential during which the nerve cannot fire, no matter how strong the stimulation.
absolute refractory period
The vesicles of the presynaptic neuron contain the neurotransmitter, _________, which acts in an excitatory fashion and is released into the synapse when the vesicles are stimulated by an action potential.
acetylcholine
Enzyme that degrades the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into its component chemicals in order to inactivate it.
acetylcholinesterase
As each portion of the axon is depolarized, it is followed by repolarization. The wave of depolarization is called the ______.
action potential
Conduction begins when an ______ is generated near the cell body portion of the axon, which is an electrical signal occurs because electrically charged particles, ions, move across the neuronal membrane.
action potential
Wave of depolarization that travels along the length of an axon.
action potential
When an ____ occurs, neurons are said to "fire" and a nerve impulse is generated.
action potential
With ______ the neuron either discharges completely or not at all. If a certain threshold is not met, then there will not be one.
action potential
*Sensory* nerve that transmits information from sensory receptors *toward* the CNS.
afferent
Structure involved in ascribing emotion to events and behaviors and also participates in memory building, in the sense that it facilitates decisions about which facts and events are important enough to be committed to long-term memory.
amygdala
Structure of the limbic system involved in learning and memory.
amygdala
The _____ is apparently involved in visual, auditory, and tactile processing and the integration of symbols for *reading*.
angular gyrus
The _____ tract is formed by 10-15% of descending fibers from the cortical motor areas that do not decussate, but that continue downward on the ipsilateral side to synapse with spinal motor neurons in the anterior horn.
anterior corticospinal tract
Deep to the dura mater is the _____, so called because it has a delicate web-like appearance. This layer has no blood vessels.
arachnoid mater
Broca's area and Wernicke's area connected by way of an association pathway called the _____, thus demonstrating the close neuroanatomical relationship between understanding and production of speech.
arcuate fasciculus
_____ fibers can connect different cortical regions within the same hemisphere or link adjacent areas of cortex.
association fibers
Thalamic nuclei that receive and transmit nerve impulses to and from *broad* cortical areas.
association nuclei
The most common type of glial cells are ____, which are located throughout the system of nerve cells in the brain.
astrocytes
Damage to the _____ typically results in excessive involuntary movements such as tics and tremors, increased muscle tone and rigidity, and other disruptions of movement control.
basal ganglia
One of the primary functions of the ____ is regulating aspects of motor control such as posture, balance, background muscle tone, and coordination of muscle groups; as well as indirect control of precise voluntary movements through a neural mechanism called inhibition.
basal ganglia
The two vertebral arteries join to form the ____ which supplies blood to the brain stem.
basilar artery
The ____ coordinates movements in terms of the direction of the movement, the force and speed with which the movement is executed, and the amount of displacement of the structure that is moving.
cerebellum
Sulcus that roughly separates the brain into anterior and posterior portions.
central sulcus
The ____ and ____ demarcate the brain into 4 major lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
central sulcus & lateral fissure
The ____ is located posterior to the brain stem and inferior to the cerebrum. It connects to the brain stem by way of the inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles.
cerebellum
The _____ is a relatively large structure, accounting for around 10% of the weight of the entire CNS.
cerebellum
The ______ is involved in balance, posture, background muscle tone, and the coordination of voluntary movements.
cerebellum
The ____ are continuations of the internal capsule that are large bundles of nerve pathways including corticospinal, corticonuclear (corticobulbar), and cortiocopontine fibers traveling via the cerebrum and midbrain to their respective targets.
cerebral peduncles
The subarachnoid space is filled with _____ which is produced by specialized cells within 4 ventricles of the brain.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
_____ is a clear fluid which contains proteins and glucose that are necessary to provide energy for cell function in the brain and spinal cord and lymphocytes that help to prevent infection.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
The inner mass of the brain is the ____ and is primarily made of nerve axons bundled into pathways and covered with myelin, which due to its white color is often called white matter.
cerebrum
CSF is manufactured by specialized cells called ____ within the ventricles, particularly the lateral ventricles.
choroid plexus cells
The arteries that supply the brain are patterned in a roughly circular fashion, called the ____.
