SSC 200 Midterm

What is the difference between brain gain, brain gain, and brain waste?

1. Brain gain: the positive effect of emigration on educational achievements in origin countries, occurring when the prospect of moving abroad motivates those staying behind to continue education. More broadly applied to refer to the potential gains of migration for origin countries through remittances, knowledge and ideas brought back by migrants 2. Brain drain: loss of knowledge and skills because of emigration of the highly educated 3. Brain waste:skill downgrading, usually applied to situations where migrants do jobs below their skill levels because of lack of diploma recognition and other other discriminatory practices

Why, according to Carens, is it so important to give permanent residents almost all the same rights as citizens? Given an account of two exceptions to this rule, and why they might be justified.

1. Citizenship: legal membership of a sovereign state laying down rights and duties 2. Denizenship: a person with rights between those of naturalized citizen and foreigner, generally coinciding with permanent residency 3. current practice in democratic states draws very few distinctions between citizens and permanent residents apart from the right to vote and the right to hold public office, and that is how it should be. The idea that citizenship is the special status that distinguishes insiders from outsiders is so deeply rooted in our traditions of thought and expression that it is hard sometimes to recognize how poorly this fits with our actual practices, how rare it is to reserve rights exclusively for citizens, and how difficult it would be to justify doing so. 4. My argument does not depend in any way on a claim that democratic states are obliged to admit any immigrants who want to come. It does not depend, for the most part, on an appeal to general human rights. On the contrary, it rests primarily on the distinction between members and others, and on a claim about the moral significance of social membership. Once democratic states have admitted immigrants as permanent residents, they are obliged not to marginalize them, not to exclude them from the security and opportunities that the rights of membership bring. In sum, long-term residence in society creates a moral entitlement to the legal rights of membership. 5. Democratic justice, properly understood, greatly constrains the legal distinctions that can be drawn between citizens and residents. Once people have been settled for an extended period, they are morally entitled to the same civil, economic, and social rights as citizens and they should be subject to most of the same legal duties. During the early stages of settlement it is permissible to limit a few rights (e.g., to redistributive benefits or protection against deportation) but not most of them. The longer people stay in a society, the stronger their moral claims become. After a while they pass a threshold that entitles them to virtually the same legal status as citizens, whether they acquire formal citizenship status or not. 6. These principles apply to all democratic states. While one can never rule out in advance the possibility that general principles of this sort may need to be qualified in the light of particular circumstances, no such qualification is warranted for states in Western Europe and North America. With regard to these issues, the many differences among European states or between the Old World and the New, especially with regard to immigration, are not morally significant enough to modify the principles. 7. Legal duties are not much in dispute. Everyone has a legal duty to obey the law. Apart from the laws governing immigration (which sometimes impose ongoing duties on residents that do not apply to citizens), the law's commands rarely distinguish between citizens and residents. 8. One of the striking developments in the area of immigration during the late twentieth century was the extent to which the legal distinctions between citizens and resident noncitizens were reduced. Scholars disagree to some extent about the source of this change. Some emphasize the convergence among democratic states on a new status for immigrants and attribute this to the emergence of new international human rights norms. Others say that attention to the details of particular cases will show that the changes were due to local causes, the political and legal factors at play within particular national traditions. Whatever explanatory account one accepts, the facts of the matter are not in dispute. A pattern of systematic and widespread legal differentiation between immigrants and citizens has been replaced by a pattern in which settled immigrants generally enjoy the same civil, economic, and social rights as citizens. Many of these changes were brought about by courts acting in the name of legal norms that reflect deep democratic principles. In other words, they were seen not merely as prudent changes in policy but rather as transformations required by justice. 9. Some legal differences between citizens and residents persist. For example, the right to vote in national elections and the right to hold public office are almost always reserved for citizens. In some countries, there are significant legal differences between citizens and residents with regard to important matters like security of residence, public employment, and access to redistributive social programs, and there are many minor differences as well. Moreover, we cannot simply assume that the trend toward equalization of rights is irreversible. Legislation passed by the United States in 1996 deprived permanent residents of some rights they had previously enjoyed.9In Europe, the gap between the rights of citizens and residents widened for a time as a result of developments in the European Union that granted a number of rights on the basis of citizenship in a member state. As a result, so-called third country nationals (that is, residents who were citizens of a state outside the EU) enjoyed fewer rights than residents who held citizenship in another EU state. This gap has narrowed considerably in recent years, however, as a result of subsequent EU policy developments.10 In the wake of the attack on the United States on September 11, 2001, noncitizens of all kinds, including residents, became subject to greater scrutiny, especially in the United States. Finally, there is some variation among democratic states regarding the extent to which the legal status of residents resembles that of citizens. 10. Despite these qualifications, the basic picture of movement in the direction of legal equality between residents and citizens remains valid. Throughout Europe and North America, the distinction between citizens and residents simply matters much less in legal terms than it once did. Overall, many permanent residents spend their entire lives in states in Europe or North America without becoming legal citizens and without that fact affecting their lives in any significant way apart from their not being able to vote (which many citizens, especially in North America, choose not to do anyway) and their not being able to get an EU or North American passport. 11. The practice of granting legal rights to noncitizens presupposes that governments have some responsibility toward all those who are subject to their jurisdiction, even if only on a temporary basis. This is a necessary (normative) corollary of the state's claim to exclusive control over the legitimate use of violence within a given territory. For that kind of power to be legitimate, it must not be exercised arbitrarily. People have legitimate interests and moral claims that governments must respect whether the people in question are citizens or not. 12. All democratic states are committed to protecting basic rights and freedoms like personal security, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and so on, but different legal regimes interpret and institutionalize these commitments in different ways. 13. Unlike visitors, both residents and citizens live within the state and participate in its civil society on an ongoing basis. Like citizens, residents are members of society. This fact gives them interests that visitors do not have, interests that deserve legal recognition and protection. 14. Freedom of exit is widely recognized as a general human right, enjoyed by everyone regardless of whether one is a citizen of the country one wishes to leave, though like all rights, this one is subject to limitations (e.g., one cannot leave while charged with a crime) and is sometimes violated. But the right to remain in a country if one does not want to leave and the right to return to a country after one has left are not rights enjoyed in principle by everyone. These are also widely recognized as human rights, but they are membership-specific human rights. These rights are held most securely by citizens. In principle, citizens may not be refused entry and may not be deported, even if there is someplace else willing to take them. Residents also have some legal rights regarding re-entry and protection against deportation, but their rights in these areas are normally not as strong as the rights of citizens. 15. To deprive people involuntarily of their home society is (normally) to harm them in a fundamental way, so fundamental that it is no longer considered an acceptable form of punishment for citizens, even heinous criminals, and certainly not something that one can impose upon someone who has not been convicted of any wrongdoing. That is why forced exile of citizens is regarded as a violation of human rights. 16. Their interests in not being forced to leave the place where they live (and in being able to return there if they leave on a trip) are often just as strong as the interests of citizens. In fact, in democratic states, noncitizens who have been admitted for an indefinite period normally do enjoy considerable security of residence. Democratic states cannot deport long-term residents because they have become unemployed or ill, for example, even though they may represent a drain on the treasury. Nevertheless, residents are often subject to deportation if convicted of a serious criminal offense or a series of offenses. The deportation of noncitizens convicted of crimes is usually presented not as a punishment but simply as a routine exercise of a state's power to exclude unwanted immigrants. Of course, from the perspective of the resident, deportation is often a much harsher sanction than whatever penalty is imposed by the criminal justice system. 16. In some cases, especially in North America, the amount of time the noncitizen has been present is treated as legally irrelevant, or at most, as something that authorities have the discretion to take into account if they wish in deciding whether to seek deportation. (European human rights legislation provides better protection for residents in this regard.) 17. There are three interrelated reasons why the deportation of long-term residents convicted of serious criminal offenses is morally wrong: membership, fairness to other societies, and the rights of family members. a) The first and most important argument is one that we have seen before and will see again: an argument about the implications of social membership. Long-term residents are members of society, and, for that reason, ought to be entitled to stay regardless of their conduct. Of course, by definition, the residents in question are not citizens, not formal members of the political community. But they are members of civil society. They participate in labor and housing markets, they pay taxes, they have families that connect them to others in the society in myriad ways, they send children to schools, they participate in neighborhood and other associations, and they are involved in cultural and recreational activities. In short, they belong. And that belonging matters morally. b) Their right to remain in the land where they live is not lessened if their parents' country of origin happens to grant them citizenship because that citizenship does not secure their place in the society to which they most clearly belong. If they are members of any society, they are members of the society where they have lived their entire lives, the society whose language they speak and whose culture they share. Surely they are much more members of that society than of the one from which their parents came, in a land where they have never lived and have no friends, whose culture and customs are unfamiliar at best. Perhaps they have some claim to membership in both societies. But to refuse them the right to stay in the land where they live, and thus formal legal recognition and protection of their status as members of society, is to treat them unjustly. c) If people are to give up a fundamental right, like the right to live in the society in which they are most deeply rooted, it must be done as a deliberate and conscious choice in circumstances that are not coercive. Even those who do choose freely and consciously not to naturalize are entitled to protection against deportation, because the right to remain in a society of which one is a member, even if not a citizen, is a fundamental human interest that ought to be respected. d) To recall, the general principle I am defending is that the longer the presence, the stronger the claims to membership. The shorter the presence, the weaker the claims. e) The final argument against deportation of noncitizens concerns the effect of such deportations upon family members who may themselves be citizens or who, in any event, have done no wrong themselves. f) Nevertheless, it appropriately draws attention to the particular nature of deportation as a harm, and a harm additional to what citizen criminals have to suffer. Ironically, it is this sort of argument, constructed on the basis of guarantees to family life, that has proven the most effective barrier to deportation in a number of European court cases. g) When it comes to public sector employment, however, the situation is different. At least in the national civil service, and sometimes in local or regional public employment as well, citizens are often given preferential access in relation to noncitizens, and sometimes noncitizen residents are excluded altogether. There is rarely any attempt to justify this practice, and it is difficult to justify, if one reflects upon it at all. h) Even if we assume that citizenship is a reasonable proxy (or at least a preliminary screen) for loyalty to the state, an assumption that is deeply problematic, most civil service jobs do not require that sort of loyalty. They merely require that one carry out one's assigned responsibilities competently, something that is entirely unrelated to one's citizenship status. i) attaching special (nonpolitical) privileges to citizenship sends the wrong message about citizenship and the nature of our community not only to immigrants but also to citizens. It emphasizes divisions among people who live together, and it encourages citizens to think of lawfully resident noncitizens as "others" not as fellow members of the community. Encouraging people to naturalize is a good thing, but it should be done in the right way. j) residents enjoy most of the same economic and social rights as citizens, and no one seriously contests this at the level of principle when it comes to contributory social programs or general public expenditures. The real debates, and the recent policy changes, have focused on one small sector of social programs: means-tested social welfare benefits. In other words, what is at issue is whether immigrants should have access to redistributive programs that provide income and other benefits that are contingent upon one's income falling below a certain level. k) It does not exhaust the moral universe. In my view, as a matter of justice, immigrants who have been settled in a society for a number of years are morally entitled to all of the social rights that citizens enjoy. The argument here is the same one advanced above in my discussion of deportation. The longer one stays in a society, the stronger one's moral claims and after a certain point one is entitled to be treated simply as a full member. (Again, I recognize that it is impossible to say on theoretical grounds precisely how many years, but I think five is about the right number.) So, in my view, it is unjust to exclude permanent residents from any social programs, means-tested or not, for a much more extended period such as ten years (or even permanently as some have proposed in the United States). l) I think that such a policy is unwise and mean-spirited, and that it scapegoats immigrants for fiscal problems they have not caused. As a citizen I would want my political community to welcome the immigrants who have been admitted and to make them immediately eligible for the same programs as everyone else. But that is not the same as saying that such a course is morally required. My general argument—the longer one stays, the stronger one's moral claims—implies that the claims of immigrants when they first arrive are not as strong as when they have been there for some time. I suggested above that that was true with regard to security of residence, and it seems to me that it is true also with regard to redistributive social programs whose goal is to compensate for economic disparities among members. 18. Exceptions to the rules: a) Preventing permanent residence from holding public sector jobs that involve national security or major policy making responsibilities and other public sector jobs A) It is reasonable to restrict the former categories to citizens (provided that the categories are not interpreted so expansively as to eviscerate the distinction) because in those cases being a full member of the political community is arguably relevant to the responsibilities of the position But the vast majority of public sector jobs, there is no functional connection between citizenship and the tasks that the employee must perform b) Criminal cases: if someone is convicted of a serious crime AND has not lived in the country for a substantial amount of time, they are allowed to be deported by a country as they have not had time to set up a prominent attachment to the community

what is the Cold War, Brexit, and Supremacism?

