Sport Psychology Comprehensive Written Exam
Disconnected Values Intervention Model
The disconnected values intervention model is a good approach for helping people to recognize their personal choice and control in change.
Multidimensional Anxiety
Theory that predicts that an increase in cognitive state anxiety (worry) has a negative effect on performance. The theory is based on the premise that state anxiety is multidimensional with its two components (cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety) influencing performance differently.
Role Ambiguity
lacking clear information about the expectations associated with a position/role can be a result of lack of information about what the role entails (unclear job description), the goals of the role, or uncertainty about what is allowed when carrying out the role and accomplishing the goals.
cognitive appraisal*
refers to the personal interpretation of a situation that ultimately influences the extent to which the situation is perceived as stressful.
The Humanistic Model (Rogers)
s a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. Rather than concentrating on dysfunction, humanistic psychology strives to help people fulfill their potential and maximize their well-being.
Behavioral Model (Pavlov, Skinner, Watson, Thorndike)
a conceptualization of psychological disorders in terms of overt behavior patterns produced by learning and the influence of reinforcement contingencies. Treatment techniques, including systematic desensitization and modeling, focus on modifying ineffective or maladaptive patterns.
Self-Efficacy Theory (Albert Bandura)
a personal judgment of "how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations".
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) Model
a psychological approach that involves analyzing strategies used by successful individuals and applying them to reach a personal goal. It relates thoughts, language, and patterns of behavior learned through experience to specific outcomes.
Pendular Perspective
also known as repeating cycles perspective. It emphasizes shifts in interpersonal relationships throughout growth and development of a group
Cyclical (Life cycle) Perspective
assumes that groups progress in a way similar to the life cycle of individuals: birth, growth, death.
Attributes
characteristics; qualities of a person or thing The opposite is true of failure, i.e., often need to attribute 'failure' to an unstable factor, e.g., effort or bad luck in order to feel confident next time (otherwise one might give up).
Cognitive Model (Beck)
describes how people's perceptions of, or spontaneous thoughts about, situations influence their emotional, behavioral (and often physiological) reactions. ... These distorted beliefs influence their processing of information, and give rise to their distorted thoughts.
Gestalt Therapy
form of directive insight therapy in which the therapist helps clients to accept all parts of their feelings and subjective experiences, using leading questions and planned experiences such as role-playing
Group size, level of competition and anxiety
have been found to be negatively/inversely correlated with group cohesion
Communication
-Relaying information and sharing ideas ■Kirubakar and Kumutha's (2010) 6 C's of communication: -Clear -Concise -Courteous -Correct -Complete -Constructive
Two Techniques to Respond to Resistance
•Recognizing personal choice and control •Make the obvious, obvious •What's in the clients control versus what's not •Behavior change is the clients choice •Shifting focus •Shift focus to an area that is more productive and helpful for the client •Typically accomplished with a reflection or summary followed by a question
Reflection
•Reflection captures a client's implicit or unspoken emotions
Measure Speech Strength in Change Talk
•Strength of Desire-I wish things were different •Strength of Ability-I know what I have to do •Strength of Reasons-maybe I would have more energy •Strength of Need-I've got to make things better •Strength of Commitment-I will do that
Summarization
•Summarization is easiest to use when you are starting and ending a session. End with open ended question.
Considerations for Team Program
■ These considerations include: length of season and the amount of time each week with the group
Sport Psychology Organizations*
-International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) -The Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and -Sport Psychology (SCAPPS) -Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) -American Psychological Association (APA), Div 47 (Exercise & Sport Psychology)
Attentional Cues
Attentional cues can be what types of cues: 1. verbal/auditory cues 2. visual cues 3. physical cues
Formal roles and Informal roles
Formal roles: designated by team (external) Informal roles: (internal) characteristics of individual
Silence
Good for experiencing emotions and realizations
Motivational Interviewing (MI)
a directive, client-centered style for eliciting behavior change by helping clients explore and resolve ambivalence
Inverted-U Hypothesis
(which originated in 1908 with the Yerkes-Dodson Law) 1. It was suggested that an increase in arousal led to performance enhancement up to a certain point and then there was a steady decline in performance after that. 2. The shape of the line on the graph was shaped like an inverted-U, hence the name it was given. 3. Many athletes and coaches like this model because it intuitively makes sense and is simple and clear to understand and explain. However, it has received a lot of criticism.
