Study

Apoenzyme vs. Holoenzyme (definition)

Apoenzyme: Enzyme w/o its cofactor Holoenzyme: Enzyme with its cofactor

Syntax

Arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences

Semantics

Association of meaning with a word

Wax composition and function

Contain long-chain F.A.'s esterified to long-chain alcohols. Used as protection against evaporation and parasites in plants/animals

Tropic vs Direct hormones

Direct: secreted then act directly on target tissue (ex: insulin from pancreas causes uptake of glucose in muscles) Tropic: Stimulates production of another hormone by another endocrine gland to act on target tissue (ex: GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates LH and FSH)

Manic Episode Symptoms (DIG FAST)

Distractible, Insomnia, Grandiosity, Flight of Ideas, Agitation, Pressured Speech, Thoughtlessness/Risky Behavior

What happens to Energy Metabolism during Hypoxia (Low Oxygen)

During Hypoxia, Glycolysis is activated while Mitochondrial functions are halted. This leads to increased [NADH] and glycolysis requires NAD+ so NADH is converted via Lactic Fermentation

Bohrs Equation for electromagnetic energy of photons (E)

E = -(RH) / (n^2) - RH (Rydberg unit of energy) = 2.18 x 10^-18 J/Electron - n = quantum number

Planck's equation for electromagnetic energy of photons (E)

E = h*f = hc / λ (meters) h (Planck c.) = 6.626 × 10^-34 (J x s) c (light speed) = 3 x 10^8 m/s f (frequency of radiation) = c / λ

Nernst equation for determining membrane potential from intra and extracellular concentration of ions

E= (RT/zF)(lnQ) = (61.5/z)(log[ion outside]/[ion inside]) Q(rxn quotient)= [C]^c[D]^d / [A]^a[B]^b R: ideal gas constant T: temp (kelvins) F: faraday's constant (96485 C/mol e-) z: charge of ion

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

ER of muscle cells that stores calcium ions

Echolalia and Echopraxia

Echolalia: Repeating someone's speech in catatonic schizophrenia Echopraxia: Repeating the movements.

Determining if reaction is reversible

If all reactants become products, its irreversible.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

If levels of arousal are too high (too much pressure), then performance can suffer.

-Law of mass action: What it states and what is its/ the reaction quotient equation? -K(eq) >, =, or < 1 -Q(c) <, =, or > K(eq): Effect on ΔG and direction of reaction.

K(eq) = [C]^c[D]^d / [A]^a[B]^b = (P/R) A system is at equilibrium at constant temp follow this ratio. (solids and liquids aren't involved) -K(eq) > 1: product is present at greater concentration at equilibrium -K(eq) = 1: Product and reactant are present at similar levels. -K(eq) < 1: Reactant is present at greater concentration at equilibrium Q(c) = [C]^c[D]^d / [A]^a[B]^b = (P/R) This is compared to K(eq)... -Q(c) < K(eq): ΔG < 0, Reaction proceeds forward -Q(c) = K(eq): ΔG = 0, Dynamic equilibrium -Q(c) > K(eq): ΔG < 0, Reaction proceeds reverse

Kinetic energy equation (mass & volume vs K(b) and temp)

KE= .5mv^2 = 1.5K(b)T K(b): Boltzmann constant (1.38x10^-23) T: in Kelvin

Result of any oxidizing agent effects on secondary alcohol

Ketone

Kinetic vs Thermodynamic products

Kinetic product: "fast" product; higher in free energy and can form in lower temperature. Thermodynamic product: "stable" product; Lower free energy and is more spontaneous.

Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand

Leading strand (3'-5'): Built continuously; The parent strand is read 3' to 5' and its complement is synthesized 5' to 3' Lagging strand (5'-3'): Since DNAP can only synthesize 5' to 3' but the template is 3' to 5', Okazaki fragments are formed. Each fragment requires a new primer to start forming

G-protein coupled receptors

Ligand binding engages G protein. GTP replaces GDP and the α subunit dissociates. This activated α subunit alters activity of phospholipase C or of adenylate cyclase. The GTP is then dephosphorylated to GDP and the α subunit returns.