1. Cold War: a period of tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and their allies through political pressure, the nuclear arms race and proxy warfare, lasting from 1946 until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 2. Brexit: withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union 3. Supremacism: belief that one's own racial or ethnic group is superior to other groups 4. Aussiedler: Ethnic Germans living in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union; many of them migrated to Germany after the fall of the Berlin Wall

What is the difference between sending and receiving countries?

1. Although seemingly less moralistic and essentialist than the home-host dichotomy, the sending-recieving dichotomy can be problematic because of the assumed passivity of migrants 2. The suggestions that migrants are sent by their governments conveys the implicit denial of people's agency 3. The other potential problem of this terminology is that it can reinforce dichotomous world views according to which the world is divided into "receiving" (generally imagined to be situated in the global North) and "sending" states ( generally imagined to be situated in the global south) a) Such views are simplistic because much migration occurs within world regions, between and among lower-and middle income countries b) Many countries have significant levels of emigration and immigration, a reality which does not fit within simple binary schemes c) While from the perspective of migrants, certain countries indeed be considered as host or home or sending or receiving, it is more problematic to adopt a worldview that crunches entire countries into a new (post-colonial) world order between "sending South" and "receiving North"

what is a theory in the social sciences?

1. At its core: a theory is a broad, general rules that explain a lot, but not everything a) Well developed and supported explanatory accounts of human behavior b) Sometimes widely held consensus within a field, sometimes there are competing and controversial theories 2. (most) social science theories are probabilistic: they aim to explain general, common, overall outcomes, not necessarily every case a) Differs from some natural science theory: think gravity b) They use the exceptions to try to prove the theory c) Need to make sure to look at the assumptions that are embedded in the theories 3. Difference between "theory" and "law" in the social sciences is a simple general rule or tendency, often part of a theory, theories are collections of laws and tendencies that tell a general story a) Law examples: "Law of supply and demand" (economics), "law of incumbent advantage (political science). 4. What kinds of theories have been used to explain migration? a) Causes of migration, migration patterns, changes in patterns A) What causes migration to occur? What causes changes in migration patterns? What causes migration to take on the patterns that they do? b) Effect on receiving country A) Effects on the country left behind by migration c) Effect on sending country A) The effects of migration on the country that they are going to

what is depoliticization? What is rural exodus and proletarianization?

1. Depoliticization: discursive strategies aimed at removing the political dimensions from social issues 2. Rural exodus: large scale migration from rural areas to cities, typically associated to the transition from agrarian to industrial societies 3. Proletarianization: replacement of self-employment by wage-labor in capitalist industrial societies; Marxist concept associated with undermining of traditional peasant livelihoods, urbanization and the rural exodus

what is diaspora? What is transnationalism? Why do they matter?

1. Diaspora: ethnic group sharing a common experience of dispersal from an original homeland, often traumatically, characterized by a strong group consciousness, empathy, solidarity, and the maintenance of transversal links with co-ethnic members in other countries of settlement sustained over multiple generations a) It is a much older term for transnational communities b) Goes back to ancient Greece: it meant scattering and referred to city-state colonization practices c) Diaspora is often used for people displaced or dispersed by force (for example the Jews; African slaves in the New World) but it has also been applied to certain trading groups such as Greeks in Western Asia and Africa, the Lebanese, the Chinese, or the Arab traders who brought Islam to Southeast Asia, as well as to labor migrants (Indians in the British Empire; Italians in the US; Moroccans and Turks in Europe) d) Diaspora communities have a particular set of features that set them apart from other migrant communities including: A) Dispersal from an original homeland, often traumatically, to two or more foreign regions B) The expansion from a homeland in pursuit of work or trade or to further colonial ambitions C) A collective memory and myth about the homeland D) A strong ethnic group consciousness sustained over a long time E) A sense of empathy and solidarity and the maintenance of transversal links with co-ethnic members in other countries of settlement 2. Transnationalism: the maintenance of multiple ties and social interactions linking people or institutions across the borders of nation-states. Transnationalism can be temporary by product of migration or lead to diaspora formation a) Globalization increased the ability of migrants to maintain networks tie over large distances and has therefore led to a rapid proliferation of transnational communities b) Although improvements in transport and communication technologies have not increased migration they have boosted non-migrator mobility and made it easier for migrants to foster close links with their societies of origin through mobile telephone, satellite television and the internet and to remit money through globalized banking systems or informal channels c) This has apparently increased the ability of migrants to foster multiple identities, to travel back and forth, to relate to people and to work, and to do business and politics simultaneously in distance places d) The de factor transnationalization of migrants' lives and identifies seems to challenge traditional models of migrant integration based on assimilation into the culture and society of the destination societies e) Transnational activities can be defined as those that take place on a recurrent basis across national borders and that require a regular and significant commitment of time by the participants 3. How do diaspora's matter? a) They can shape foreign policy in receiving societies A) Micro-example: US/Cuba relations B) Macro-example: the Latino vote in US politics b) The can shape politics in sending societies, especially when diaspora members obtain wealth/status in their new homes

what is the difference between an empire and a nation-state? How did immigration to an empire work? What is the difference between a nation and a state?

1. Empires: a) Multinational b) Layers of membership/differentiated membership c) Differentiated territoriality d) Fluid and constantly shifting borders d) Continuous empires: empires within a nation that are spreading out as a single geographic entity (ex: Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire) A) World War I saw the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire) B) Empires kinda ended after World War II ended 2. Nation-states: a) National b) One primary category of membership c) Singular territoriality d) Fixed, rarely changing borders 3. State: human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory a) The state regulates political, economic, and social relations in a bounded territory b) Most modern nation states are formally defined by a constitution and laws, according to which all power derives from the people (or nation) c) It is therefore vital to define who belongs to the people d) Membership is largely marked by the status of citizenship, which lays down rights and duties e) Non-citizens are excluded from at least some of these f) Citizenship is the essential link between state and nation and obtaining citizenship is therefore of central importance for newcomers to a country 4. Nation: an imagined political community of people, whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, a common culture, and consciousness a) Such subjective phenomena are difficult to measure and it is not clear how a nation differs from an ethnic group b) The implication is that an ethnic group that attains sovereignty over a bounded territory becomes a nation and establishes a nation state c) Although the national identity may be an imagined one, and reflects an ideology that overlooks diversity and variations in the way people shape their identities, this does not matter as long as members of society perceive it as real 5. Immigration in an empire: a) Settlement from the core to the periphery b) Immigration from the periphery to the core was less common and more regulated, but still important 6. Rise of the nation-state in Europe in reaction to the collapse of empire a) Challenge: minority rights in new nation-states A) Created bilateral deals worked out to less the chaos of minority groups migrating out of the country without forcing them to leave b) Combined with the horrors of WWII, Immigration became more intimately connected with ideas and concerns about human rights and global governance c) In Europe, there was anti-immigrant sentiments, but also pro-immigrant sentiments because the empires collapsed and created new nation states that encouraged only individuals of certain ethnicities should live in certain nation states d) Politics don't go really far because the interwar period is very small

Why is the concept of ethnicity so important to the study of migration? Given an example of how ethnicity might be approached as an independent variable and a dependent variable?

1. Ethnic identities are dynamic, constantly being rearranged and reshaped by various social forces a) Ethnicities are often shaped by various patterns of migration b) Many ethnic identities are products of migration 2. Independent and dependent variables a) Variable: a name for something that is thought to influence (or be influenced by) a particular state of being in something else b) Independent: the thing a hypothesis is claiming is a cause of some process or outcome A) Ex: how does ethnicity shape immigration c) Dependent: the effect of independent variables A) Ex: how does migration shape ethnicity d) Related concept: intervening variable e) Ex: Does a shared ethnicity change how people feel about a migrant flow? A) Independent variable: shared ethnicity in a community B) Dependent variable: more chain migration f) Ex: What caused the Mestizo ethnic identity? A) Independent variable: European immigration to Latin America B) Dependent variable: Mestizo ethnic identity g) The americas, for example: A) The US: the constantly shifting boundaries of American whiteness, the creation of the hispanic/latino identity B) Latin America: mestizo identities, racial gradations C) Mestizo: means of mixed race between European and Indigenous peoples 3. The interactive effects of race/ethnicity and migration: a) On the one hand, migration can be produce new ethnic identities-among the migrants, but also among existing residents b) Perceptions about race/ethnicity can, of course, impact: A) The reception of migration-whether viewed positively or negatively B) The tolerance for migration-will the political system C) The treatment of/statues available to migrants D) The identity of migrants themselves is often shaped by all of the above

What is the difference between forced and free migration? (question 1 on sorting)