Active Resistance
**Active resistance is a form a denial. The reality is evident to us but not to the client.
Ways to improve confidence?
Think confidently; Act confidently; Imagery
Norm
■"A norm is a level of performance, pattern of behavior, or belief. Norms can either be formally established or informally developed by a group." (Weinberg & Gould p. 160). ■A norm is an established set of behaviors that is expected from a group; they provide information about what is expect and accepted in a group or team. ■Norms develop over time, and require interactions of group members to develop ■Norms are slow to change, once established
Debriefing Activities
■6 main elements of a good debrief include: -Boundaries / Permission -Purpose -Focus -Responsibility -Structure -Closure ■Some debrief tactics for team building activities for facilitators include: -The debrief is focused on 1 or 2 key issues -Participation parameters are set from the beginning, and modeled on team and life norms -The facilitator assists the group in making its own connections to sport and life situations
Team
■Teams have four key characteristics: -'Collective sense of identity- 'we-ness' rather than 'I-ness" -Distinctive roles- all members know their job -Structured modes of communication- lines of communication -Norms- social rules that guide members on what to do and not do" p. 154
Activities
■When taking clients through activities, it is important to allow clients to take as much responsibility.
Countertransference
►Countertransference-thoughts and feelings and reactions to the client rooted in the therapist's own history and current world ►An emotional reaction to that a therapist has towards their client
Transference
►Transference-thoughts and feelings for a therapist that have their roots in earlier relationships ►An emotional reaction that a client has towards their therapist
In the model of Lazarus Cognitive appraisal, what is the secondary appraisal affected by?
-Goal level -Perceived importance -Perceived task difficulty -Perceived coping skills
Existential Therapy
An insight therapy that focuses on the elemental problems of existence, such as death, meaning, choice, and responsibility; emphasizes making courageous life choices.
Mastery/Task Focus and Ego Focus
-Mastery/Task Focused: emphasis is on the improving a particular task or performance based on ones own previous achievements or knowledge. self reference perspective. View situations as a function of personal performance. Success = personal competition. Higher Persistence: tendency to attain optimal performance. Belief that success from effort. Linking attributions and goal orientations -task tends to lean towards effort attributions -Ego-Focused (Outcome Goal Orientation): This is where the emphasis is on interpersonal comparison in order to judges ones own level of success. "other reference perspective". View outcomes as a function of comparison with others (interpersonal comparison). success means you've done better than somebody you're competing against. High in ego focus lack persistence and put less effort, higher in anxiety. External factors and innate talent are major causes of success. Ego, tends towards ability attributions rather than effort. -Self-confidence is a rather ne
Assessing Teams
-Observations -Talking to the team - consultant can use observations as a talking point with clients -Performance Profile - can identify the characteristics/qualities the team wants to work on -Coach Feedback - Input from coaches or managers can also be useful to help you understand the team's dynamics and what they may need to work on
Sport Psychologist Roles
-Teaching performance enhancement techniques -Researching the reasons why athletes behave as they do -Doing clinical or counseling work with athletes
Mental Skills Consultant Roles
-Teaching performance enhancement techniques -Researching the reasons why athletes behave as they do -Teaching students to become sport psychology consultant
Imagery & Mental Rehearsal
-creating or recreating an experience in your mind using all of your senses. -Often referred to as visualization. -Important to use all your senses - polysensory. -Be consistent in your terminology - visualization or imagery. Vividness Control Real-time Positive Used systematically -From internal or external perspective A. Internal: imagining as if you are performing an act yourself. You are inside your own body and experiencing all the related sensations. B. External: watching yourself perform. 1.Ways to introduce imagery (activities, research, etc.) -Pendulum. -Lemon imagery. -Peak performance. -Talk about research backing up the use of imagery enhancing performance.