circle of Willis
____ loop systems return the output back to the original input for purposes of comparison and correction.
closed loop
______ fibers link two corresponding areas in the right and left hemispheres.
commissural fibers
_____ structures refer to flexible groupings of muscles that may change depending on the particular speech output goal.
coordinative
As the fibers of the internal capsule travel from the basal nuclei, thalamus, brain stem, and spinal cord toward the cerebral cortex, they diverge and flare out in a fan-shaped manner, reaching many areas within the cerebrum and cerebral cortex, this fan-shaped area is called ____.
corona radiata
The major commissural pathway is the _____, a thick band of white matter that extensively connects the right and left hemispheres.
corpus callosum
The outermost layer of the brain is made up of ____, which is tissue formed by the cell bodies of neurons, and is commonly known as gray matter.
cortex
The ____ tract refers specifically to nerve cells and their axons arising from cortical areas and synapsing with motor nuclei. The origin of this tract is more localized to face and neck portions of the primary motor cortex.
corticonuclear
The ______ tract is a large one with around 1 million fibers. Fibers in this tract synapse directly onto motor nerve cells in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, although along the way branches of these fibers project to other locations including the basal ganglia, thalamus, reticular formation, and sensory nuclei.
corticospinal
The fibers traveling from the cortex to the thalamus are called ____; those projecting from the thalamus to the cortex are called _____.
corticothalamus; thalamocortical
Serve to transmit nerve impulses toward the body.
dendrites
____ refers to the notion that when a neural motor command signal is sent to a muscle or structure, a second simultaneous "copy" of the signal is transmitted to various sensory systems as well, in order to prepare the sensory system for the anticipated consequences of the motor act.
efference copy
*Motor* nerve that transmits information *from* the nervous system to muscles and glands.
efferent
Because of its chemical composition, the inside of a neuron and the extracellular fluid that surrounds it are _____.
electrically charged
For muscles, if the _____ reaches a critical threshold, an all-or-none action potential occurs and the muscle fiber contracts.
end-plate potential
The small graded depolarization of a muscle fiber needed for contraction.
end-plate potential
____ are a particular category of EEG that occur in response to some kind of stimulus, which may be tactile, visual, or auditory.
evoked potentials
Occurs when the threshold of the post-synaptic neuron is lowered, making it easier for the neuron to fire.
excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)
The _____ system refers to nerve pathways from the cortex to the brain stem or spinal cord that do not synapse directly with motor neurons, but that travel more circuitously via the basal ganglia and cerebellum before synapsing with spinal and brain stem motor nuclei. Damage can result in abnormal involuntary movement such as tics and tremors that interfere with normal voluntary control, as well as postural deficits.
extrapyramidal (aka indirect)
Disadvantages of ____ include that it is slow and noisy which may interfere with stimuli being presented.
fMRI
T/F: Hypothalamic functioning is under conscious control.
false; is it NOT under conscious control
T/F: MRI & fMRI cannot be obtained together in a single session.
false; they CAN
Fibers that connect different cortical regions are longer than those connecting adjacent areas, these pathways formed by the long fibers are called _____.
fasciculi
____ is an engineering term that refers to the process whereby the output of a system is returned to the input in order to influence the ensuing output.
feedback
____ is used to detect and correct errors in speech output; ____ signals are used to make articulatory adjustments online.
feedback; feedforward
____ refers to the process whereby output from one system becomes the input to another system.
feedforward
The _____ is the term for the cranial and spinal nerves that supply motor innervation to all the muscles in the body.
final common pathway
Larger muscle structures generate a lot of force and have a large motor unit with a lot of muscle fibers per axon because they do not require ____ neuromuscular control. In contrast, small structures require ____ levels of control and have smaller motor units.
fine
Those structures that require ___ levels of motor control for skilled and precise movements have much greater representation on the motor strip than others.
fine
Grooves deeper than the sulci.
fissures
Mature speakers focus on spectral characteristics of sound waves and younger children focus on ____ between syllables.
formant transitions
Most motor activity is controlled by the _____ lobe, including the primary motor cortex, aka motor strip, premotor area, and supplementary motor area.
frontal lobe
The ____ lobe makes up one-third of the cortex and is located anterior to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral sulcus.
frontal lobe
The _____ lobe contains areas of devoted to language and speech, as well as abstract functions including reasoning, problem solving, personality, and symbolic function.
frontal lobe
Myelinated sensory and motor pathways bundled into large tracts in the spinal cord.
funiculi
Raised surfaces on the cortex of the brain.
gyri
The cranial nerves are particularly important for speech as they innervate the muscles of the ____ & ____.
head & neck
fMRI is an indirect measure of brain function, since it is the _____ (increase of blood flow to a specific area) that is measured rather than the actual neuronal function.
hemodynamic response
Structure of the limbic system; involved in learning and memory.
hippocampus
Structure that is involved with memory and learning and enables an individual to form new memories and to transfer these memories from short-term to longer-term memory, which is crucial for communication.
hippocampus
The limbic lobe is part of a larger limbic system, comprising several brain structures including the...
hippocampus, amygdala, septal, mammillary bodies, and anterior nuclei of the thalamus.