1. Forced migration: migration where staying is no option, either because of coercion (deportation, enslavement) or because of threat of abuse, violence, persecution or livelihood deprivation a) According to The Age of Migration, forced migration occurs when individuals feel "compelled to flee their homes and seek refuge elsewhere [as a result of] political or ethnic violence or persecution, development projects like large damns, wildlife conservation projects, or natural disasters like floods, hurricanes, or earthquakes" (7). b) In contrast, free migration occurs when people can stay in their origin country but are choosing to move for a variety of motives, including labor, family, business, education, and tourism. c) It is difficult to distinguish between forced and free migration because they are not binary categories, and each have multiple stages of graduation. d) For example, according to international legal codes, individuals can only be a forced migrant if they are a victim of human trafficking, a refugee, or an asylum seeker. e) However, "virtually all migrants, [free or forced], face some level of constraints limiting their agency, such as access to money and border restrictions" (33). f) Likewise, forced migrants often do exercise a level of agency in their choice of where to go, which could constitute them as free migrants. g) Finally, there are often difficult cases in migration that blur the lines between forced and free migration. h) For example, some victims of human trafficking may have initially hired their trafficker as a means of sneaking into a country illegally or even agreed to traffic themselves in exchange for passage to a destination country. i) Likewise, the Dreamers, who are a group of adults that were brought to a country without authorization as children, are still considered to be forced migrants, no matter how old they were when they migrated to the new country, because they were still considered to be minors and had to follow their guardian's wishes. CATEGORIES OF FORCED MIGRATION: 1. Chattel slaves for sale (historical) a) People are being openly transported and sold as property b) This is not a form of forced migration that exists in the post-1940s world. c) The country in which the practice of chattel slavery is most commonly and openly practice in the world today is Moratania (in Africa) 2. Victims of human trafficking (present) a) Human trafficking: Smuggling of people against their will A) Human trafficking: the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the treat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation B) Human trafficking involves a strong element of exploitation, which sets it apart from smuggling C) Smuggling is consensual and resembles a business transaction or can be a voluntary service, and involves the movement across borders D) Human trafficking is not necessarily related to migration E) Smuggling is frequently mislabelled as trafficking, giving the misleading impression of migrants being forced on journeys while in fact they engage into a business transaction b) Smuggling: the use of paid or unpaid intermediaries to cross borders without authorization, either as part of a business transaction or humanitarian activism A) Smuggling can have voluntarily out of humanitarian motives B) One example are the resistance movement's smuggling Jews out of Nazi occupied territory during the Second World War C) Research has shown that smugglers can also be friends, family, or former migrants, who usually but not always, receive payment for their migration assistance D) Smuggling is essentially a form of service provision, which flourishes when borders are rightly controlled but causes of migration, such as labor demand in destination countries and conflict in origin countries persist E) Client of smugglers include not only economic migrants, but also refugees unable to make asylum claim because restrictive border rules prevent them from entering countries of potential asylum 3. refugee/asylum seekers a) Refugee and asylum seekers are not unfree in the sense that they are being kidnapped and transported against their home b) Instead, they are being forced to flee their homes because their freedom to stay has been violated. They have no choice but to flee c) Refugee: a person fleeing violence, persecution or discrimination, legally defined as a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons for race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country A) Such refugee status determination processes are usually carried out by destination country governments, although in other cases-particularly where state institutions are weak-these procedures are carried out by the United Nations Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNWRA) B) The UNHCR was established in 1950 in the aftermath of the second world war to help millions of European refugees and displaced people to find anew home C) Since then, its mission has expanded to operations around the world D) Most countries in the world have signed the UN refugee convention and often enshrined important elements of it in national law E) According to the UN Refugee Convention, it is a fundamental right of people to cross international borders to seek protection from violence and persecution F) People thus have the right to leave their country and cross borders in search of protection G) The legal basis on which refugees gain access to residency status is a humanitarian one and is enshrined into international humanitarian law H) This is very different legal basis compared to other migrant categories, the regulation of which is the sole prerogative of sovereign states or regional unions such as the EU d) Asylum seeker: a person who has applied for refugee status and is still awaiting a decision on her or his recognition as a refugee A) An essential part of the international refugee law is therefore the principle of non-refoulement, which protects asylum seekers fro return to countries where they may fear persecution B) Return it only possible if refugee status determination procedures have established that an asylum request is not founded 2. Problem: forced and free are not a binary, there are graduations DIFFICULT CASES: 1. Some cases of human trafficking are more complicated than we might first assume: the trafficked person may have agency, but state regulations provide incentives to present themselves as trafficked a) Some victims of human trafficking hired their trafficker to bring them into the country and then become forced to work for their traffickers. Sometimes people frame themselves as human trafficking victims as it will help them to gain asylum 2. Asylum seekers, too, offer a range of unfreedom: some are fleeing for their lives, others are looking for freedoms they couldn't attain at home, but could have lived less free lives, or dangerous lives. a) Some asylum seekers may, of course, also aspire to better economic circumstances (dual motives) b) Have to take into account if their lives are directly in danger or if there is a freedom that they are being forced to live without. 3. "Dreamers"- adults who were brought to the country without authorization as children a) The dreamers are brought into the country by their parents as children without authorization b) They are not free immigrants because they are young children who were unable to make the choice for themselves c) Sometimes older children are still, technically, minors that have to do what their parents tell them to, but are also old enough that they could make the decision for themselves. 4. What about economic and climate/environmental refugees? Not recognized as unfree migration by states, but should they be?

what are the approaches to immigration theory? What is the functionalist theory? What is the historical structural theory?

1. Functionalist theory a) Functionalist social theory tends to see society as a system, a collection of interdependent parts (individuals, actors) somehow analogous to the functioning of an organism, in which an inherent tendency toward equilibrium exists b) Functionalist migration theory generally treats migration as a positive phenonmeon, as an optimization mechanism serving the interests of most people, increasing productivity and contributing to greater equality within and between societies c) The idea of "push" and "pull" A) Push: something that might motivate you to leave 1) Usually include population growth and population destiny, lack of economic opportunities and political repression B) Pull: something that motivates you to come to a specific place 1) Including demand for labor, availability of land, economic opportunities and political freedoms C) Push-pull models identify economic, environmental and demographic factors which are assumed to push people out of places of origin and pull them into destination places d) Little room for agency-migrant agency or policy-maker agency A) The thought process of each migrant doesn't matter much in this theory. They focus on the push and pull patterns as the whole B) In reality, push-pull factors are inadequate to explain migration, since they are purely descriptive models enumerating factors which are assumed to paly some role in migration in a relative arbitrary manner without specifying their role and interactions C) The same conditions that make some people leave, make others stay or attract people from other places D) Push-pull factor models therefore have difficulties explaining why many countries and regions simultaneously experience substantial immigration and emigration, why migrants would return, or why most people do not migrate at all 2. Historical structural theory: a) Policy makers and powerful figures can shift incentives and set patterns in motion A) It provides more room for agency B) Includes the influences of political decisions that shape the push and pull factors C) Want to make room for the agency of policy makers and powerful figures to shift incentives and set patterns D) Argue that migrants do not really have a free choice because they are fundamentally constrained by structural forces E) Within this perspective, inhabitants of rural areas are forced to move because traditional economic structures have been under-minded as a result of their incorporations into the global capitalist economy and social transformations accompanying the mechanization of agriculture, concentration of land-ownership, and the indebtedness and dispossession of smaller-holder peasants F) Emphasizes that while economic and political power is unequally distributed, the capitalist economy has the tendency to reinforce these inequalities unless governments intervene through taxing the rich and redistributing resources to poor people and peripheral regions b) Historical structural theories view the control and exploitation of labor by states and corporations as vital to the survival of the capitalist system c) Historical structural theories see states, multinational corporations and employment agencies as drivers of migration processes in their own right d) See migration as one of the manifestations of capitalism, imperialism and unequal terms of trade between developed and underdeveloped countries e) Migration is seen mainly as a way of mobilizing cheap labor for capital f) They stress that the availability and control of migrant labor is both a legacy of colonialism and the result of war and structural international inequalities g) Historical structural accounts of migration stress the key role of large scale recruitment of labor, whether of indentured Indian workers by the British for the railways in East Africa, Mexicans for the US agribusiness, or Turks and Moroccans for the factories and mines of Germany, France and the Netherlands, in shaping contemporary migration systems h) "Path dependence" A) The idea that when you choose a specific path, you begin to make more choices that keep you on that specific path. As a result, you continue to make the same choices that keep you on path A because it is too challenging or expensive to choose a different path. B) Ex: the path dependence of Burmese migrants settling in Fort Wayne, Indiana 3. Migrant agency-based theory

What is a generalization? What is the scientific method? What does it mean for a study to have replication?

1. Generalization: a hypothesis affirmed by testing. As generalizations in a field of study accumulate, they form the raw stuff of theories. 2. Scientific method: the model inquiry proceeds by steps that including the following: a) The identification of the variables to be studied b) A hypothesis about the relation of one variable to another or to a situation c) A reality test whereby changes in the variables are measured to see if the hypothesized relationship is evidenced d) An evaluation in which the measured relationship between the variables is compared with the original hypothesis and generalizations about the findings are developed e) Suggestions about the theoretical significance of the findings, factors involved in the test that may have distorted the results, and other hypotheses that the inquiry brings to mind 3. Replication: the word social scientists use to indicate the ability to repeat a study as a way of checking on its validity a) It constitutes a very strong test of a good study because it can reveal errors that might have crept in through the procedures and evaluative judgments contained in the principal study

What is relatively new about the post 1945 world, with respect to immigration?

1. Greater wealth, new technologies of communication, and lower cost travel make immigration more imaginable/possible 2. Increasingly high-capacity states have greater abilities control and track migration a) States are becoming more powerful and obtaining new technologies that make it easier to track their citizens and have a deep desire for information. They are able to track births, deaths, and use passports to track travel of everyone b) They have the capacity to track individual immigration 3. A new politics ties nationalism and democracy in a way that creates and promotes anti-immigration politics a) The post 1945 world also creates a crisis of statelessness (which means that a person does not have a national identity) b) The idea that people should be citizens in the place that they live and that statelessness is something that we should avoid was very strong c) This is a good thing, but it also creates a great anti-immigrant sentiment because there was fear that immigrants would change what it meant to be an American

what is the human capital theory? What are global care chains?

1. Human capital theory: applied to migration: theory that sees migration as an investment in the productivity of knowledge and skills (human capital) a) People vary in terms of personal skills, knowledge, physical abilities, age and gender, so there will also be differences in the extent to which they can expect to gain from migrating b) People decide to invest in migration, in the same way as they mighty invest in education, and they are expected to migrate if the additional lifetime benefits (primarily derived from higher wages) in the destination are greater than the cost incurred through migrating c) Differences in such expected returns on investment partly explain why the young and the higher skilled tend to migrate more d) Human capital theory helps to explain the selectivity of migration (the phenomenon that migrants tend to come from particular sub-sections of origin populations) and helps to understand how migration is shaped by the structure of labor markets as well as differences in skills and income distributions in origin and destination societies 2. Global care chains: series of personal links between people across the globe based on the paid or unpaid work of caring. Usually applied to domestic care networks in which migrant women supply domestic care labor in high-income societies, while women in origin countries care for the family members left behind

what is migratory mobility, human mobility, and visa run?

1. Human mobility: all forms of human movement outside of their direct living place and social environment (house, village, or neighborhood), irrespective of the distance and time-period implied, or whether this involved the crossing of administrative borders a) Non-migratory and migratory mobility are subsets of human mobility. A) Migratory mobility: all forms of mobility qualifying as migration B) Non-migratory mobility: all forms of mobility not qualifying as migration (eg: commuting, shopping, tourism, family visits and business-related mobility) 1) Non-migratory mobility has increased rapidly b) The movement within the same neighborhood, town or municipality thus does not qualify as migration from an administrative point of view, although from a sociological point of view we should not ignore that for the people involved, even the change of a block or street may have great sociological or cultural impact, for instead if it means living amongst a different ethnic, religious, or class group 2. Visa run: process in which migrants without residence permits leave and enter a state by renewing their travel visa before it expires International migration: migration that involves the crossing of a border between states a) Makes the distinction between a short term and a long term migration b) Short term or temporary migration: covering movements with a duration between 3 to 12 months c) Long term or permanent migration: referring to a change of country or residence for a duration of one year or more

What is immigration and emigration? How is the term/concept used in practice?

