Sport Management Final

James E. Sullivan

Became the first head of the U.S olympic committee

Between the 1970s and 1997, how did participation in high school girls' sports and collegewomen's sports programs grow? How did the Cold War contribute to that growth? Whatbarriers remained for women's progress in sports like the marathon?

Between the 1970s and 1997, participation in high school girls' sports and college women's sports programs grew significantly. This growth was fueled by a number of factors, including the passage of Title IX in 1972, which prohibited sex discrimination in federally funded educational programs, including sports. The growth of women's sports was also influenced by the Cold War, as the United States sought to demonstrate its superiority over the Soviet Union in all areas, including sports. Despite this progress, barriers remained for women's progress in sports, particularly in endurance sports like the marathon. Women were not officially allowed to compete in the marathon at the Olympics until 1984, and even then they were limited to a shorter distance than the men's marathon. Prior to this, women had been fighting for the right to compete in marathons for years, with many facing discrimination and outright hostility from race organizers and spectators. One of the most notable examples of this was Kathrine Switzer, who became the first woman to officially run the Boston Marathon in 1967. Switzer's participation in the marathon was controversial at the time, with race officials initially trying to physically remove her from the course. Despite these obstacles, Switzer completed the marathon and went on to become a prominent advocate for women's sports, helping to pave the way for future generations of female athletes.

When was the formation of the Entertaining and Sports Programming Network created

ESPN was founded in 1979

Who was "Ned" Irish and what tournament(s) did he organize for college basketball? What was thepremier college basketball tournament until 1951? Since the '50s, what basketball teams have beenperennial powerhouses?

" Ned" Irish was a prominent figure in the world of basketball, best known for organizing several college basketball tournaments in the mid-20th century. He was also the founder of the New York Knicks professional basketball team. Irish organized the National Invitation Tournament (NIT), which was the premier college basketball tournament until the NCAA Tournament gained prominence in the 1950s. The NIT was established in 1938, and quickly became one of the most prestigious postseason tournaments in college basketball, featuring many of the top teams and players in the country. Since the 1950s, several college basketball teams have been perennial powerhouses, including: UCLA: The UCLA Bruins were dominant in the 1960s and 1970s, winning ten NCAA championships under legendary coach John Wooden. Duke: The Duke Blue Devils have been a consistent force in college basketball since the 1980s, winning five national championships under coach Mike Krzyzewski. Kentucky: The Kentucky Wildcats have a long history of success in college basketball, with eight national championships to their name. North Carolina: The North Carolina Tar Heels have been a consistent presence in college basketball since the 1950s, with six national championships and a number of all-time great players and coaches. Kansas: The Kansas Jayhawks have been a fixture in college basketball for over a century, with three national championships and a record number of conference titles.

Joe Louis

"the Brown Bomber"; heavyweight champ; hero to black youth; quiet, polite, humble

What led to the growing presence of Latinos in baseball and how did ESPN respond to accommodatethat demographic? Who were among the outstanding Latino players? How did Nike become a factorin the growth of the NBA? Who were some of the stars of the NBA beginning in the 1970s?

It's important to note that Latinos have been playing baseball in the United States for over a century. However, the growing presence of Latinos in baseball can be attributed to several factors, including increased immigration from Latin America, the development of youth baseball programs in Latin American countries, and the expansion of scouting efforts by major league teams. In response to this demographic shift, ESPN has made an effort to provide coverage that caters to Latino viewers. For example, the network has increased the amount of Spanish-language programming it offers, including broadcasts of games with Spanish-speaking announcers and the creation of shows like "Nación ESPN," which covers sports news and events from a Latino perspective. There have been many outstanding Latino players in baseball history, including Roberto Clemente, who is regarded as one of the greatest outfielders of all time. Other notable Latino players include Pedro Martinez, David Ortiz, and Mariano Rivera, all of whom have been inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. As for Nike's involvement in the growth of the NBA, the company's partnership with Michael Jordan in the 1980s and 1990s helped to elevate the league's popularity to new heights. Nike's Air Jordan line of shoes became a cultural phenomenon, and Jordan's success on the court helped to turn basketball into a global sport. Some of the stars of the NBA beginning in the 1970s include Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and Julius Erving. These players helped to popularize the league and elevate it to new heights of mainstream popularity. In the 1990s, Michael Jordan emerged as the biggest star in the NBA, leading the Chicago Bulls to six championships and becoming one of the most recognizable athletes in the world.

At a time when football and golf were thriving, baseball began to experience woes - what were someof the woes facing baseball in the post-1950s?

Baseball began to experience woes in the post-1950s due to a number of factors. One of the major factors was the rise of other sports, particularly football and basketball, which began to capture the attention of younger audiences. Another factor was the decline of the inner cities, which had traditionally been a strong source of baseball talent. Additionally, changes in the game itself, including the rise of pitching dominance and the increase in strikeouts, made the game less exciting to watch for many fans. Finally, scandals like the Black Sox scandal of 1919 and the steroid scandal of the 1990s and 2000s tarnished the image of the game and eroded public trust. All of these factors contributed to a decline in baseball's popularity in the post-1950s.

Jim Thorpe

1912, American Indian, wins both decathlon and pentathlon at Olympics in Sweden; later medals and honors taken away when its discovered he had played semi-pro baseball as a summer job in college

How did black athletes begin to integrate college sport during the '60s? What college basketball teamwith "an all-black starting five" won the 1966 NCAA championship (Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 236)?