The differing amount of neural tissue allocated to motor control of different bodily structures is often represented in a caricature called the _____.
homunculus
The ____ connects with the limbic system, pituitary gland, and brain stem, allowing widespread control of the visceral and emotional behavior that influence how individuals react to the internal and external environments.
hypothalamus
The ____, like the thalamus, is strongly linked to the limbic system and in addition, regulates hormonal function, body temp, hunger, sleep-wake cycles, sexual drive, blood pressure, and other functions designed to keep the body's internal environment in a state of equilibrium.
hypothalamus
The _____ is a subcortical gray matter structure containing nuclei that are involved in sensory and motor control of visceral functions.
hypothalamus
The cranial nerve nuclei for the hypoglossal is located...
in the medulla
The cranial nerve nuclei for the facial nerve is located..
in the pons
Occurs when the threshold of the post-synaptic neuron is raised, making it more difficult for the neuron to fire.
inhibatory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)
The output from the basal ganglia to the thalamus and back to the motor cortex is ____, which serves to refine and smooth the initial neuromuscular output from the cortex.
inhibitory
The ratio of a motor neuron to the number of fibers it innervates is called the _____.
innervation ratio
Another lobe that cannot be seen because it lies deeper within the brain is the ____, which lies at the bottom of the lateral fissure.
insula
Region in the spinal cord where the ventral and dorsal horns join.
intermediate zone
The ____ forms the main pathway by which most nerve impulses are transmitted to and from the cerebral cortex.
internal capsule
The _____ if formed by a large mass of myelinated fibers that runs mainly between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex.
internal capsule
Two major bundles of nerve fibers, ____ & ____, form the primary links between the cortex and other regions of the CNS.
internal capsule & corona radiata
31 pairs of spinal nerves enter and exit the spinal cord by way of spaces called _____ located between successive vertebrae.
intervertebral foramina
Unlike the cerebrum, the cerebellum works ____.
ipsilaterally
Major motor tracts include the ____, ____, ____, & ____.
lateral corticospinal tract (pyramidal tract), anterior corticospinal tract, rubrospinal tract, and lateral vesibulospinal tract.
Fissure that delineates the superior and inferior regions of the brain.
lateral fissure
The basal ganglia includes structures such as the caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, the putamen, and the substania nigra. The putamen and globus pallidus together are known as the ____, while the caudate and putamen together form the ____.
lenticular nucleus; striatum
Fissure that divides the brain into two hemispheres.
longitudinal cerebral fissure
The ____ is the most inferior portion of the brain stem, continuous with the pons above and the spinal cord below. It is important because it is where a large % of nerve fibers originating at the cerebral cortex cross over and continue down the opposite side of the body.
medulla
The ____ mediates many reflexes such as coughing, sneezing, and vomiting.
medulla
The ____ form a protective system of tissue and fluid surround the brain and the spinal cord.
meninges
Cells that help to keep the CNS clean by engulfing and destroying harmful organisms.
microglia
The ____ is a short structure consisting of the two cerebral peduncles and the superior and inferior colliculi.
midbrain
The topmost part of the brain stem, the _____, is located directly underneath the cerebrum, while the lowermost part, the _____, connects with the spinal cord. In addition, the ____ forms a bridge between the two, as well as to the cerebellum.
midbrain; medulla; pons
____ have been proposed to act as the neuroanatomical linkage between speech perception and production.
mirror neurons
A ____ is a simplification of a system that can be manipulated in a controlled manner.
model
____ can be mechanical, physiological, mathematical, or computer based.
models
In evolutionary terms the limbic system is ____ primitive than the neocortex.
more
_____ theory emphasizes the link between speech production and speech perception in terms of articulatory gestures that individuals are innately able to perceive.