1. Immigration: moving two another place a) Immigration: the practice of moving around It has an ancient history, but we'll mostly focus on relatively recent patterns of migration b) The "age of globalization" has seen a substantial increase in migration c) The practice of "border control" is relatively recent (late 19th century) but has done very little to slow things down 2. Emigration: leaving a place a) So all emigrants and immigrants and all immigrants are emigrants, depending on your perspective b) Ex: leaving ireland, you are considered an irish emigrant, but when you come to the US, you are an irish immigrant 3. What do we know about immigration? a) The increasing ethnic and cultural diversity of immigrant-receiving societies creates dilemmas for societies and governments in finding ways to respond to these changes. b) In the era of globalization, immigration tends to increase c) There has been a major switch in the era of global migration (Europeans were migrating in the 19th century, but now people are immigrating to European countries and European migrant countries) 4. Ways of thinking about immigration in research: a) Empirical: asks questions about "why" or "what." Empirical questions and research: figuring out (a) what's actually happening in the world and (b) what its causes and effects are A) Example of (A): where are migrants to the US coming from? B) Example of (B): In recent years, why has immigration from Mexico to the US decreased, but immigration from Central America to the US increased? b) normative/ethical: Taking a stand, in the research process, against something perceived as immoral or negative in society and wanting to change something which is viewed as problematic. A) Normative questions and research: evaluating the ethics of particular actions and policies B) Ex: Does the US have different moral responsibilities to migrants from Central America than immigrants from Mexico? C) Ex: does the US have a special obligation to accept refugees from Guatemala or what categories of migrants are states legitimately permitted to exclude?

What does it mean to be indentured? What is creolization?

1. Indenture: recruitment of migrant workers and their transportation to another area for work, on the basis of contracts that bind them to a particular employer for a fixed period of time a) In the latter half of the nineteenth century, slaves were gradually replaced by indentured workers as the main source of plantation labor in the Americas and the Caribbean b) Indenture involved recruitment of large groups of workers and their transportation to another area for work, on the basis of contracts that bound them to a particular employer for a fixed period of time c) Contracts often allowed employers to sell the indentured workers' labor to a third party d) Although indentured workers usually received limited cash payments, their labor could also serve to pay off debts e) Particularly when it involved debt bound-age, indenture comes close to what is nowadays often see as trafficking f) Although indentured workers signed up voluntarily, working and living conditions were often not what were expected g) However, return rates were low as upon completion of their contracts, indentured servants were given freedom and conditions were often still better than at home 2. Creolization: the emergence of new identities and forms of cultural expression as a result of the mixing of cultures a) Despite attempts to reduce native American groups and diverse ethnic groups imported from Africa and Asia to a subhuman and docile workforce of slaves, serfs and bound laborers, efforts by colonial powers to suppress the customs and beliefs of slave and servants were never completely successful, as they often retained their religion, language, music, dance, and culinary practices b) The mixing of people and cultural exchange gave rise to new syncretic cultures in a process also known as creolization, contributing to the extraordinary ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity and vitality of colonial societies in the Americas, the Caribbean and elsewhere, particularly on island nations such as Mauritius, Reunion and Fiji c) This led to the emergence of new forms of music, such as blues, jazz and reggae, which would transform musical cultures around the world d) The movement of indentured workers also laid the roots for the later expansion of worldwide diasporas, particularly of Indians and Chinese

What is the difference between inductive and deductive research?

1. Inductive: data first, little or no theory, look for patterns in raw data a) The research starts out being intentionally naive, constructs hypotheses after looking at the data first 2. Deductive: theory driving hypothesis and tests b) They develop the body of knowledge that they have and create new theories, then study the data to see which of the theories are true

What are the internal dynamics of migration processes? What are social remittances?

1. Internal dynamics of migration processes: feedback mechanisms through which the social, cultural, and economic impacts of migration on origin and destination communities change the initial conditions under which migration takes place, often encouraging more migration along particular geographical pathways a) Focus on the social ties that forge between origin and destination areas through reciprocal flows of people, information, ideas, money and goods b) Most of these theories are interested in what motivates people and social groups to migrate, how they perceive the world and how they shape their identity during the migration process c) These theories underscore how, through their individual and collective agency, migrants can actively challenge and defy structural constraints such as poverty, social exclusion, oppression, and migration restrictions 2. Social remittances: the flow of ideas, behavioral repertories, identities and social capital from receiving to sending communities

What is the Jim Crow System? What is the exit revolution? What is the Holocaust?

1. Jim Crow System: set of state and local laws designed to enforced racial segregation in the Southern US 2. Exit revolution: shift in the emphasis of migration politics from controlling exit to controlling entry from the mid-nineteenth century 3. Holocaust: systematic persecution and murder of around 6 million European Jews as well as Roma, Sinti and other groups by Nazi-Germany during the Second World War

how did destination countries abandon race in official imigration policy? Is it still persistent?

1. The abandonment of "race" in official migration politics, and its persistence: 2. Many of the wealthy democratic societies had openly racist migration policies well into the 20th century a) Australia: the "white Australia" policy b) US: reforms took place in 1965 immigration reform act: A) Eliminated national quota system from the 1920s B) Replaced with seven category test incorporating family, skills, and refugee status C) Retained some national caps, but exempted immediate family from those caps D) Numeric limits on western hemisphere (first time) E) Practical implications: large increase in overall immigration, with particular increase from Africa and Asia c) Most white countries tried to move away from their de facto immigration system that favored white people to being more open for diversity, which shaped migration patterns in the US

What are the different classifications for migrants if you are classifying by motive? (question 1 on sorting)

1. Labor migration a) Migrating for work, seeking a new job b) Labor migrant: a person migrating primarily for employment purposes c) It is the most important prime cause of migration d) For labor migration, a frequent distinction is made between low and high skilled migrants e) Such dichotomous distinctions can be deceiving as in reality, migrants can be found across all skill levels f) Second, the term "low-skilled" seems to devalue all sorts of manual and service labor that still requires considerable skills and physical abilities, and that often come with major responsibilities, for instance, in case work for children, the sick, and the elderly g) Third, the jobs that migrants take often do not match their education and skills because of difficulties to get diplomas and skills recognized, language problems and discrimination h) This phenomenon, which is also known as brain waste can cause migrants to work under their educational levels 2. Family migration a) Migrating to join family in a country b) Family migrant: person who primarily migrates to join family members. Includes family reunion and international adoption c) Family migration is often a direct consequence of the decision of labor migrants to settle, which can set in motion further chain migration with social networks reducing the costs and risks of migration d) In some cases, there is a gap between the legal entry channel and the main migration motive e) This often happens when there is a demand for migrant labor but no sufficient legal migration channels to match such demand f) People may then start to use other legal channels for migration, such as the family or asylum channels, even though their prime migration motive may be work g) Such mismatch between labor market dynamics and legal migration channels may also encourage irregular migration f) Family migration is often a popular legal entry category, as it is difficult for governments, particularly of democratic states, to den migrants the right to live with family members for humanitarian and legal reasons g) A further distinction can be made between primary and secondary family reunion A) Primary family migration/reunion: migration occurring when migrants are joined by spouses and children living in origin B) Secondary family migration/reunion: migration following new unions between migrants' offspring new spouses and partners in origin areas 3. Business migration a) Migrating to start a business b) Business/investor migrants: a person migrating primarily for business purposes 4. study/education a) Migrating to attend school in that country identity b) Student migrant: a person migrating primarily to pursue (usually secondary to tertiary) education 5. travel/tourism 6. Problem with this classification scheme: overlapping categories a) Migrants often travel for different reasons and these reasons often overlap with one another.

what is the difference between a norm, a rule, and a law?

1. Laws: things that you are expected/allowed to do according to the government 2. Norms: things that you are expected to do according to society 3. Rule: things that you are allowed to do, according to a non-governmental institution

Why is it so important to figure of categories for migration? (question 1 on sorting)

1. Likewise, it is important for states and for researchers to figure out this distinction between forced and free migration because "common misperceptions about migration start with the language and categories that politicians, media, and researchers use to describe different types of migration and migrants" (21). 2. The public's perception of forced and freed migration is greatly influenced by the terms that researchers and every state use to categorize migrants as either forced or free. 3. Additionally, the rights that states grant to migrants as well as the political responsibilities that the state must provide to each migrant is dependent on a clear and legal distinction between a forced and freed migrant. 4. Categories of migrants can implicitly convey judgements linked to nationality, race, profession and class, as well as motives, trustworthiness, rights and the overall desirability of migrants 5. Finally, a migrant's ability to escape a terrible situation is dependent on each states' legal qualifications for asylum as well as social science researchers' understanding of the conditions that would create forced and freed migration patterns.

what are migrant/migration networks? what is reverse migration transition?

1. Migrant/migration networks: sets of interpersonal ties that connect migrants, former migrants, and non-migrants in origin and destination areas through bonds of kinship, friendship, and shared community origin 2. Reverse migration transition: process by which countries transform from net-immigration to net-emigration societies, usually as a consequence of economic and political decline

What are migration systems? What is a migratory process? What is the culture of migration?

1. Migration systems: set of places (or countries) linked by flows and counter-flows of people, goods, services, and information, which tend to facilitate further exchange, including migration, between the places (or countries) 2. Migratory process: the ways migration evolves over time: the entire social process of migration over time, including migration decision making arrival, settlement, incorporation in destination societies, return and circulation, as well as the effects of migration on communities and societies of origin a) Besides categories describing migrants, caution is also warranted with regard to categories used to describe and analyze migration processes b) In recent years, there been a tendency to cast migration from Africa to Europe in an alleged response to poverty, violence, population growth and climate change in terms of flows, waves and tides c) This has fueled perceptions that this phenomenon is taking on the proportions of an exodus, that have, however, no basis in evidence d) Governments and organizations can use categories to reframe migration for political purposes e) Migration is a process which affects every dimension of social existence and which develops its own complex internal dynamics f) The great majority of people in the world (around 97%) may not be classified as internal migration yet their communities and way of life are often affected by migration g) The change are generally much bigger for the migrants themselves 3. Culture of migration: the emergence of a collective mentality in which migration becomes the norm and in which staying home is often associated with failure, often typical for high-emigration societies

What is mobility transition? What is multi-layered (tiered) migration hierarchies? What is a migration hump? What is the migration industry?

1. Mobility transition: the general expansion of individual mobility and the changing character of patterns of internal and international mobility in modernizing societies 2. Multi-layered (tirered) migration hierarchies: migration pattern in which high-income countries (regions) attract migrants from middle-income countries (regions) while those countries (regions) in turn attract migrants from low-income countries (regions) 3. Migration hump: short-to medium-term hikes in emigration in the wake of trade reforms and other economic shocks (to be distinguished from migration transition) 4. Migration industry: groups of actors consisting of employers, travel agents, recruiters, brokers, smugglers, humanitarian organizations, housing agents immigration lawyers and other intermediaries who have a strong interest in the continuation of migration

What is non-migratory movement and internal migration?