Black athletes began to integrate college sports during the 1960s through a combination of grassroots activism, legal challenges, and the efforts of college administrators and coaches who were willing to recruit and support Black athletes. One key event in the integration of college sports was the 1963 "Game of Change," a college basketball game between Mississippi State University and Loyola University Chicago. Mississippi State was an all-white team from a segregated state, while Loyola had four Black starters. Despite the opposition of Mississippi's governor, the team defied a state order to not play against integrated teams and traveled to Michigan to play Loyola. Loyola won the game, but the real victory was the message it sent about the power of sports to break down racial barriers. Another milestone in the integration of college sports was the success of the Texas Western basketball team, which won the NCAA championship in 1966 with an all-Black starting lineup. The team, which was coached by Don Haskins, faced discrimination and hostility throughout their season, but they persevered and made history by defeating the heavily favored University of Kentucky team in the championship game. The victory was seen as a triumph of racial integration in college sports, and it inspired other teams to follow in their footsteps.

How did Cassius Clay (aka Muhammad Ali) become "a focal point of the social and cultural unrest"of the 1960s (Grundy & Rader, 2109, p. 237)? In what ways did he challenge oppression

Cassius Clay, who later changed his name to Muhammad Ali, became a focal point of the social and cultural unrest of the 1960s due to his outspoken activism on civil rights and his opposition to the Vietnam War. Ali was known for his brash personality and his ability to back up his words in the boxing ring, but he was also a committed Muslim and a vocal critic of racism and inequality in the United States. In 1964, he famously refused to be drafted into the military during the Vietnam War, citing his religious beliefs and his opposition to the war. He famously stated, "I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong. No Viet Cong ever called me n****r." Ali's refusal to be drafted made him a target of government scrutiny and public backlash, but it also made him a hero to many who opposed the war and saw him as a symbol of resistance and defiance against oppression. He was stripped of his boxing titles and banned from the sport for several years, but he continued to speak out on issues of social justice and became an important figure in the Civil Rights Movement. Ali's activism challenged oppression in several ways. He used his platform as a famous athlete to draw attention to issues of racism and inequality, and he refused to compromise his beliefs or be silenced by those in power. He also challenged the notion that athletes should be silent on political issues, paving the way for future generations of athletes to use their voices and platforms to speak out on social and political issues.

When was ESPN founded and how did cable television transform the ways that Americans viewedsports? What programming did ESPN initially offer and how did it change as they grew?3. What were the origins of NASCAR and who was responsible for building "the sport into a regionalsensation" (Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 264)? Where did NASCAR rank in relationship to other sportsby 2005?

ESPN was founded in 1979, and it was one of the first cable television channels dedicated to sports programming. Cable television transformed the ways that Americans viewed sports by providing access to a much wider range of events and allowing fans to follow their favorite teams and athletes from around the country. Initially, ESPN offered a mix of sports news, highlights, and live events, including college basketball and football, tennis, boxing, and professional wrestling. As the channel grew, it added more programming, including original series, documentaries, and talk shows. Today, ESPN is a global media company that includes multiple television networks, digital platforms, and live events. The origins of NASCAR can be traced back to the post-World War II era, when stock car racing became popular in the southern United States. Bill France Sr. was responsible for building NASCAR into a regional sensation by founding the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) in 1948 and organizing the first Daytona 500 race in 1959. NASCAR continued to grow in popularity throughout the latter half of the 20th century, and by 2005, it was one of the most-watched sports in America, ranking third behind only the NFL and college football in television ratings. The sport's popularity was due in part to its grassroots origins, which allowed fans to connect with drivers and teams on a personal level, as well as its unique combination of speed, skill, and danger. Today, NASCAR remains a popular sport with a large and devoted fanbase.

What were 3 distinct advantages that college football had over professional football? What was themain advantage that professional football had over the college game?

Historically, there have been several advantages that college football has had over professional football: Tradition and History: College football has a rich tradition and history that dates back over 100 years. Many universities have long-standing rivalries that have become a part of the fabric of the sport, such as Ohio State vs. Michigan or Alabama vs. Auburn. Passionate Fan Base: College football fans are known for their passionate support of their favorite teams. The game is often tied to the identity of the universities and regions they represent, and fans are loyal to their alma maters or hometown teams. Amateur Status: College football players are considered amateur athletes, which has historically been viewed as a positive. The amateur status of college football players was thought to keep the game pure and focused on the love of the sport rather than the pursuit of money. On the other hand, professional football has had one main advantage over college football: Talent Level. Professional football attracts the best football players in the world, and as a result, the level of play is generally higher than that of college football. Professional football players are paid to play and train year-round, giving them an advantage over college athletes who have to balance academics and athletics. This results in a faster, more physically demanding game that is often seen as more exciting and impressive to watch.

Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America

IC4A founded in 1876 in order to conduct annual full scale track meets.

How did the early days of professional football compare to the early college game in terms of fanbases, popularity, styles of play and reputations? When did professional football take its first stepstoward greater organization? When did the NFL and AFL merge to become the NFC and AFC?