Beyond Listening (Core Skills)
1. Ask open ended questions 2. Reflect (What you hear client saying in order to understand) 3. Summarize (Pull in important parts of conversation) 4. Affirmations 5. Ask permission to give advice (give options)
How to understand a persons reasons for involvement?
1. Observe participants to see what they like and do not like about the activity 2. Talk to others who know the athletes and exercisers 3. Periodically ask the particpants to list their reasons for participation
Stages of Change
1. Precontemplation 2. Contemplation 3. Preparation 4. Action 5. Maintenance
Hardy's Catastrophe Theory
1. predicts that physiological arousal is related to performance in an inverted-U shape only when cognitive anxiety is low 2. predicts that a "catastrophe" occurs in performance when cognitive anxiety is high
Four approaches to resolving ambivalence
1.) Evocative questions-asks the client to directly identify reasons to change 2.) Picking the flowers-listen for and selectively reinforce elements that focus on change 3.) Providing bouquets-summarizing and organizing the 'flowers' 4.) Exploring values •Identify the most important values •Ask the client what each value means •Inquire about how the client is living outside of the value •Inquire about how the client is not living out this value •Note links between the problem behavior and the value
*Tucker's Linear Model of Group
1.Within the forming stage, group members become familiar with one another, and with the coaching staff and/or organization. Within this stage, the tasks of the group are determined, as well as how the group will approach the challenges. Once the group agrees on the goals, they can begin to work on tackling the challenges. 2.In the storming stage, tension often develops and conflict occurs, both among members of the group, but also with the leader(s). 3.At some point, the team may enter the norming stage; this is when they start coming back together. This is the point in time where group norms and group roles are established. 4.Some teams will reach the performing stage, but not all will. One of the roles of a consultant or coach may be to help a team or group get to the performing stage. At this point the team functions as a unit, relationships are stabilized, and the group focuses on productivity and performance 5.Adjourning happens when the task is completed: this could be a sea
Stress Process
4 steps: 1. Demand on the individual 2. Cognitive appraisal 3. Perceived coping abilities 4. Negative stress symptoms (response) Ex: feelings of anxiety
Groups vs. Teams
All teams are groups, but not all groups are teams ■Key difference is that team members must depend upon the support of each other in pursuit of a common goal.
Norman Triplett
First person to do an experiment in sport psychology
Guidelines for applying arousal and anxiety knowledge
Appropriate guidelines for applying arousal and anxiety knowledge: 1. Recognize signs (som + cog) of increased anxiety and arousal a. Cog: inappropriate thoughts/worry b. Som: Heart rate, sweaty, etc. 2. Recognize how personal + situational factors influence arousal and performance a. Frequency of anxiety b. Anxiety triggers, etc. 2. Tailor coaching and instruction to individuals. Excess anxiety produces what? -Inappropriate thoughts -Inappropriate muscle tension Somatic reactions (increased heart rate, shallow breathing etc.)
AASP
Association for Applied Sport Psychology
Group Environment Questionnaire
Attraction to Group -Task Subscale I like this team's style of play. Attraction to Group - Social Subscale Some of my best friends are on this team. Group Integration - Task Subscale We all take responsibility for any loss or poor performance by the team. Group Integration - Social Subscale Our team would like to spend time together in the offseason.