1. Non-migratory mobility: all forms of mobility not qualifying as migration (eg: commuting, shopping, tourism, family visits and business-related mobility) a) Examples: commuting for working, visiting family, short term business trips, tourism, etc. b) That said, these are related to our topics, and its sometimes hard to draw a firm line c) Intermediate examples: medium-length migration, open-ended migration 2. Internal (intrastate) migrants: migration that involves crossing of an administrative border within a country a) As the textbook notes, this is sometimes a big deal b) In China, it is heavily regulated. There are lots of "illegal immigrants" from western china living in Beijing and shanghai c) But that's the exception; for the most part, unlike interstate migration, it's free and unregulated.

how do theories helps us make sense of patterns?

1. Pattern: while migration for better economic prospects is the most common motivation/type of migration... a) It is not the poorest countries that migrants most likely emigrate from, but lower-middle income countries, and b) It is not the poorest people/families that migrate at the highest rates, but lower-middle class families 2. Construct a theory to explain this (your theory should account of why this fact pattern occurs a) Individual: A) Too means that they are not stable or secure enough to migrate B) They might lack aspiration and resources to migrate C) Migrating to a new area is expensive. If you are in the poor country/are poor, you can't afford to leave D) Assumption: poverty is the aspirational factor in your desire to move E) They have less access to education/knowledge/skills so they have less possibility for work in wealthier countries. F) Survival occupies their day to day G) If you are so poor, you are in survival mode and not thinking about moving to another country H) Less optimistic that their migration will be successful, whereas individuals of lower/middle class income are more likely to be optimistic about the success of their migration b) Country: A) They have more people that belong in the poorest of the poor that have all of the individual theory points B) Harder to leave because there are less travel options, less powerful passports, less usable currency, and less infrastructure that is needed for your citizens to move. C) Government doesn't promote/want immigration for fear of loss of GDP and tax revenue D) You might not have a passport system in your country E) You might not have the best education system so you might know that there is a place out there

what is prima facie refugee recognition? What is internally displaced persons? What is involuntary immobilization?

1. Prima facie refugee recognition: at first sight approach to refugee migration that grants people refugee status based on apparent, objective circumstances in the origin country, instead of individual-level characteristics, common in the large-scale arrival of refugee groups where individual status determination is impractical or impossible a) The majority of refugees in the world have not been recognized on an individual level, on a so-called prima facie basis, in which groups of people receive refugee status on the basis of apparent, objective circumstances in the origin country b) A prima facie approach is common in the large-scale arrival of refugee groups where individual status determination is impractical or impossible 2. Internally displaced persons (IDP): persons forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of violence, violations of human rights, or natural or human-made disasters, and who had not crossed an internationally recognized state border a) In more recent decades, a special category of internally displaced persons (IDPs) has gained increasing recognition as a group of internal refugees in need of protection b) This definition does not given any special rights to IDPs because, in principle, they have the same rights and guarantees as other citizens of their country c) Contrary to the UN Refugees Convention, the UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement are not legally binding although they have received increased recognition, particularly within the African Union 3. Involuntary immobilization: the phenomenon of people aspiring to migrate but lacking the capability to do so, often leading to an obsession with moving out

what is international migration, replacement migration and guestworkers?

1. Replacement migration: the process by which immigrants from more peripheral places fill the places of jobs left vacant by migrants who left to more central places, associated with the emergence of multi-layered migration hierarchies 2. Guestworkers: migrants from Mediterranean countries who were recruited as temporary workers to work in the industries and mines of north-west European countries. Term is often seen as derogatory

what is sedentarization, essentialism, and othering?

1. Sedentarization: the process of settling down, gaining a fixed residence, usually of (semi-) nomadic or itinerant people, often part of state policies a) Before this process, people had no fixed residence as hunter-gatherer lifestyles were inherently mobile b) It was only when people started to settle down in permanent settlements that the concept of migration became relevant, as migration implies a change in residence 2. Essentialism: the idea that every social unit has a number of fixed, objective and absolute characteristics that are inextricably linked to its 3. Othering: representing and treating people from other social groups as essentially different from and generally inferior to the own group, as a form of essentialism a) Terms like second and third generation migrants to officially designate the descendants of migrants can act as offering discourses that make these groups as not fully part of destination societies based on race, appearance, religion, or other aspects of ethnicity

What is social closure? What is intersectionality?

1. Social closure: the process in which a social group establishes rules and practices to exclude others in order to gain a competitive advantage or to preserve their identity 2. Intersectionality: the interrelationship of gender, race, ethnicity, and other social divisions, through which various disadvantages can reinforce each other

What is the different between temporary vs permanent migration (question 1 on sorting)

1. Temporary migration has a number of subcategories: a) Circular vs one time A) Circular migrants will leave an area for a few years and then come back regularly B) One time migration means that you leave an area for a little bit and then come back only one time. b) Education c) Short-term labor d) Global nomads A) You don't have a permanent residence. You are able to move from palace to place 2. Problem with this categorization scheme: a) Neither migrants nor states know the future A) A lot of migrants might come on a temporary visa, but later on plan to stay B) Some migrants might have ideas about their future immigration status that they do not tell immigration officials b) Migrants may not be entirely honest with state officials about their intentions.

What is the difference between settler colonialism immigration vs regular colonialism? What is forced labor migration?

1. The economic transitions that created the modern world, relied, dramatically, on widespread immigration: industrialization and urbanization 2. Included a great deal of settler colonialism immigration and forced labor migration a) Settler colonialism immigration vs regular colonialism: A) Four classics settler colonialism states: US, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia B) Settler colonialism has a population that is predominantly from the colonial power. People lifted the colonial power and chose to settle into the colony. C) In regular colonialism, the colonial powers sought to rule over the indigenous populations, but colonial settlers did not really live there. 3. The earlier phases of globalization took place in an era of empires, not states

what was different about immigration before 1945?

1. There was more forced migration for economic gain before 1945 (either indentured servitude or classic slavery) 2. A lot of the migration and immigration was unregulated a) There was an immigration regulation in the US's constitution which says that neither the federal governments or the state could ban the importation of African slaves until 1808 3. There was a lot of primitive accumulation (which means that people of political authority received a legal title and took land away from peasants who had lived there for several generations under a customary title) which forced peasants to leave the countryside and move into the city

What are the washington consensus, structural adjustment programmes, and maquiladoras?

1. Washington consensus: development ideology which stresses the importance of market liberalization, privatization and deregulation as development recipes 2. Structural adjustment programs: policy by international financial and development institutions to impose neoliberal economic reforms in developing countries 3. Maquiladoras: US-controlled factories in Mexico near the US border zone

what is the difference between race and ethnicity? Why are these issues important in the study of immigration? (question 2 on ethnicity)

1. Why do these tend to be topics of central importance to the study of migration? a) The politics of race and ethnicity are often big push and pull factors b) If people of a particular identity are leaving in great numbers, it might be important to discuss why they are going where they are going and why they are leaving where they are leaving c) How receiving countries' attitudes for taking in migrants are often associated with race and ethnicity What is the difference between ethnicity and race? 1. Ethnicity: a) A "sense of group belonging based on ideas about common origins, history, culture, experience and values" (77) b) Is a primordial attachment, which results from being bone into a particular religious community, speaking a particular language, or even a dialect of a language and following particular social practices c) These congruities of blood, speech, custom and so on are seen to have an ineffable and at times, overpowering coerciveness in and of themselves d) Has "visible markers" (sometimes phenotype) e) Three different accounts in social science: primordial, situational, instrumental" A) Primordial attachment: approach to ethnicity according to which ethnicity is not primarily a matter of choice, but is pre-social, almost instinctual, something one is born into B) Situational ethnicity: the invocation of ethnicity for self-identification by members of a specific group f) Ethnic community: community of people based on shared ethnic background and a distinctive culture, who generally blend in or assimilate within a few generations g) Ethnic minorities: an ethnic group with a subordinate position vis-avis more powerful groups in society, resulting from marginalization processes 2. Race: a) "Visible markers of a phenotype" (often but not always focused on skin color) ascribed sociological/political significance A) Race is much more about the physical markers b) The use of the term race varies from country to country and from language to language c) A social construct produced by racism A) Race is a social construct that was produced by society. B) The physical markers that we have attached significance to (like skin color) are often not good genetic and biological markers. C) Most scientists agree that classification of human into races is unsound, since genetic variance within any one population is greater than differences between groups D) Racism existed first in society and then the social construction of race developed as a result of racism E) Race does not really show that individuals of the same race have a shared identity. d) Racialization: discourses implying that socioeconomic or political problems are a "natural" consequence of certain ascribed physical or cultural characteristics of minority groups A) Ex: the way in which the perceived lack of integration of lower skilled migrants is often ascribed to their religion (such as Islam) or backward (for instance, rural or traditional) culture e) Racism: process whereby social groups categorize other groups as different, hostile, inferior and less human, on the basis of phenotypical or cultural markers, often as part of discourses serving to provide moral justification for colonization, genocide, slavery and exploitation of migrant workers. Racism also implies making predictions about people's character, abilities or behavior on the basis of socially constructed markers of difference A) It can be found in virtually all societies f) Social construct: the imagined nature of social reality: the fundamental idea that humans can understand and give meaning to the world, themselves and groups, only through shared symbols, categories, concepts and ideas, usually expressed through discourse, music, arts and other forms of social interaction and cultural expression 3. Race and ethnicity often times overlap a) An important reason for the occurrence of racism in contemporary societies is that immigration and the presence of ethnic minorities question the nation state ideologies and concomitant ideas and myths about common ancestry, identity and culture b) Another reason for the persistence of racism seems to lie in fundamental social transformations over the past decades, neoliberal economic restructuring, deregulation and privatization have been experienced by many sections of the population as a threat to their livelihoods, jobs, and social security c) Since ethnic minorities have emerged at the same time, their presence is often linked to these unsettling changes, even though there is no direct casual relation d) Large scale immigration and settlement can therefore lead to reactive reassertions of nativist nationalism e) The tendency has been to perceive the newcomers as the cause of the threatening changes: an interpretation eagerly encouraged by the extreme right, but also taken over by mainstream politicians and parties

what are the limits of theory?