In the early days of professional football, it was not as popular as the college game. The college game had a more established fan base and had been played for several decades, whereas professional football was seen as less legitimate and had a reputation for being less organized and more rough and violent. The styles of play in professional football were also different from those in the college game. Professional football was more of a rough-and-tumble game, with less emphasis on finesse and strategy. The players were often larger and more physical, and the game was more focused on hard hits and brute strength. Professional football began to take its first steps toward greater organization in the 1920s, with the formation of the American Professional Football Association (APFA) in 1920, which later became the National Football League (NFL) in 1922. The NFL brought together several regional professional football teams and provided a more structured and organized framework for the game. The NFL and the American Football League (AFL) merged in 1970 to form the modern-day NFL with two conferences, the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). This merger brought together the best teams from both leagues and created a more unified and competitive professional football landscape.

Why was Jim Thorpe considered to be "the unquestioned star" of the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm,Sweden (Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 184)? What did Grundy and Rader (2019) mean by saying thatThorpe succumbed to the "perils of the amateur code" (p. 185)?

Jim Thorpe was considered the unquestioned star of the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm because of his remarkable performance in both the pentathlon and decathlon events. He won both events convincingly, setting world records in each, and earning two gold medals. Thorpe's success in the Olympics was particularly impressive because he was not a specialist in any one event, but rather excelled in multiple events, demonstrating his all-around athletic ability. However, Thorpe's Olympic success was tarnished after it was revealed that he had previously played semi-professional baseball, which violated the "amateur code" of the Olympics. As a result, the IOC stripped Thorpe of his medals and he was disqualified from the Games. Grundy and Rader (2019) stated that Thorpe "succumbed to the perils of the amateur code" because he had violated the strict amateurism rules that governed Olympic participation at that time. The rules stipulated that athletes could not receive payment for their athletic abilities, and that they must be "amateurs" in the true sense of the word. Thorpe's disqualification highlighted the conflict between amateurism and professionalism in sports, which continued to be a contentious issue for many years to come.

What did the initials OPHR stand for and how was protest illustrated by Tommie Smith and JohnCarlos at the 1968 Olympics? What were they protesting and how did the IOC and USOC respond totheir protest? How did racial relations in sport change (from the politics of restraint) in the post-50s?

OPHR stands for Olympic Project for Human Rights, an organization founded in 1967 by Harry Edwards, a sociologist and civil rights activist. The OPHR was a coalition of athletes who sought to use the platform of the Olympics to call attention to racial inequality and other social and political issues. Tommie Smith and John Carlos were two American track and field athletes who raised their fists in a Black Power salute during the medal ceremony at the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City. Smith won the gold medal in the 200-meter race, while Carlos won the bronze medal. As they stood on the podium, they each raised a black-gloved fist in the air as the national anthem played. They also wore black socks and no shoes to represent Black poverty. The protest was intended to bring attention to the struggle for civil rights and the mistreatment of Black Americans. It was also a response to the systemic racism and discrimination that Black athletes faced in the United States. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) both condemned Smith and Carlos' protest, and they were suspended from the U.S. team and sent home from the Olympics. The IOC also made it clear that political protests would not be tolerated at future Olympic Games. The protest by Smith and Carlos, as well as other demonstrations by athletes in the late 1960s and early 1970s, marked a turning point in the history of racial relations in sport. They demonstrated the power of athletes to use their platform to raise awareness and effect change, and paved the way for future athletes to speak out on social and political issues. The politics of restraint, which had previously discouraged athletes from taking political stands, began to give way to a new era of activism and advocacy in sports.

Since the 1950s, college and professional sports have experienced a variety of scandals. Whatscandals occurred in collegiate and professional sports in the 21st century?

Penn State sexual abuse scandal (2011): Former Penn State football assistant coach Jerry Sandusky was convicted of sexually abusing young boys over a period of several years. The scandal also led to the firing of head coach Joe Paterno and other high-ranking university officials. FIFA corruption scandal (2015): Several top officials from the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) were indicted on charges of corruption and bribery related to the organization's awarding of contracts for major soccer events. Russian doping scandal (2016): The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) released a report alleging widespread state-sponsored doping among Russian athletes in multiple sports, including the Olympics. College admissions scandal (2019): Several high-profile individuals, including Hollywood actresses and business executives, were charged with bribing college officials and coaches to secure spots for their children at elite universities. Houston Astros sign-stealing scandal (2017-2019): The Houston Astros were found to have used a video camera and trash cans to steal signs from opposing teams during their World Series-winning 2017 season.

What factors and players contributed to the rising popularity of basketball?

Pro game began to rise in 1946 when a big group of arena owners formed the BAA (Basketball Association of America) Three years later in 1949 the BAA merged with the Midwest-Based National Basketball League to make the NBA George Mikan - Minneapolis Lakers Bob Cousy - Boston Celtics guard play

What factors contributed to college football going 'big time?' How did the desire to be No. 1 driverecruiting?

Quarterbacks through 50 or more passes a game, there were advancements in half time shows such as marching bands, there was also around 40 more plays per game.

In what year was the first live telecast of the World Series and who played in that series? What other significant event had occurred earlier that season?

The first live telecast of the World Series was in 1947. The series was played between the New York Yankees and the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Yankees won the series in seven games, with the final game played at Yankee Stadium on October 6, 1947. The 1947 baseball season was significant for another reason as well. On April 15, 1947, Jackie Robinson made his debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers, becoming the first African American player in Major League Baseball. Robinson's historic debut broke the color barrier in baseball and paved the way for greater racial integration in sports and society.