motor
One motor neuron can innervate varying numbers of muscle fibers. A motor neuron with its associated muscle fibers is called a ____.
motor unit
LMN fibers projecting from cranial and spinal motor neurons to voluntary muscles have axonic endings that synapse with muscles fibers. The synapse between an axon and the muscle fiber it innervates is called ___.
myoneural junction or motor end plate
Most of the cortex in the human brain is of a type known as _____ and it is where higher order and abstract processing occurs, which allows us to talk, plan and organize, and to use different types of symbolic functions, such as language and mathematics.
neocortex
Unlike _____, glial cells are able to divide and reproduce throughout their lives.
nerve cells (neurons)
The myoneural junction functions similarly to a ____ synapse, so the way that muscles contract is essentially the same process as that by which nerves fire.
nerve-to-nerve
Communication between neurons is accomplished by ____, the movement of chemicals or electrical signals across a synapse.
neurotransmission
______ is accomplished by the movement of chemicals or electrical signals across a synapse.
neurotransmission
The protein membrane of a neuron acts as a barrier to ions where ______have to open and close the channels as they cross the membrane.
neurotransmitters
The myelin sheath insulates and protects the axon and is not continuous along the axon, but is interrupted by breaks known as ______.
nodes of Ranvier
The ____ is situated at the posterior of the brain and is dedicated to the reception and processing of visual information.
occipital lobe
Glial cells that form myelin sheaths around nerves in the CNS.
oligodedrocytes
The sodium concentration within the neuron at rest is ___ of the amount outside the cell. This imbalance creates a voltage across the cell membrane called the resting membrane potential (RMP).
one-tenth
_____ loop systems do not use feedback to modify the output of the system.
open loop
The _____ (located in the temporal lobe) receives information from the ear and auditory nerve.
primary auditory cortex
The bottom portion of the _____ lobe contains two important areas: supramarginal gyrus and the angular gyrus, which are composed of association cortex and are important in integrating sensory modalities including vision, touch, and hearing.
parietal
The ____ lobes are deal with bodily sensation including touch, pressure, pain, proprioception, and temperature.
parietal lobes
The ____ lobes are located on the postcentral gyrus, immediately posterior to the central sulcus.
parietal lobes
The *innermost* meningeal layer is the _____, which is a thin, delicate, highly vascular tissue that adheres closely to the grooves and convolutions of the brain.
pita mater
The _____ is located inferior to the midbrain and anterior to the cerebellum. Its name is Latin for bridge.
pons
When a neuron is at rest, there is a higher concentration of ____ ions outside of the cell and a higher proportion of ____ ions within the cell.
positive; negative
The sensory branch exits the spinal cord via the ____ horn, and the motor branch enters the cord via the ___ horn.
posterior; anterior
The _____ prepares, plans, and organizes info about upcoming movements based partially on sensory info; the sensory info involves balance and visual info that is needed to enable an individual to assess his or her position in space or the position of relevant structures in space, to judge the direction and force of the movement necessary to keep one's balance while carrying out movement.
premotor cortex
The _____ controls single muscles or small groups of muscles that work synergistically to perform a complex coordinated movement.
primary motor cortex
The _____ does not initiate movement, but rather collects & channels info about aspects of movement and then transmits this info to the brain stem and spinal cord to be passed along to the appropriate spinal and cranial nerves for execution.
primary motor cortex
____ is situated on the precentral gyrus, immediately anterior to the central sulcus.
primary motor cortex
____ fibers have long axons that extend to relatively distant neural structures ans to the spinal cord.
projection
A ____ are involuntary, stereotyped motor response to a sensory input. They may be relatively simple and confined to a single cord level or complex, involving multiple cord segments.
reflexes
Once a muscle fiber has contracted, it is followed by a brief ____ period during which it is repolarized and returns to its original resting potential.
refractory
The period after RMP where the neuron can be stimulated again, but only with a stronger-than-usual stimulus.
relative refractory period
The _____ is part of the network, and the nuclei forming this portion of the brain stem control state of alertness and the level of consciousness. Damage to this system can result in coma.
reticular activating system
At the core of the brain stem is the _____, a loose and diffuse network of nuclei controlling complex patterns of movement involved in breathing, cardiac function, and swallowing.
reticular formation
The _____ tract originates in the midbrain from the nucleus of cell bodies called the red nucleus, and fibers from each side cross over to synapse contralaterally with anterior horn motor neurons.