Confidence Definition
Belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior
Bio-Informational Theory (Lang)
Bio-informational explanation (Lang): an image is organized set of characteristics within the brain's long-term memory. Specifically, when someone is doing imagery, they stimulate both the stimulus characteristics and response characteristics. Through imagery, the individual can modify the response characteristics to what would be appropriate for that situation.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
CET was developed to help explain the possible impact of rewards and how they are received on intrinsic motivation. CET suggests that how rewards are perceived is critical in determining whether intrinsic motivation increases or decreases. Any events that affect an individual's perception of Competence or Feelings of Self Determination (perceived control) will ultimately affect levels of intrinsic motivation and therefore participation and other aspects that have performance implications. Developed by Deci in 1975 and then expanded and expanded
Confidence Techniques
Centering, competition routines, goal setting, imagery, self-talk (affirmations) & team building
Change Talk
Change talk is the client making statements that are in favor of change, which suggests that the client is becoming more ready, willing, and able to make a change. First thing to listen for is preparatory language: •Desire-clear desire for change but no commitment •Ability-comments indicate client's beliefs that they can change •Reasons-statements indicate advantages to changing •Need-things are not working they way they are •Commitment
Flow of Change Talk
Desire + ability + reasons + need=commitment which lead to change
4 major correlates of team cohesion
Environmental Factors (aka. Situational): •Group Size •Level of competition •Distinctiveness / Separation •Physical & Functional Proximity; Sharing close lockers (physical proximity) or playing similar positions (functional proximity) •Permeability • Personal Factors: •Demographic Attributes •Cognitions and Motives •Behaviors • Leadership Factors: •Leader Behavior •Decision Styles •Additional leadership factors: goal, roles, rules • Team Factors: •Status •Role involvement •Group Norms •Collective efficacy: "a sense of collective competence shared among individuals when ... coordinating their resources to successfully meet situational demands" (Zaccaro, 1995), p. 254-55. •Performance
Colemann Griffith
Father of American Sport Psychology
Bruce Ogilvie
Father of Applied Sport Psychology
Applied Sport Psychology
Helping athletes and coaches to learn how to control the way that they think, feel and act in order to help them reach their potential in sport.
Paraphrasing
•Paraphrasing focuses upon the content of what is said and helps clarify what has been communicated
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Mastery experiences (imaginal experiences); Vicarious experiences; Verbal persuasion; Emotional and Physiological states
Cognitive Behavioral Model (Ellis)
Most popular model in sport psychology. is about helping athletes and coaches to learn how to control the way that they think, feel and act in order to help them reach their potential in sport and enjoy their sport better.
Motivation Definition
Motivation = direction + intensity of one's effort
Cognitive Appraisal Origination*
Much of work on cognitive appraisal has come from Lazarus' work on stress (1966) and Lazarus and Folkman's work on stress and coping (1984). "...while stress is an inevitable aspect of the human condition, it is coping that makes the big difference in adaptational outcome" (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p.6). Using the Transactional Model of Lazarus and Folkman (1984) stress and subsequent coping can be viewed as a process. When in any given objective situation a person evaluates the potential threat through primary appraisal. The situation is called 'objective' because most situations in life are objective until they are perceived, judged and interpreted, in addition all situations are potential stressors. Primary appraisal is a person's judgment about the significance of an event. It may be viewed as positive, exciting, controllable, or stressful, challenging, not controllable or completely irrelevant. If the situation is viewed to be relevant and needs some sort of reaction from the indi
Cohesion
Multi-dimensional: There are numerous factors that cause a group to remain united and these factors can vary from group to group. Dynamic: Cohesion can vary across time; it is not a stable personality-like trait. Instrumental: Cohesion reflects the reason(s) a group forms & remains together; all groups come together for a purpose, perhaps social or task in nature. Affective: Cohesion has an emotional component & member interactions produce feelings; social relationships might be present when the group begins, or they may grow over time, but the affective or emotional piece is not one to be overlooked in relation to cohesion.
Nideffer's (1981) Model
Nideffer's two dimensions of attentional focus are: Width Direction What are four components of Nideffer's model: 1.Broad 2.Narrow ^^ width 1.Internal 2.External ^^direction
Outcome Goals
Outcome goals: goals related to the desired result of a competition. Example: finish first overall in a track meet. Compare performance with another person or team, making outcome goals at least somewhat dependent on the performance of another person. Reaching the desired outcome is not 100% in the athletes control.
Performance Goals
Performance goals: refer to an athletes performance in relation to his or her own previous performance. These are under the athletes control. Example: the athlete wants to improve her free-throw percentage from 70% to 80%.