Who was Roberto Clemente and how did he make his mark in MLB during the '60s and '70s? Howdid the increasing presence of Latinos and protests of "Indian mascots" change the landscape ofsport? Who was Curt Flood and how did his protest bring an end to the reserve clause in MLB?

Roberto Clemente was a Puerto Rican baseball player who made his mark in MLB during the 1960s and 1970s. He played his entire career with the Pittsburgh Pirates and was known for his powerful hitting, exceptional fielding, and strong arm. Clemente was a 15-time All-Star, a four-time National League batting champion, and a two-time World Series champion. He was also an outspoken advocate for Latino rights and was deeply involved in humanitarian work, particularly in Latin America. The increasing presence of Latinos in MLB during the 1960s and 1970s changed the landscape of the sport, bringing new talent and new perspectives to the game. However, it also led to protests over the use of "Indian mascots" and other racially insensitive symbols and practices. Curt Flood was a Major League Baseball player who played for the St. Louis Cardinals and the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1969, Flood was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies without his consent, and he challenged the reserve clause in MLB contracts, which effectively bound players to their teams for life. Flood's challenge to the reserve clause went all the way to the Supreme Court, where he ultimately lost, but his protest helped pave the way for free agency in professional sports. The end of the reserve clause allowed players to negotiate their own contracts and sell their services to the highest bidder, giving them more control over their careers and leading to significant increases in player salaries. It also changed the way teams built their rosters, as they were no longer limited to the players they had under contract.

Be familiar with: Roone Arledge's innovations in televised sports; how sports brought about socialchange especially in the '60s and '70s; the "Me Decade;" the "running boom" of the 1970s; and theformation of Blue Ribbon Sports that later became Nike

Roone Arledge was a television producer who revolutionized televised sports in the 1960s and 1970s. He introduced several innovations, such as instant replay, slow-motion replays, and multiple camera angles. Arledge also helped to create a new style of sports broadcasting that focused on storytelling and human interest, rather than just the games themselves. Sports played a significant role in bringing about social change in the 1960s and 1970s. Athletes like Muhammad Ali, Billie Jean King, and Arthur Ashe used their platforms to advocate for civil rights, gender equality, and social justice. Their activism helped to raise awareness of important issues and paved the way for future generations of athletes to use their voices to effect change. The "Me Decade" refers to the 1970s, a time when individualism and self-expression were highly valued. This era saw the rise of personal fitness and the "running boom," as people sought to improve their health and well-being through exercise. The popularity of running led to the creation of new events, such as marathons and road races, and inspired the creation of new companies, such as Blue Ribbon Sports. Blue Ribbon Sports was founded in 1964 by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight. The company began as a distributor of Japanese running shoes, but later developed its own line of footwear and apparel under the Nike brand. Nike became one of the most successful and influential sports brands in the world, known for its innovative designs and marketing campaigns.

How has sports gambling expanded over time? What was the Professional and Amateur SportsProtection Act (PASPA) of 1992? What was the Supreme Court's ruling on it in 2018?

Sports gambling has expanded significantly over time, driven in part by the growth of the internet and the proliferation of online sportsbooks. In the past, sports gambling was primarily conducted through illicit bookies or in-person at casinos or racetracks. However, the rise of online sports betting has made it easier and more accessible for people to place bets on sports events from the comfort of their own homes. The Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act (PASPA) of 1992 was a federal law that prohibited sports betting in most states. The law exempted a few states that already had sports betting operations in place, such as Nevada, but it effectively banned sports betting in the rest of the country. In 2018, the Supreme Court ruled that PASPA was unconstitutional, paving the way for individual states to legalize and regulate sports betting. The case, known as Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association, was brought by the state of New Jersey, which argued that the federal government had overstepped its authority by regulating sports betting. The Supreme Court's ruling opened the door for individual states to legalize sports betting if they choose to do so. Since then, several states have legalized sports betting and many more are considering it. The ruling has also led to the growth of the sports betting industry, as more companies have entered the market to offer sports betting services to customers.

How did the advent of television impact Americans' consumption of sport in the 1950s? Why wastelevision considered the most important factor in post-WWII American sports history? In its pioneerstage, what sports were most suited to televising in the 1950s and 1960s?

Television was considered the most important factor in post-WWII American sports history because it changed the way that sports were consumed and experienced. Television made sports more accessible to a wider audience, and it allowed sports to become a major part of American culture. Sports became a source of entertainment, education, and even politics, as televised sports events could be used to promote national values and ideals. In its pioneer stage, television was most suited to televising sports that were easy to follow and that could be broadcast live. This included sports such as football, baseball, and boxing, which were popular with American audiences and had clear narratives and storylines. Other sports, such as golf and tennis, were also popular on television, as they were visually appealing and could be broadcast live without too much difficulty. As television technology improved, more sports, such as basketball and hockey, became popular on television, and networks began to experiment with different ways of presenting and covering sports events.

What were the "thirteen steps to glory" that occurred in the "greatest game ever played" in the NFL(Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 206)? Why was it considered the 'greatest game?