rubrospinal tract
Nerve fibers transmit impulses at different rates, depending on the ___ of the nerve and its degree of ____.
size; myelinization
It is within the ____ of a neuron that the major metabolic activity takes place.
soma
The ____ system portion of the PNS controls voluntary movement and sensory reception, and includes the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
somatic
Organization of motor control according to body structure.
somatotopic organization
_____ summation refers to the addition of impulses arriving at slightly different locations on the cell body or dendrites. Impulses arriving close together will combine and increase the strength of the resulting input in order to create an action potential.
spatial summation
Spinal nerves originate at different levels of the ____ and travel to all the muscles and glands in the rest of the body (other than head and neck areas).
spinal cord
The _____ functions to institute reflexes.
spinal cord
Major sensory pathways in the spinal cord include the ______ & ______. These pathways transmit info about pain, temp, touch, and proprioception to the thalamus, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum.
spinothalamic tract & spinocerebellar tract
The supplementary motor cortex has been implicated in such disorders as ____.
stuttering
Deep within the white matter of the brain are circumscribed areas of gray matter known as _____. These areas include the basal nuclei (basal ganglia), the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.
subcortex
Between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater lies the ____ and between the arachnoid mater and the pita mater is the _____.
subdural space; subarachnoid space
Shallow depressions on the cortex of the brain.
sulci
The ____ motor cortex functions similarly to the premotor cortex, but while the premotor cortex is more involved with movements in response to stimuli, this cortex plays more of a role in planning complex, internally generated movements.
supplementary
The _____ seems to be involved in the phonological processing of words and the symbolic integration of symbols for *writing*.
supramarginal gyrus
Between nerve cells is a tiny gap or cleft called a _____. These may occur between the axon and one nerve and the dendrites, cell body, or axon of another nerve, of a muscle fiber, or of a glandular cell.
synapse
____ models describe speech as a series of either spatial or acoustic-auditory targets that a speaker attempts to achieve.
target models
The ____ are important for understanding.
temporal lobes
____ occurs when separate inputs reach the cell membrane with slight time differences. As long as the differences fall within some brief amount of time, they may add together in order to create an action potential.
temporal summation
At its endpoint, the axon divides into numerous ______.
terminal branches
Small sacs (bumps) on the terminal branches of an axon filled with neurotransmitter molecules at the endpoint of an axon.
terminal buttons
The ____ can be likened to a relay station that collects inputs from many different locations and structures and relays them to many other locations and structures.
thalamus
The ____ is sometimes called the "gateway to consciousness" because all information traveling to the cerebral cortex, aside from olfaction, passes through it.
thalamus
The _____ comprises a collection of nuclei, some of which are involved with motor function and some with sensory function.
thalamus
The _____ sorts and interprets neural information and "decides" which signals should be transmitted to the cerebral cortex.
thalamus
____ change based on incoming research and effect in practice.
theories
A _____ is a statement about a particular phenomenon, incorporating underlying principles, facts, and assumptions.
theory
T/F: All spinal nerves contain both sensory and motor fibers (mixed) classified by their origin (sensory) or their target (motor).
true
T/F: CSF circulates around the *entire meningeal system* so that the brain and spinal cord are protected by a buoyant fluid shock-absorbing system.
true
T/F: Different structures have motor unit sizes that depend on the function and level of motor control of the structure.
true
T/F: Numerous theories of speech production have been proposed, including target models, feedback and feedforward models, action theory, and others.
true
T/F: Speech production relies on both closed loop and open loop systems.
true
T/F: The body structures are not represented equally in terms of the amount of cortical tissue devoted to their function.
true
T/F: The buoyancy that CSF creates reduces the weight of the brain, preventing it from crushing nerve roots and blood vessels against the internal surface of the skull.
true
T/F: The limbic lobe is not a separate lobe, but is made up of the most medial margins of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.
true
T/F: The motor strip is organized so that motor control of different body structures located within specific portions of the tissue.
true
T/F: There are areas in between each of the layers where the meninges do not conform to the contours of the brain.
true
The corticospinal and corticonuclear tracts together are referred to as the *pyramidal system*. This system is involved in controlling fine, skilled voluntary movements, and damage can result in muscles that are..
weak or spastic
The _____ is currently conceptualized as a critical region among several overlapping and widely distributed neural networks in the brain.
zone of language