Process Goals
Process goals: how an athlete performs a particular skill or executes a certain strategy. Typically focus on practice or training. Example: a batter to keep his eye on the ball.
Managing Resistance with Reflection
Reflections allow a client to hear back what they are saying. Done correctly it does allow a client to hear what they are saying but in a different way. When we hear back what we are saying it allows for deeper understanding and improved clarification. Given the situation there are numerous ways to reflect information that helps to manage resistance.
Relaxation Techniques
Relaxation Techniques (specifically reduction strategies - look out for restructuring and energizing): Two types here: Mind to Muscle & Muscle to Mind Mind to Muscle: Starts with a cognitive technique which effects the body. 1. Relaxing Imagery: Client picks a place that they associate with being totally relaxed (like the beach) and mentally envisions that place as vividly as possible. Start off in non stressful environments and move toward stressful situations. 2. Meditation: 4 basic components - A quiet environment, a comfortable place, a mental device, and a passive attitude. A mental device is what provides the focus and helps with the quiet mind. Can involve staring at a point and/or saying a mantra of meaningless rhythmic sounds of one or two syllables that is regularly repeated during meditation. Thoughts that come up are redirected back to the mental device. 3. Autogenic Training: self-hypnosis technique - focuses attention on the sensations one is trying to produce. Developed
Role Clarity
Role clarity: Understanding your task on the team
Symbolic Learning Theory (Sackett)
Sackett suggested that "imagery can help individuals understand their movements" (cited by W&G, 2011, p. 301). "One way individuals learn skills is by becoming familiar with what needs to be done to successfully perform them" (Weinberg and Gould, 2011, p.301) so a motor program is created in the central nervous system and a mental blueprint is formed for successful completion of the movement.
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
Somatic Anxiety and Cognitive Anxiety
Somatic anxiety-the moment-to-moment perceptions of physiological symptoms increased heart rate, sweaty palms, butterflies in the stomach, nausea, feeling shaky, etc. Cognitive anxiety- moment-to-moment negative thoughts and distractions that occur as a consequence of elevated anxiety negative thoughts, doubt, worry, poor concentration, etc. (Both dictate arousal-performance relationship)
Starting and Ending Sessions
Start: •Bookends •Start by summarizing last session •Ask the client what they want to talk about •Start by talking about homework End: •End by summarizing session •Talk about homework for next session •At 40 minutes let the client know you have 10 minutes •At 45 minutes start wrapping up the session
Hanin's Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF)
Suggests each individual has a specific optimal level of efficiency.
Cognitive Appraisal (Lazarus)*
The athlete interprets or appraises his/her surroundings (the situation). This appraisal involves what's called primary and secondary appraisal (terms used by Lazarus, 1966 and Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). The athlete would make a judgment/interpretation about whether the situation is negative or positive and whether or not he/she should be concerned. They would probably perceive it to be a threat if there is an imbalance between the demand (stressor) and the perceived coping abilities.
Rogerian Therapy
The client-oriented psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers in which the therapist tends to be supportive, nondirective, and empathetic, and gives unconditional positive regard.
Participant Motivation and Achievement Motivation
There are at least two ways in which motivation in sport has been explored: participant motivation and achievement motivation (in individuals). When talking about sports PARTICIPATION, texts refer to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and sometimes a motivation (lack of motivation). In some circumstances, external rewards may reduce intrinsic motivation. If you are not familiar with the psychology of using conditioning, rewards and punishment.
Psychoneuromuscular Theory (Jacobson)
This theory has often been attributed to Jacobson, 1930, but other theorists developed these explanations too, and the work started as early as Carpenter (1894). The theory states that during imagery of a performance, the motor programme for the movement is loaded and run. Neuromuscular patterns mirrors those produced during actual movement occur (but at a lower intensity). Suinn (1980) studied EMG activity in a skier's leg muscles when the skier was asked to image a race. EMG traces peaked at points corresponding to times on the run in which extra muscle involvement would be expected.