The "greatest game ever played" refers to the NFL championship game between the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants in 1958. The game was tied 17-17 at the end of regulation and went into the first-ever sudden death overtime in NFL history. The "thirteen steps to glory" are the sequence of plays that led to the Colts' game-winning touchdown in overtime. They are: Colts win coin toss and elect to receive. Colts return the kickoff to their own 20-yard line. Colts quarterback Johnny Unitas completes a pass to receiver Raymond Berry for 7 yards. Unitas completes another pass to Berry for 25 yards. Unitas completes a pass to fullback Alan Ameche for 6 yards. Unitas hands off to Ameche for a 5-yard gain. Unitas hands off to Ameche again for a 2-yard gain. Unitas hands off to Ameche once more for a 2-yard touchdown run. Colts win the game 23-17. The game was considered the "greatest" because it was the first NFL championship game to go into overtime, and it was played at a high level of skill and drama. The game also had a significant impact on the popularity of the NFL, helping to make it one of the most popular sports leagues in the United States.

What was the 'transgender challenge' that Renee Richards presented in tennis in 1975? Whowere some of her supporters and what were the views of her detractors?

The "transgender challenge" that Renee Richards presented in tennis in 1975 was a controversy surrounding her eligibility to compete in women's tournaments. Richards was a transgender woman who had undergone gender reassignment surgery and hormone therapy. Richards had previously played as a male player before transitioning and was initially barred from playing in the women's events of the US Open in 1976. She filed a lawsuit against the United States Tennis Association, claiming that the ban was discriminatory and violated her civil rights. Some of Richards' supporters argued that she had a right to compete as a woman and that her physical characteristics did not give her an unfair advantage over other female players. They also argued that excluding transgender athletes from competition was discriminatory. However, many of Richards' detractors argued that she had a competitive advantage due to her previous experience as a male player and the physical advantages that come with male biology. Some female players also expressed concern that allowing transgender athletes to compete in women's events would undermine the integrity of women's sports. Ultimately, Richards was allowed to compete as a woman, and her case paved the way for greater inclusion of transgender athletes in sports. However, debates and controversies over the inclusion of transgender athletes in sports continue to this day.

What was the AIAW and what was its philosophy for governing women's sports from 1972-1982? How did that philosophy differ from the NCAA's philosophy? How did Title IXchange AIAW's policy of giving scholarships to women? When did the NCAA begin togovern women's sports?

The Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) was founded in 1971 to govern women's collegiate sports. Its philosophy was to provide opportunities for women to participate in sports while maintaining a commitment to academic standards and amateurism. From 1972 to 1982, the AIAW oversaw women's athletics and organized national championships for women's sports. The AIAW's philosophy differed from the NCAA's philosophy, which focused on the commercialization of college sports and generating revenue. The NCAA did not initially recognize women's sports and did not provide opportunities for women to compete at the national level. Title IX had a significant impact on the AIAW's policy of giving scholarships to women. As more funding became available for women's sports, the AIAW was able to offer more scholarships to female athletes, which increased the level of competition and raised the overall quality of women's sports programs. The NCAA began to govern women's sports in 1980 when it created the Women's Championship Committee. This committee oversaw the administration of women's sports and organized national championships for women's sports. In 1982, the NCAA assumed complete control of women's sports, effectively ending the AIAW's role in governing women's sports.

As golf entered a 'golden era,' what golfer "brought high drama and charisma" to the game (Grundy& Rader, 2019, p. 212)? How were his fans known?

The golfer who brought high drama and charisma to the game during golf's golden era was Arnold Palmer. His fans were famously known as "Arnie's Army." Palmer was known for his aggressive style of play, his swashbuckling demeanor, and his ability to connect with fans. He helped to popularize golf as a spectator sport and was instrumental in bringing the game to a wider audience. Palmer's success on the course, combined with his likable personality, made him a fan favorite and helped to cement his place as one of the all-time greats of the sport.

When was the Cold War and how was it reflected in sport (think about: Althea Gibson playing tennis on a world tour in the mid-1950s; the 'Miracle on Ice,' and the "Arms race" in Chap. 21)? 3. How did population growth in the suburbs impact sport and the building of new venues? What was considered the "quintessential symbol of the modern metropolis" (Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 196)? What franchise moves occurred in sports beginning in the 1950s?

The Cold War lasted from the late 1940s to the early 1990s, and it had a significant impact on sports. One example is Althea Gibson, who became the first African American tennis player to win a Grand Slam tournament in 1956. Her success challenged racial segregation in tennis and was seen as a victory for democracy over communism. Another example is the "Miracle on Ice" in the 1980 Winter Olympics, where the US ice hockey team, made up of amateur players, defeated the heavily favored Soviet team in a tense and dramatic game. The victory was seen as a symbol of American strength and resilience in the face of Soviet power and influence. The arms race, which refers to the competition between the US and the Soviet Union to build and stockpile nuclear weapons, also had an impact on sports. The US and the Soviet Union competed in various sports, such as track and field, gymnastics, and ice hockey, as a way to show their superiority and gain political influence. The population growth in the suburbs in the post-World War II era had a significant impact on sports and the building of new venues. As more people moved to the suburbs, sports teams followed, and new stadiums and arenas were built to accommodate them. The construction of these venues was often funded by public money, and they became important cultural and social centers in suburban communities. The quintessential symbol of the modern metropolis, according to Grundy and Rader (2019), was the sports stadium or arena. These large, modern structures were seen as symbols of progress, growth, and prosperity. Beginning in the 1950s, there were several franchise moves in sports. One of the most significant was the relocation of the Brooklyn Dodgers and the New York Giants baseball teams to California in 1957. This move was seen as a sign of the changing demographics and economic shifts in the US, as well as the increasing influence of television on sports. Other moves included the relocation of the Baltimore Colts football team to Indianapolis and the Houston Oilers football team to Tennessee.