1. micro-theory: a) What individual/household/village or neighborhood factors impact immigration? b) Tends to look at the possible migrants and their circumstances for answers A) It looks at the individual migrants and tries to see what might incentivize them to move B) Migration on a micro-level is a function of (1) capabilities and (2) aspirations to migrate within a given set of constraints-instead of some sort of automated reaction to, or linear function of "push" and "pull" factors. This helps to understand the complex and often counterintuitive ways in which macro-level processes of social transformation and development shape migration processes c) Micro structures: embrace the practices, family ties and beliefs of migrants themselves 2. Macro-theory: a) What "big picture" institutional factors impact migration? b) Looks at big level, global forces to explain what is going on c) Tends to look at labor markets, national economies, wars, etc d) Sees migration as an intrinsic part of broader processes of development and social transformation rather than a problem to be solved or a temporary reaction to geographical inequalities or disequilibria e) Macro-structures: large scale institutional factors, such as the poitical economy of the world market, labor market dynamics, interstate relationships and efforts by the states of origin and destination countries to control migration 3. Micro and macro theory can explain the same pattern in different ways, but not be in competition with each other a) When we look deeper, we will see that one of them is doing a better job at explaining the pattern b) They are the causes of migration 4. Meso-theory: a) Feedback loops, Continuation b) Meso level theory is a theory that looks at the feedback loops and the way that the processes of migration begin more processes c) It uses both structural information about communities (macro) and the individual incentives that would motivate a particular migrant (micro) and studies them d) Ex: telling us about chain migration (a loop of individuals migrate to the same place from the same places after one person begins the loop and tells others about their successes and experiences) A) Chain migration: the phenomenon through which initial migration of a few persons leads to more migration, either through informal recruitment of workers or through primary or secondary family reunion e) Occurs in chain migration, refugee resettlement f) It is the continuation of migration which focus on feedback mechanisms such as migrant networks that explain why migration processes can gain their own momentum and become partly self-perpetuating

As made clear in our class discussions, the project of "sorting" migrants into categories is very difficult. In this essay, describe why figuring out what category migrants go into is so difficult, but also necessary to the study of migration.

Categorization and social science: 1. All social science fields are obsessed with categories: a) Political science: democracies/ non-democracies b) Microeconomics: employed/unemployed c) Macroeconomics: economies in recession/growing economies d) Psychology: normal/abnormal psychology 2. Why are we so concerned about categorization, even (especially) when its hard to get right? a) The same reason normal people are-it's a necessary step in making sense of the world 3. Why categorize immigrants? How should we categorize them? a) Social science relies on categorization, in order to find patterns and look for causal relations between them, we need to make distinctions and sort into groups A) We can't, for example, explain anything about democracy unless we first sort countries into democracies and non-democracies b) But categorization in the social sciences is difficult. It is not, and cannot be: A) Neutral: creating unbiased categories B)Innocent C) Natural: these categories do not exist this way in nature. We invented them for understanding our world. D) Likewise, social science researchers cannot simply use the states' categories for migration as these are often too narrow and ignore the value in evaluating migration through the lens of migrants' daily lives, perceptions, and plans. 4. The state's perspective by James Scott, seeing like a state a) States, according to Scott, try to create the world they want to see: A) A sedentary population 1) If the population is not moving around, they are easy to count B) A legible population 1) They are easy to count c) A controllable, monitarable, taxable population b) What does this mean for how they classify immigration? A) Simple, clean categories B) Limited definition of refugee/asylum seeker C) Family migrants count based on state's definition of family D) Labor migration for what state considers legitimate labor 5. Migrant and migration could be placed in categories from a number of different perspectives. Here we'll focus on three: a) The state (administrative/bureaucratic) A) Different migrants have different rights and responsibilities so the states need to track them in order to provide them with these rights B) Have to categorize migrants in very clean, clear, legal ways C) The main difference in the way that the government defines different migrations is the amount of time a migrant has to spend in the new destination to count as a migrant. For most government, this puts the limit somewhere between 3 to 12 months b) Politicians and political figures A) Knowing where migrants tend to live can be beneficial for politicians when it comes to categorizing migrants into moral categories B) Especially the case when politicians have a nativist tendencies C) Politicians tend to use pro-immigration and anti-immigrant sentiments in their political speeches D) Politicians need to categorize migrants in more moral ways E) Neither language nor categories are neutral and therefore deserve to be assessed critically with regard to their usefulness to describe migrants and migration processes F) The ways such discursive categories shape our understanding in implicit but extremely powerful ways matters greatly for the ways government treat migrants, but the appropriate and critical use of categories is also essential to achieve a better, non-ideological understanding of migration processes c) The migrants themselves d) Social scientists e) Each of these have different goals and agendas. It has often been the case that social scientists adopt similar categories as the state, but there are reasons to try to avoid that. (Example: narrow vs broad definition of refugee)

Duncan Watts introduces his readers to some of the findings from the "ultimatum game," a social psychology experiment. What is the ultimatum game? What are some of the key lessons he wants to convey in his discussion of these findings, and how could they be applied to our thinking about immigration?

Common sense: the loosely organized set of facts, observations, experiences, insights, and pieces of received wisdom that each of us accumulates over a lifetime, in the course of encountering, dealing with, and learning from, everyday situations a) the miraculous piece of human intelligence that enables us to solve problems and navigate social situations. 1. Common sense only goes as far as people in a particular culture understand it a) Local cultural norms goes into play during the game b) There could be a sense of community, especially if the community is small 2. Norm: what is considered common or socially acceptable in a given region or community a) There is a difference between norm and law though 3. The Ultimate game goes something like this: first, pick two people and give one of them $100. That person then has to propose a split of the money between himself and the other player, ranging from offering them the whole amount to nothing at all. The other player then gets to accept the deal or reject it. If the second player accepts the deal, they get what they were offered and both players go on their merry way. But if they reject the offer, neither player gets anything; hence the "ultimatum" a) The more money you try to get for yourself during the ultimatum game, the more likely you are to get rejected b) It feels unfair for one player to get way more money than the other c) The norm of fairness is kicking in here Looking at people's actions during the ultimatum game, we could think that they are being irrational, unless we understand their culture 4. In hundreds of these experiments conducted in industrialized societies, researchers had already demonstrated that most players propose a fifty-fifty split, and offers of less than $30 are typically rejected a) Economists find this behavior surprising because it conflicts with their standard notion of economic rationality-that even a single dollar is better than nothing b) Of course, a moment's thought quickly suggests why people play the way they do-namely that it doesn't seem fair to exploit a situation just because you can c) Recipients being offered less than a third therefore feel taken advantage of and so opt to walk away from even a substantial sum of money in order to teach miserly proposers a lesson d) And anticipating this response, propers tend to offer what they assume the recipient will consider a fair split 5. When the experimenters replicated the game in fifteen small-scale preindustrial societies across five continents, they found that people in different societies have very different ideas about what counts as fair. a) At one extreme, the Machiguenga tribe of Peru tended to offer only about a quarter of the total amount, and virtually no offers were refused b) At the other extreme, the Au and Gnau tribes of Papua New Guinea tended to make offers that were even better than fifty-fifty, but surprisingly these "hyperfair" offers tended to get rejected just as frequently as unfair offers c) The Au and Gnau tribes had long-established customs of gift exchange, according to which receiving a gift obligates the receiver to reciprocate at some point in the future d) Because there was no equivalent of the ultimatum game in the Au or Gnau societies, they simply "mapped" the unfamiliar interaction onto the most similar social exchange they could think of-which happened to be gift exchange-and responded accordingly e) Thus, what might have seemed like free money to a Western participant looked to an Au or Gnau participant very much like an unwanted obligation f) The Machiguenga, by contrast, live in a society in which the only relationship bonds that carry any expectation of loyalty are with immediate family members g) When playing the ultimatum game with a stranger, therefore, Machiguenga participants-again mapping the unfamiliar onto the familiar-saw little obligation to make fair offers and experienced very little of the resentment that would well up in a Western player upon being presented with a split that was patently unequal to them, even low offers were seen as a good deal. 6. Key lessons from the ultimatum game and how it can be applied to immigration: a) Once you understand these features of Au, Gnau, and Machiguenga cultures, their puzzling behavior starts to seem entirely reasonable-common sense even b) Just as we reflexively regard fairness and reciprocity as common sense principles in our world that should be respected in general, and should be defended when violated without good reason, so the people of the fifteen preindustrial societies have their own implicit set of understandings about how the world is supposed to work c) Those understandings might be different from ours d) But once they have been accepted, their common sense logic works in exactly the same way as ours does e) It is simply what any reasonable person would do if they had grown up in that culture f) What these results reveal is that common sense is "common" only to the extend that two people share sufficiently similar social and cultural experiences g) Common sense, in other words depends on collective tacit knowledge, meaning that it is encoded in the social norms, customs, and practices of the world h) The acquisition of this type of knowledge can be learned only by participating in society itself and that's why it is so hard to teach to machines i) But it also means that even among humans, what seems reasonable to one might seem curious, bizarre, or even repugnant to another j) Another important consequence of the socially embedded nature of common sense is that disagreements over matters of common sense can be surprisingly difficult to resolve k) Disagreements over matters of common sense are hard to resolve because its unclear to either side on what grounds one can even conduct a reasonable argument l) Whatever it is that people believe to be a matter of common sense, they believe it with absolute certainty m) They are puzzled only at the fact that others disagree o) That what is self-evident to one person cab seen as silly by another should give us pause about the reliability of common sense as a basis for understanding the world p) We have the impression that our particular beliefs are derived from some overarching philosophy, but the reality is that we arrive at them quite independently, and often haphazardly.

What is common sense?

Common sense: the loosely organized set of facts, observations, experiences, insights, and pieces of received wisdom that each of us accumulates over a lifetime, in the course of encountering, dealing with, and learning from, everyday situations a) the miraculous piece of human intelligence that enables us to solve problems and navigate social situations. b) It is so ordinary that we tend to notice it only when it's missing, but it is absolutely essential to functioning in everyday life. c) It tells us when to obey the rules, when to quietly ignore them, and when to stand up and challenge the rules themselves. d) It is the essence of social intelligence, and is also deeply embedded in our legal system, in political philosophy, and in professional training e) It can also refer to more specialized knowledge, as with the everyday working knowledge of a professional, such as a doctor, a lawyer, or an engineer, that develops over years of training and experience 1. Common sense is the knowledge possessed by those who live in the midst and are a part of the social situations and processes which sociologists seek to understand. The term thus used may be synonymous with folk knowledge or it may be the knowledge possessed by engineers, by the practical politicians, by those who gather and publish news, or by others who handle or work with and must interpret and predict the behavior or persons and groups 2. There are two defining characteristics of common sense that differentiate it from other kinds of human knowledge: a) Common sense is overwhelmingly practical, meaning that it is more concerned with providing answers to questions than in worrying about how it came by the answers. A) From the perspective of common sense, it is good enough to know that something is true, or that it is the way of things B) One does not need to know why in order to benefit from the knowledge, and arguably one is better off not worrying about it too much C) In contrasts with theoretical knowledge, in order words, common sense does not reflect on the world, but instead attempts to deal with it simple "as it is" b) The power of common sense lies in its ability to deal with every concrete situation on its own terms A) Whereas a formal system of knowledge would try to derive the appropriate behavior in all these situations from a single, more general "law," common sense just "knows" what the appropriate thing to do is in any particular situation, without knowing how it knows it. B) It is largely for this reason, in fact, that common sense knowledge has proven so hard to replicate in computers-because in contrast with theoretical knowledge, it requires a relatively large number of rules to deal with even a small number of special cases 3. Common sense varies much over time and across cultures

What is a custom and a concept?

Custom: 1. Is not all bad, for it may embody the lessons learned from a long, often unhappy, experience with reality and it is, in a vague way, scientific 2. Custom frequently holds communities together in the face of enormous and even violent pressures a) Yet the task of any social science must be to understand why things are the way they are, as well as how the elements of social life can be reformed to allow for more humane patterns of personal development and expression Concepts: names for things, feelings, and ideas generated or acquired by people in the course of relating to each other and to their environment a) Some concepts and classifications might not be very helpful

What is a hypothesis? How is it tested?