Trait Anxiety vs. State Anxiety
Trait Anxiety - Predisposition to anxiety, not a guarantee, doesn't (People who are high in trait anxiety will tend to react to more situations with higher levels of state anxiety.) VS. State Anxiety - environmental, situation based anxiety (changes over time)
Trait Self-Confidence vs State Self-Confidence (Vealey)
Trait Self-Confidence represents the perceptions that individuals usually possess about their ability to be successful in sport; State Self-Confidence represents the perceptions individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to be successful in sport.
Imagery Techniques
Uses of Imagery: -Enhancing physical skill/learning new skills: imagery used in this way is sometimes called mental practice, symbolic rehearsal, and imaginal practice. *When using imagery this way, a client reviews a skill or series of skills using imagery in order to learn or improve their physical execution. *Research has shown that by combining physical and mental practice, athletes will see greater gains in performance than just physical practice or just mental practice alone. -Reinforce peak performance -Build confidence: imagining skillfully performing a physical act greatly enhances confidence by providing a vicarious experience of a performance accomplishment. -When practice time is limited -Recovering from injury: can be helpful to maintain skills, sustain their motivation, and direct their attention to the rehabilitation process -Enhancing motivation: repeated imagery of desired results helps make distant goals seem more attainable, thus motivating athletes to achieve them
According to the literature (e.g., Murphy and Jowdy, 1992), good imagery ability refers to the performer's ability to form _____ images and their ability to _____ them
Vivid, Control
Psychodynamic Model (Freud)
systemized study and theory of psychological forces that underlie human behavior, emphasizing the inter play between unconscious and conscious motivation and the functions.
Attribution Theory*
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
Person Centered
therapy developed by Rogers featuring the patient's self-discovery and actualization; also called client-centered
Building Collaboration
•Collaborative stance supports members making their own choices •Choices ultimately are theirs and not ours •Maintains appropriate responsibility •Helps people get and stay connected •Empathy is the foundation of building rapport
Diversity Includes:
•Culture •Religion •Age •Sex •Sexual orientation •Color of skin •Education •Politics
Formal vs Informal Roles
•Formal roles are roles that are directly established by the team, group, or organization, and often relate to how leadership is viewed an structured within the team. •For example, coaches, managers, captains, and co-captains are formal roles within a team. •Informal roles evolve from the interactions and experiences that happen among group members. •Examples of informal roles may be team mom, organizer (possibly different from team captain) or team clown
Intra-Role Conflict
•Has to do with conflict occurring within the same role context, for example, the role of a captain on a team •Three types of conflict: •Intra-sender conflict: occurs when a single role sender develops multiple expectations for the focal person that are inconsistent with one another. For example - Ice hockey coach who emphasizes aggression & physicality but wants players to stay out of the penalty box. •Inter-sender Conflict: occurs when 2 role senders apply incongruent expectations to a focal person regarding the same role. For example - Head coach & Assistant Coach give conflicting advice to the player about how to carry out the tasks of his or her job/role. •Person-Role Conflict: occurs when the expected role responsibilities conflict with the values & motivation of the focal person (person carrying out the role). For Example - Bench player who is at odds with their expectations, enforcer who is a pacifist
Inter-Role Conflict
•Has to do with expectations from two or more contexts, or role sets, interfering with one another. For example: Role as an athlete versus role as a student: school versus team responsibilities may conflict, for example, SAT's during a Saturday game. There would be a conflict between two roles in different contexts conflicting with one another.
Attending Behavior
•Important characteristics of attending behavior (3 V's & B): •Visual Eye Contact > Vocal Qualities > Verbal Tracking > Attentive Body Language
Working with Ambivalence
•Is feeling two ways about something. You can think about it in terms of the word itself, ambi - valence or feeling multiple feelings. •Feeling two ways about a thing •Both sides already there •Common in habit change •Working with Ambivalence: Practitioners can help in the following ways: •Directive •Selectively elicit change talk •Reinforce change talk
Client Relationship Importance
•Most significant part of counseling skills is the relationship between you and your client.