How did the Olympics become political in the '60s and '70s and what was the tragic outcome thatoccurred at the 1972 Olympics in Munich?

The Olympics became political in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of the growing tensions of the Cold War and the Civil Rights Movement. During this period, many nations saw the Olympics as an opportunity to showcase their political ideologies and assert their dominance on the world stage. The most tragic example of this political tension came during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany. On September 5th, a Palestinian terrorist group known as Black September stormed the Olympic Village and took 11 members of the Israeli Olympic team hostage. The terrorists demanded the release of over 200 Palestinian prisoners being held in Israeli jails. The stand-off lasted for over 24 hours and ultimately ended in tragedy when German police attempted to rescue the hostages. All 11 Israeli athletes, a German police officer, and five of the eight terrorists were killed in the ensuing violence. The attack on the Israeli team at the Munich Olympics marked a turning point in Olympic history, as it highlighted the vulnerability of athletes and the games to political violence. It also underscored the importance of security at the Olympics, leading to significant changes in the way the games are organized and protected to this day.

What was the Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961? How did this act "lay the foundation for the GoldenAge of Pro Football" (Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 209)? What was the philosophy known as "ThinkLeague" and how did it enhance the growth of the NFL?

The Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961 was a law passed by the U.S. Congress that allowed professional sports leagues to negotiate and sell their television broadcast rights as a collective group rather than individually. This meant that the NFL could sell the broadcast rights for all of its teams as a single package, which was a significant shift from the previous system where teams negotiated their own broadcast deals. The Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961 helped to create a more stable and lucrative source of revenue for professional sports leagues, including the NFL. With more money coming in from television contracts, the NFL was able to invest in better players, better facilities, and better marketing, which helped to enhance the quality and popularity of the game. The philosophy known as "Think League" was a key component in the growth of the NFL during the 1960s and 1970s. This philosophy emphasized the importance of the league as a whole, rather than individual teams or players. By promoting the NFL as a brand and focusing on the collective success of the league, the NFL was able to build a strong and loyal fan base, which helped to drive the growth of the league. Think League also led to greater cooperation and collaboration among team owners, which helped to ensure the long-term success of the NFL.

Who was the key figure behind the modern Olympics? When and where was the first modernOlympics held? What were highlights of early Olympic Games?

The key figure behind the modern Olympics was Pierre de Coubertin, a French educator and sports enthusiast. He founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894 with the goal of reviving the ancient Greek Olympic Games. The first modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece in 1896. The games were held in the Panathenaic Stadium, which was built in ancient Greece and renovated for the modern Olympics. The opening ceremony included a parade of athletes from 14 countries, and the first event was the marathon. Some highlights of the early Olympic Games include the participation of female athletes for the first time in the 1900 Paris Olympics, the introduction of the medal system in the 1904 St. Louis Olympics, and the emergence of legendary athletes such as Jim Thorpe and Paavo Nurmi. The 1912 Stockholm Olympics were also significant as they featured the first use of electronic timing devices and the first appearance of Japan and South Africa in the games.

How did Women's Liberation and Title IX open doors for greater opportunities for girls andwomen in sport? What revolutionary implications did Title IX have when it passed and whatresistance did advocates of Title IX face?

The Women's Liberation movement of the 1960s and 1970s, along with the passage of Title IX in 1972, played a significant role in opening doors for greater opportunities for girls and women in sports. Title IX prohibited sex discrimination in federally-funded educational programs, including athletics, and mandated that schools provide equal opportunities and funding for girls and women's sports as they did for boys and men's sports. Title IX had revolutionary implications for women's sports. Prior to its passage, women's sports programs were often underfunded and underdeveloped, and women had limited opportunities to participate in organized sports beyond intramural programs. With Title IX in place, women's sports programs began to receive equal funding and resources, leading to increased participation and success in sports at all levels. However, advocates of Title IX faced significant resistance from those who argued that it would lead to the elimination of men's sports programs and harm the quality of education for male students. Some institutions also argued that compliance with Title IX would be too expensive and that they did not have the resources to provide equal opportunities for both male and female athletes. Despite these challenges, Title IX has been instrumental in breaking down barriers and creating opportunities for girls and women in sports. Today, female athletes compete at the highest levels in a wide range of sports, and women's sports continue to grow and gain popularity.

When did the X-games begin? What were some of the events featured in the X-games? When did theWinter X-games begin and when were they added to the Olympics? What X-games events featured inthe Winter Olympics? Who were some of the biggest stars?