Hypothesis, hypothesis testing An educated guess about what might be going on, framed in a falsifiable way Hypothesis: a sentence of a particularly well cultivated breed 1. The purpose of a hypothesis is to organize a study a) If the hypothesis is carefully formed, all the steps of the scientific method follow, as does an outline for the project, a bibliography, a list of resources needed, and a specification of the measures appropriate to the study b) The hypothesis provides the structure 2. A hypothesis proposes a relationship between two or more variables 3. The importance of establishing a hypothesis correctly before starting off on a research task can hardly be overstated. The following rules will help: a) The variables must be clearly specified and measurable by some technique you know how to use b) The relationship between the variables must be precisely stated and measurable c) The hypothesis should be testable, so that evidence of the relationship can be observed, demonstrated, or falsified d) If these rules are not followed, the hypothesis may be unwieldy, ridiculous, or just too hard to research in view of available resources 4. Precise definitions and thoughtful specification of measurements are, in short, the keys a) The struggle to form a hypothesis carefully may not be enjoyable, but the questions raised in the process have to be answer sooner or later b) The hypothesis provides the structure for your entire research effort

What is globalization? How has globalization impacted migration practices?

Globalization: the widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of life (book glossary) a) Globalization: the widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life b) a term used to describe how trade and technology have made the world into a more connected and interdependent place c) Technology has made globalization possible by allowing for people to stay connected to each other easily and cheaply 1. How has globalization impacted migration practices? a) Many ways, but one key answer, lower costs b) Lower personal costs-connection with home country easier A)Remittency: money that an immigrant that is working in a different country sends home to their family b) Lower travel costs c) Lower cultural costs A) There are different cultures everywhere so that allows for you to find your home country everywhere d) Greater knowledge about potential benefits e) It creates new pushes and new pulls A) Pull factor: a reason that you might want to go to a new place B) Push factor: a reason that you might want to leave a place C) Migration intermediaries: actors that facilitate, and sometimes drive, migration within and across borders

What is imagination?

Imagination: 1. The mind, in its many ways of knowing, is never so clever or so mysterious as in the exercise of imagination 2. Science is really a matter of figuring out relationships between things we can observe a) To propose a relationship is a creative and imaginative act; however, much systematic preparation may lie in the background b) To test a proposition against reality involves a different order of imagination-mainly, the ability to find the bits and pieces of information elicited from reality the only item that is essential to testing the credibility of a particular idea c) It is in the realm of discovery that science becomes a direct partner of imagination d) At a fundamental level, scientific inquiry is motivated by curiosity and a desire to find order in what may seem to be chaos

What was immigration like during the interwar period? What is nativism? What is other-definition and self-definition? What is xenophobia?

Interwar Period: 1. High Nativism, Anti-immigration policies abound a) The anti-immigrant sentiments prior to world war II were directed at the Irish and Italian immigrants and was more social discrimination. b) The anti-immigrant sentiments after world war II was directed towards Asian immigrants and was more political discrimination. c) Anti-immigrant political movements became more than just social discrimination against immigrants, but preventing immigrants from coming at all. 2. Nativism: intense opposition to an internal minority on the grounds of its foreign connections; nativists see minorities as an outright threat to national identity and security a) No age of society seems wholly free from unfavorable opinions on outsiders; however, only under some circumstances does it take on the form of nativism b) Nativists typically accuse minorities of a lack of loyalty to the nation and plotting a takeover from within 3. Other-definition: ascription of undesirable characteristics and assignment to inferior social positions by dominant groups 4. Self-definition: consciousness of group members of belonging together on the basis of shared cultural, religious and social characteristics 5. Xenophobia: fear of strangers, either foreigners, or co-citizens with different religions, cultures, and habits

What is knowledge?

Knowledge: socially powerful only if its knowledge that can be put ot use. Social knowledge, if it is to be useful, must be communicable, valid, and compelling: a) Communicable: knowledge that is expressed in clear form b) Valid: knowledge has to be valid in light of the appropriate evidence c) Compelling: knowledge has to be compelling in the way that it fits the question raised

What is a measurement? What makes a measurement reliable and valid?

Measurement: it is not something we choose to do or not do-it is inherent in every analytical discussion 1. If quantities can be established measurements becomes much easier 2. The most obvious measurement deals with the problem of how much a) Some questions of how much are not so easy to measure-public opinion for example 3. Reliability: a measurement of a variable is reliable if it produces the same result when different people use it 4. Validity: a) There is never any clear way of directly assessing validity

What are the key differences between new economics of labor migration (NELM) theory and dual labor market theory? Do you think they are compatible, or in conflict?

Migrant agency-based theory: 1. Agency: people's capacity to make their own choices 2. Dual labor market theory: theory explaining how the division of labor markets between protected workers in the primary sector and precarious workers in the secondary sector generates a structural demand for migrant workers. a) It helps us to understand how the demand for skilled immigrant labor is structurally embedded in modern capitalist economies while simultaneously explaining why migrants are highly motivated to do jobs that natives shun b) Argues that international migration is caused by structural and chronic demand within advanced economies for lower skilled workers to carry our production tasks and to staff service enterprises c) This challenges the popular idea that wealthy nations mainly need high skilled migrant workers d) It shows the importance of institutional factories as well as race and gender in bringing about labor market segmentation A) A division into primary and secondary labor markets emerges marked by a growing gulf between the highly paid core workers in finance, management and research and the poorly paid workers, in unstable, precarious and often information jobs, who service their needs B) The growth of the secondary sector and information employment have been reinforced through neoliberal reforms and the concomitant de-regularization of labor markets, which have put the middle class under pressure and have increased inequalities in income and particularly wealth C) Workers in the primary labor market are positively selected on the basis of their degrees and formal skills but also often through membership of majority ethnic groups, male gender, and in the case of migrants, regular legal status-which is facilitated by selective immigration policies discriminating in favor of the educated and wealthy D) Conversely, workers in the secondary labor market are disadvantage by lack of education or in the case of migrant workers a lack of formal recognition of foreign degrees as well as by gender, race, and uncertain or irregular legal status E) The increasing labelling of precarious job as low status migrant jobs further decreases their attractively for native workers e) Key steps: A) In receiving countries, a "dual" labor market emerges. One for the skilled and privileged, one for one low-skilled or undesirable ("3D") but not offshorable jobs (why?) B) As societies get wealthier, there are essentially two labor markets: one for the skilled jobs and privileged people (people that have access to training to obtain these skills and status that allows for them to work in this field) and one for the low skilled jobs that you can't move offshore to a different country C) 3d: dirty, dangerous, and demeaning D) Low-skill jobs attract and require migrants, which leads to the development of chains (here's a good reason to use the term "irregular" rather than "illegal") E) When the country becomes rich enough, they can have the worst kind of work done offshore or by migrants F) We need migrants to take the low skilled jobs that citizens don't want to do G) Good reason to use the term irregular than illegal because we would rather have irregular migrants to do the low skilled jobs. We don't want them to be illegal and to go away. Often use the term illegal to refer to things that we don't want to happen at all c) As a society gets wealthier, it is easier to invest in education. After you invest in education, it seems stupid to go into a 3D job market 3. Nelm theory-migrants as members of larger families/communities/households a) New economics of labor migration (NELM): theory developed to explain migration in and from developing countries, arguing that migration is often part of a (1) household or family (rather than an individual) sharing strategy aimed at (2) reducing livelihood risks (rather than maximizing income or utility) by diversifying income sources through remittances, (3) serving to spread income risks and overcome market constraints by raising investment capital through remittances. b) NELM sees migration as an investment for families, who pool resources to enable the migration of one or more household members c) For instance, the addition of an extra source of income can make peasant houses less vulnerable to environmental hazards such as droughts and floods d) This risk-spreading motive is a powerful explanation for the occurrence of internal and international migration even in the absence of wage differentials e) This helps us to explain the continuation of large-scale rural to urban migration in developing countries that has so frequently puzzled and frustrated policy markers f) Notwithstanding the frequently challenging conditions in cities, rural to urban migration allows families to diversify their income besides improving their access to education, health care, and economic opportunities g) Relative deprivation: the feeling of being deprived emanating from comparisons with other members of social groups being perceived as better-off h) People are organizing their livelihoods not individually (as neoclassical theories assume) but within wider social contexts i) The household or family was often seen as the most appropriate unit of analysis and migration as one of the main strategies which households employ to diversify and secure their livelihoods j) Migration is often a pro-active, deliberate decision to improve livelihoods and to reduce fluctuations in rural family incomes by making them less dependent on climatic vagaries and market shocks k) Household models have been criticized because they can obscure intra-household inequalities and conflicts along the lines of gender, generation, and age 4. Dual labor market theory and nelm market theory are good examples of meso theories a) Complements Piore's dual labor market theory which argued that migrants are often motivated to do jobs that seem underpaid and attractive to native workers (as long as the origin community remains their prime social reference group) as such work allows them ot make huge progress in comparison to what they could have earned at home

What is migration? How is the term/concept used in practice?

Migration: the general practice of moving around a) Migration: change of habitual residency across administrative borders (eg; municipalities, provinces, departments, federal or national states) 1. Whether these borders are municipalities, providence, departments, federal or national states, the feature of migration is that people move across such borders to live in another administrative unit a) The key issue is that states draw such borders and that the ways in which states and their judicial institutions define and categorize migration matters a great deal to the daily lives of migrants, the rights they can obtain as well as their participation in the social and economic life of destination societies b) It is not just-or even mainly-a reaction to difficult conditions at home: it is primarily driven by the search for better opportunities and preferred lifestyles elsewhere c) Some migrants experience abuse or exploitation, but most benefit and are able to improve their long term life perspectives through migrating d) Conditions are sometimes tough for migrants but are often preferable to limited opportunities at home-otherwise migration would not continue Internal migration (often in the form of rural-urban movement) is far higher than international migration, especially in large and populous countries like China, India, Indonesia, Brazil and Nigeria 2. The defining features of migration are the (1) change in residence and the (2) crossing of an administrative border a) This border can be an internal border, such as between municipalities, counties, provinces or states, or international, between states.

What is the household theory of immigration?

New economics of labor migration 1. Household theory tells us the relevant micro-actor in understanding migration decisions is the family/household, not the individual 2. Why? As income grows, income diversity becomes attractive a) Early, non-international migration examples; diversifying agricultural activity 3. Migration as a form of investment and insurance 4. Helps explain the "migration comes from the "not-too-poor" sectors 5. Migration can be understood as a form of investment in local land

What is opinion and objectivity?

Opinion: plays an inescapable role in scientific analysis because all efforts at inquiry proceed from some personal interests or other 1. No one asks a question unless there is an interest in what the conclusion might be a0 Furthermore, each person's angle of vision on reality is necessarily slightly different from the angle of another 2. Opinion can't be eliminated from inquiry, but it can be controlled so that it does not fly off into complete fantasy a) One practice that assists in reducing the role of opinion is for the researcher to be conscious of his or her values and opinions Objectivity: much damage has been done to the cause of good social science by those who pretend objectivity to the point at which their research conceals opinions that covertly structure their conclusions a) No one is truly objective, certainly not about the nature of society-there are too many personal stakes involved for that

What is quantification? What is the difference between continuous and discrete quantification?