The X-Games began in 1995 as a way to showcase alternative and extreme sports that were not part of traditional sporting events. The X-Games were created by ESPN and have since become a popular annual event, featuring a range of competitions in various extreme sports. Some of the events featured in the X-Games include skateboarding, snowboarding, motocross, BMX, and surfing. These events often involve high speeds, big air, and dangerous stunts that require skill, strength, and athleticism. The Winter X-Games began in 1997, and they feature winter sports such as skiing, snowboarding, and snowmobiling. The Winter X-Games were added to the Olympics in 1998 as exhibition events, but they were not officially added to the Olympic program until 2021. Some of the X-Games events featured in the Winter Olympics include snowboard cross, ski cross, and slopestyle skiing and snowboarding. Some of the biggest stars in X-Games history include Shaun White, Tony Hawk, Travis Pastrana, Kelly Slater, and Hannah Teter, among many others. These athletes have helped to popularize the X-Games and have inspired countless others to pursue extreme sports.

When did the relationship of CTE and the NFL come to light? What examples illustrate the severityof the connection? Has the NFL done enough to address this issue?

The connection between Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) and the NFL came to light in the early 2000s, when researchers began to study the long-term effects of repeated head trauma in football players. In 2002, Dr. Bennet Omalu, a neuropathologist, conducted the first study that found CTE in the brain of a deceased former NFL player, sparking increased interest in the issue. Since then, numerous studies have found a link between football-related head trauma and CTE. CTE is a degenerative brain disease that has been linked to a range of symptoms, including memory loss, depression, and dementia. It is believed to be caused by repeated blows to the head, such as those experienced by football players during games and practices. There have been many examples of former NFL players who have been diagnosed with CTE, including Hall of Fame linebacker Junior Seau, who committed suicide in 2012 at the age of 43. A post-mortem examination of Seau's brain showed that he had CTE, and his family later filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the NFL. Another example is former New England Patriots player Aaron Hernandez, who was diagnosed with CTE after he committed suicide in prison in 2017. Hernandez was only 27 years old at the time of his death. The NFL has taken steps to address the issue of CTE and head trauma in football. In 2016, the league settled a class-action lawsuit brought by former players who alleged that the NFL had covered up the long-term risks of head injuries. The settlement included a payment of $1 billion to the affected players. The league has also implemented new rules and protocols to try to reduce the risk of head injuries in games, such as stricter concussion protocols and penalties for helmet-to-helmet hits. However, some critics argue that the NFL has not done enough to address the issue, and that more needs to be done to protect players and prevent long-term brain damage.

What marked the end of the amateur era in the Olympics and how did the Olympics change whenprofessionals could compete in the Games? In the mid- to late-90s, what women's sports teamsestablished leagues, and what events increased the visibility of women's team sports?

The end of the amateur era in the Olympics can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s when many countries, particularly those from the Eastern bloc, began to support their athletes with financial incentives and other forms of support, effectively turning them into professionals. This shift led to growing pressure for the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to allow professionals to compete in the Games, which ultimately happened in the early 1990s. The introduction of professional athletes into the Olympics brought significant changes to the Games, including an increase in the level of competition and the popularity of certain events. For example, basketball and tennis became much more popular as top professional players began to participate in the Olympics. However, there were also concerns that the inclusion of professionals would detract from the amateur spirit of the Games. In the mid- to late-90s, several women's sports teams established leagues, including the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), which began play in 1997, and the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA), which launched in 2001. These leagues helped to increase the visibility and popularity of women's team sports. Other events that helped to increase the visibility of women's team sports during this time include the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, where the US women's soccer team won the gold medal in front of a record-breaking crowd, and the 1999 Women's World Cup, which was also held in the US and featured the iconic moment when Brandi Chastain scored the winning penalty kick and celebrated by taking off her shirt.

What is the origin of the term "arms race" and how is it reflected in college athletics? Give examplesthat illustrate how the college arms race can be seen (via facilities, coaching salaries, recruiting)?

The term "arms race" originally referred to the competition between nations to build up their military power, particularly during the Cold War. The term has since been applied to other areas of competition, including college athletics. In college athletics, the arms race refers to the competition between universities to build and maintain the best facilities, coaching staff, and recruiting classes in order to attract top student-athletes and achieve success on the field. This often leads to a cycle of ever-increasing spending and investment, with universities trying to outdo one another to gain a competitive edge. Examples of the college arms race can be seen in a number of ways: Facilities: Universities are investing large sums of money to build state-of-the-art facilities for their athletic programs. This includes new stadiums, training facilities, and practice facilities. For example, the University of Texas recently built a new $300 million football stadium, and Clemson University opened a $55 million football operations center. Coaching salaries: Universities are also willing to pay top dollar to attract the best coaching talent. This has led to skyrocketing coaching salaries, with some coaches earning upwards of $10 million per year. For example, University of Alabama football coach Nick Saban earns a reported $11.1 million per year. Recruiting: In order to attract top student-athletes, universities are investing heavily in their recruiting efforts. This includes hiring dedicated recruiting staff, offering top-of-the-line facilities and amenities during recruiting visits, and providing other incentives to entice student-athletes to choose their program. Overall, the college arms race reflects the intense competition and financial investment that universities are willing to make in order to achieve success in athletics. While this can lead to improved facilities and opportunities for student-athletes, it also raises questions about the sustainability of this model and whether universities are prioritizing athletics over other important areas of their mission.

What were two college scandals that occurred in 1950 (in football at West Point) and 1951 (involving32 players from 7 colleges, in basketball)? How did those events lead to the NCAA becoming acartel? What was the "sanity code?"

The two college scandals that occurred in 1950 and 1951 were: West Point Football Scandal: In 1950, a cheating scandal rocked the West Point football program. Several players were caught receiving unauthorized help on an exam, and the resulting investigation uncovered a widespread cheating ring that had been in operation for several years. Basketball Point-Shaving Scandal: In 1951, 32 players from seven colleges were implicated in a point-shaving scandal in college basketball. Players were paid to manipulate the score of games to ensure that the final score fell within a certain point spread. This scandal led to several arrests and the eventual disbanding of several college basketball teams.

What were the outcomes and significance of two fights between Joe Louis and Max Schmeling? Whydid Louis need to contend with the shadow of Jack Johnson?

The two fights between Joe Louis and Max Schmeling were significant events in boxing history and had wider social and political implications. The first fight took place in 1936, and Schmeling won by knockout in the 12th round. The second fight took place in 1938, and Louis won by knockout in the first round. The significance of these fights lies in their symbolic meaning, as they were seen as contests between democracy and fascism, or between black and white. Schmeling was seen as a symbol of Nazi Germany, while Louis was a symbol of American democracy and the struggle for racial equality. The first fight was seen as a blow to American morale, while the second fight was a triumph for Louis and for America, as it came at a time of rising tensions in Europe and the threat of war. Louis also had to contend with the shadow of Jack Johnson, the first black heavyweight champion, who had faced a great deal of racial discrimination and criticism during his career. Johnson had been seen as arrogant and defiant, and his success had fueled racist attitudes and fears. Louis was often compared to Johnson and had to navigate the expectations and prejudices of white and black audiences alike. Despite these challenges, Louis became one of the most successful and beloved boxers in history, paving the way for future black athletes and inspiring generations of fans.

What women's sport in 1970 became "one of the nation's most significant spectator sports"(Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 253)? What was the 'open era' and how did that factor into thesuccess of this women's sports? Who were among the leaders in promoting this sport

The women's sport that became "one of the nation's most significant spectator sports" in 1970 was tennis. The 'open era' of tennis began in 1968 when professional players were allowed to compete in Grand Slam tournaments, which were previously restricted to amateurs. The open era allowed for greater competition and more opportunities for female tennis players to showcase their skills and attract larger audiences. It also brought increased prize money and sponsorship opportunities for women's tennis. Billie Jean King, a tennis player and advocate for gender equality in sports, was among the leaders in promoting women's tennis during this time. She famously defeated Bobby Riggs in the "Battle of the Sexes" match in 1973, which drew a massive television audience and further increased the visibility of women's tennis. Other notable players of the era included Margaret Court, Chris Evert, and Martina Navratilova, who all helped to establish women's tennis as a popular and respected sport.

What are some of the advances that have been made in sport in the 21st century? Be able to giveexamples to illustrate progress for demographics that had previously been underrepresented. Wheredoes progress still need to be made?

There have been many advances in sport in the 21st century, including significant progress for demographics that had previously been underrepresented. Here are some examples: Gender equality: There has been a growing movement towards gender equality in sports, with more opportunities for women to participate and succeed in sports at all levels. For example, the US Women's Soccer team won the 2019 World Cup and brought attention to the ongoing pay disparities between male and female athletes. In addition, more female athletes are being featured in mainstream media and sports apparel companies are creating lines that cater to women. Diversity and inclusion: Efforts have been made to increase diversity and inclusion in sports, particularly in professional leagues like the NBA and NFL. The Rooney Rule, for example, requires NFL teams to interview minority candidates for head coaching and senior football operation jobs. In addition, the NBA has implemented a range of initiatives to support diversity and inclusion, including a mentoring program for female employees and a partnership with the LGBTQ+ advocacy group GLAAD. Adaptive sports: There has been a growing recognition of the importance of adaptive sports for individuals with disabilities, and many sports organizations have implemented programs to support adaptive sports. For example, the Paralympic Games have become more mainstream and are now broadcast on major television networks, and the Invictus Games were established to support injured servicemen and women.

What were issues surrounding "Berlin's suitability as an Olympic venue" in 1936 (Grundy & Rader, 2019, p. 186). Do you believe Germany "violated the Olympic Code" (p. 187)? What was the overall impression of the 1936 Olympics?

There were several issues surrounding Berlin's suitability as an Olympic venue in 1936. One of the major concerns was the Nazi regime's policies of racism and discrimination against Jews and other minorities. There were also concerns about the potential for the games to be used as a propaganda tool by the Nazi government. In addition, there were concerns about the cost of hosting the Olympics and the impact it would have on Germany's economy. Despite these concerns, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) ultimately awarded the 1936 Olympics to Berlin. Grundy and Rader (2019) argue that Germany did violate the Olympic Code by excluding Jewish athletes from their team and using the Olympics for propaganda purposes. They also note that the Nazi government made efforts to hide their discriminatory policies during the games, in order to present a positive image to the international community. The overall impression of the 1936 Olympics is mixed. On the one hand, the games were well-organized and successful in terms of logistics and athletic performance. On the other hand, the games were marred by the Nazi regime's policies and propaganda, which led to protests and controversy. In particular, the decision to exclude Jewish athletes from the German team and the refusal to allow Jewish athletes from other countries to compete in certain events was widely criticized.

Jesse Owens

United States athlete and Black American whose success in the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin outraged Hitler (1913-1980)

Oscar Robertson

served as association president from 1965-1974