Quantification: setting up a standard amount of a thing and putting a label on it a) When we do this, we make it possible to express abstract concepts (such as length) in a manner that provides a common reference for observation 2. Quantification in social science takes two forms: Continuous, discrete a) Discrete quantification: relates to counting the presence or absence of a thing. It also relates to counting differences of quality as they are captured in categories b) Continuous quantification: relates to capturing the notion of variation along a continuum A) Age is an example of a continuous quantification B) It deals not with discrete items but with dimensions like age, length and time C) The mark of continuous quantification is that the variable involved may have any value on a scale, whereas in discrete quantification, only whole numbers appear (as in counting sheep) 3. Each variable has its own peculiar problems and potentials for quantification a) One of the distinguishing characteristics of a well-developed science is the array of quantifiable variables that are useful to people working in the filed b) One of the marks of a smart scientist is the ability to find ways of quantifying important variables in a reliable and meaningful way c) Unfortunately, for other social sciences besides economics, there aren't such easily quantifiable units for measuring power or representing psychological stress, alienation, happiness, personal security, or for that matter, value d) Yet inventive scientists have found more or less successful ways of capturing quantifiable pieces of these variables e) A text in any of these areas contains dozens of illustrations of how concepts are turned into quantifiable variables f) The importance of quantification is that when it can be accomplished, there is potential for more precise measurement g) Quantified measurement of variables, properly conceived and executed, has the potential for specifying differentiation and degrees more effectively than fuzzy words in vague sentences h) However we decide to measure variables, we hope to find a method of counting that would provide reliable results if it were used by other researchers

What is rational choice theory? How does it work? What does it mean for social science?

Rational choice theory: the idea that we should assume that any choice that we are studying is probably a rational one 1. It is now a family of theories that make often rather different assumptions depending on the application in question a) There is an implication that all human behavior can be understood in terms of individuals' attempts to satisfy their preferences b) Like rational choice theory, in other words, common sense insists that people have reasons for what they do-and this may be true c) But it doesn't necessarily allow us to predict in advance either what they will do or what their reasons will be for doing it d) Once they do it, of course, the reasons will appear obvious, and we will conclude that had we only known about some particular factor that turned out to be important, we could have predicted the outcome e) Real people do not only care about their own welfare, economic or otherwise, but also the welfare of others for whom they will often make considerable sacrifices. f) We also care about upholding social norms and conventions, and frequently punish others who violate them-even when doing so is costly. g) And finally, we often care about intangible benefits, like our reputation, belonging to a group, and doing the right thing, sometimes as much as or even more than we care about wealth, comfort, and worldly possessions 2. All such rational choice theories tend to include variations on two fundamental insights: a) Rationality choosing ends to pursue A) That people have preferences for some outcomes over others b) Rationality pursuing those ends A) that given these preferences, they select song the means available to them as best they can to realize the outcomes they prefer 3. What is so appealing about this way of thinking is its implication that all human behavior can be understood in terms of individuals' attempts to satisfy their preferences a) If we want to understand why people do what they do, we must understand the incentives that they face, and hence their preference for one outcome versus another b) When someone does something that seems strange or puzzling to us, rather than writing them off as crazy or irrational, we should instead seek to analyze their situation in hopes of finding a rational incentive 4. This chapter identifies several areas in which human behavior appears to fall short a) Why do Austria and Germany have significantly different organ donors despite being very similar cultures? A) Answer: in Austria, being an organ donor was the default, but in Germany, not being an organ donor was the default. b) What are the challenges to rational decision-making? B) Their is a subjectivity of what is considered to be rational c) People aren't being honest about their rational goal (they are coming up with stories) 5. What does this mean for social science? a) The appeal of rational choice theory b) Respectful treatment of subjects c) Discovery of new forms of self-interest pursuit d) Regardless of the person and the context, in other words-sex, politics, religion, families, crime, cheating, trading, and even editing Wikipedia entries-the point that Levitt and Dubner keep returning to is that if we want to understand why people do what they do, we must understand the incentives that they face, and hence their preference for one outcome versus another. e) When someone does something that seems strange or puzzling to us, rather than writing them off as crazy or irrational, we should instead seek to analyze their situation in hopes of finding a rational incentive. 6. The pitfalls of rational choice theory a) The danger of tautology/unfalsifiability A) Tautology: a statement that is true by definition B) Unfalsifiability: something that can't be proven wrong C) Ex: religions often have unfalsifiable beliefs on God b) Missing key drivers of decision-making c) People are not often reliable narrators for themselves d) Getting it backwards 7. NIMBYISM: a) What is it? b) Is it rational? c) Possible rational choice answers d) Alternative answers

What is reasoned judgment?

Reasoned judgment: a staple of human understanding, bears a respectable relationship to evidence a) A reasoned judgment bears a respectable relationship to evidence b) Because people inevitably have to act in the absence of complete evidence for decision making, the term judgment is important c) Judgment connotes decision making in which all the powers of the mind are activated to make the best use of available knowledge d) Reasoned judgment is the first part of systematic thought

What is science?

Science: a set of rules and forms for inquiry and observation created by people who want verifiable answers 1. Science is sometimes confused with technology a) Technology: the application of science to various tasks b) The technology that makes voyages possible emerged from the use of scientific strategies in the study of propulsion, electronics, and numerous other fields b) It is the mode of inquiry that is scientific; the spacecraft is a piece of technology 2. Science is not some specific body of knowledge a) Science as a way of thought and investigation is best conceived of as existing not in books, machinery, or reports containing numbers but rather in that invisible world of the mid b) Science has to do with the way questions are formulated and answered 3. Another distraction comes from identifying particular people as "scientists" a) That usage isn't false, since the people so labeled practice the scientific form of inquiry; but neither is it fully honest to say that some people are scientists whereas others are nonscientists b) Some people specialize in scientific approaches to knowledge but we are all participants in the scientific way of thinking 4. Science is a mode of inquiry that is common to all human beings a) The scientific way of thought is one of a number of strategies by which we try to cope with a vital reality: the uncertainty of life b) Science is a process of thinking and asking questions, not a body of knowledge c) The scientific approach has many competitors in the search for understanding d) Ultimately, good science provides its own check on the influence of values in an inquiry e) If the method by which the study has been done and the evidence for conclusions are clearly and fully stated, the study can be examined by anyone for the fit of conclusions to evidence f) If there is doubt about the validity of what has been done, the study itself can be double-checked or replicated to use the technical term g) This feature distinguishes science from personal judgment and protects against personal bias

what are the limits of theory? What is paradigm?

So who's right (or the limits of theory?): 1. One limit of academic social science: researchers become committed to particular paradigm a) Paradigms: approach to scientific inquiry-centered around the use of particular vocabularies and assumptions as well as evaluation criteria determining the legitimacy of problem definition and appropriate tools in terms of methodology and analysis. 2. Its probably the case that many of these theories capture important parts of the story, but migration is simply too big and messy and complicated to fit a simple story 3. The goal of modest theory (sometimes called "mid level" theory): to explain particular patterns and events, but step back from "grand" theory that explains everything

What is social science? What both with it? What fields are included inside of social science?

Social science: an effort to systematically study humans, their communities, and their processes a) Can be used for perverse ends; however, it can also be used for humane personal understanding b) By testing thoughts against observations of reality, science helps liberate inquiry from bias, prejudice, and just plain muddle-headedness c) So it is unwise to be put off by simple stereotypes-too many people accept these stereotypes and deny themselves the power of social scientific understanding 1. Social science does not eliminate the role of judgment from the research process 2. Fields are mostly divided by topic, and end up overlapping a lot: a) Economics (topic: the economy!) A) How we all behave economically b) Political science (politics) A) Focused on the state, but also behavior of the state leaders and the individuals within a state B) Also the study of public policy and what happens when we try to enact and write laws c) Anthropology (culture and custom) A) Using an immersive ethnography (meaning living inside a culture) to study a culture d) Geography (relationship to space/land) A) They study the spacial organization, our relationship to the space that we live in e) Sociology (organizations, structures) A) It looks at organizations and organizational structures and norms in the societies that we live in or mainstream societies B) Moves beyond customs f) Psychology (individual) g) Human rights studies A) Looking at a particular movement or idea and its role in our society h) Criminology: A) Speaking to understand the topic of crime and societies' response to it 3. Why bother with social science? a) Because you have to take this class to graduate, but also, its incredibly useful b) Duncan watts has a nice clear answer: we need it for when our common sense fails us c) Common sense is great, and important for navigating a world of other humans. It often tells us what to do to get the outcomes we want d) But, it sometimes fails. Why? e) Biases and blind spots in our thinking f) The world is too complex for simple, intuitive explanations g) Common sense guide us for a particular set of problems that might arise, but there are issues in the world that common sense doesn't apply h) Common sense might help us navigate the world better, but it will not help us to understand the world better For the complicated questions, common sense fails us and it doesn't always help us to understand the world deeply

What are the ways that migration can be sorted by status? (question 1 on sorting)

Sorting by status: "legal" vs "illegal" 1. Different possible terms: a) Illegal b) Undocumented c) Irregular d) Unauthorized Some hard cases here: 1. Overstays a) The vast majority of irregular migrants are people that overstay their visas b) Overstay: migrants or visitors staying after their residency permit or travel visa expires; generally the most important cause of undocumented stay 2. accidental/bureaucratic a) Rual rodriguez A) His father forged his birth certificate to say that he was born in the US instead of Mexico. He never knew that he was born in Mexico. He lost his job as a police officer and is now forced to stay in his house as he is an illegal, irregular migrant b) Margueriette Grimmond A) 80 year old woman that was born in the US to Scottish parents. Her parents moved back to Scotland when she was 2 years old. She turned out to be an illegal British citizen and Parliament had to tweak the law in order to help her be able to stay in the country. 3. Category violators a) The next majority of irregular migrants that sneak across the border illegally b) Illegal entry: arrival in a country without obtaining official permission to enter; does not apply to asylum seekers, who do have this right to cross borders in search of protection c) Illegal stay: stay in a country without visa or residence permit d) Illegal migration: migration without authorization e) undocumented/unauthorized migration: crossing and residing without official permission 4. Asylum seekers who use smugglers to gain territorial access (principle of non-refoulement) a) Non Refoulement: part of international refugee law which protects asylum seekers from deportation to countries where they may fear persecution

what was the Chinese Exclusion Act?

US: First Major Regulation of Immigration: Chinese Exclusion Act 1. Early attempts to restrict/police Mexican border: enforcement of CEA 2. Why no concern with Mexican immigration yet? a) Their concern was not about each individual immigrant or case by case decision making b) The west was a low population area and we wanted them as workers c) The fact that Mexican came to the US to work was not seen as a threat because their status was seen as outsiders and it was believed that they would never be seen as Americans d) In the 20th century, the idea that they would be included in the American body politic was considered a real threat, but in the 19th century, it was not considered to be a threat