Amygdala function

Responsible for the response to stimuli with corresponding reward/punishment and memory of emotions, especially fear and agression

Stereoisomers vs constitutional isomers

Stereoisomers: have the same connectivity Constitutional isomers: Have different connectivity - Both have same molecular formula.

What occurs when glucose reacts with ethanol under acidic conditions?

The anomeric hydroxyl group is replaced with an alkoxy group (-OH is replaced with -OCH3 on anomeric carbon)

How to determine protein structure?

X-ray crystallography and NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy

Gibbs free energy equation and the effects of... 1) +ΔH & +ΔS: 2) +ΔH & -ΔS: 3) -ΔH & +ΔS: 4) -ΔH & -ΔS:

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS ΔH (enthalpy): energy stored/released T (temperature): In Kelvin ΔS (entropy): Q(reversible process) /T (Kelvin) 1) +ΔH & +ΔS: Spontaneous at high T 2) +ΔH & -ΔS: Nonspontaneous 3) -ΔH & +ΔS: Spontaneous 4) -ΔH & -ΔS: Spontaneous at low T

Standard Free energy change equation and how it fits in regular equation for free energy change

ΔG°(rxn)= -RT(lnK(eq)) ΔG°(rxn): J/mol K(eq): equilibrium constant T : absolute temperature (in Kelvin), R: universal gas constant (8.314 J/(mol(K)) ΔG(rxn)= ΔG°(rxn) + RT x ln(Q/K(eq))

1) Products of Anterior Pituitary (FLAT PEG) 2) Which are tropic hormones and which are direct hormones?

1a) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): Act on gonads 1b) Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Act on gonads 1c) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Acts on adrenal cortex to increase cortisol levels 1d) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Act on Thyroid 1e) Prolactin: Stimulates milk production in mammary glands 1f) Endorphins: decrease pain perception 1g) Growth Hormone (GH): Bone/muscle growth 2a) The 4 hormones in FLAT are tropic hormones 2b) The 3 hormones in PEG are all direct hormones

Converting atm, torr, mmHg and kPa

1atm= 760mmHg= 760 torr= 101.324 kPa

Dichotic listening task

2 different auditory messages, one in each ear

Instinct theory of motivation

People perform certain behaviors because of these evolutionarily programmed instincts

Things that cause a shift right in the Oxygen Dissociation curve (Bohr Effect)

"Exercise is the RIGHT thing to do" 1) High 2,3-BPG (Binds to ß-chains of HbA which decreases its affinity to Oxygen) 2) High [H+] (AKA low Ph) (AKA High pCO2)

Adrenal Medulla (inside adrenal cortex) secretes what 2 Catecholamines?

- Adrenal Medulla: Derived from Nervous system - Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (catecholamines) involved in sympathetic response to promote glycogenolysis, increase basal metabolic rate, dilate bronchi and alter blood flow. - Catecholamines: short term stress responses - Cortisol: mediates long term stress responses.

Transesterification: How does this transform esters from one form to another

- Alcohol acts as a nucleophile and displaces the esterifying group. Basically the Alcohol takes whatever is connected to the O of the ester and replaces it with what was on it originally.

Hierarchy of reactivity of carboxylic acid derivatives

- Dictates reactivity toward nucleophilic attacks -Anhydrides > Carboxylic acids/esters > amides

Lineweaver-Burk plot: What does X-axis equal and What does Y-axis equal?

- Double reciprocal graph of the Michaelis-Menten equation. - X-axis is -1/Km - Y-axis is 1/Vmax.

Products of Thyroid follicular cells

- Follicular cells produce T3 & T4 via iodination of Tyrosine. - Follicular cells produce Calcitonin (decreases [ca2+])

Gesellschaft (society) vs Gemeinschaft (community)

- Gesellschaft (society): group unified by mutual interest - Gemeinschaft (community): Group unified by shared beliefs/culture/geography

Common oxidizing agents:

- High electron affinity molecules (O2, O3, Cl2) - High oxidation states (Mn7+ of MnO4-, Cr6+ of CrO4 2-) - CrO3, Dichromates: Na2Cr2O7/K2Cr2O7, or PCC - mCPBA

Reflex arc: - What it is - monosynaptic vs polysynaptic

- Interneurons in spine relay info to source of stimuli and brain simultaneously - Monosynaptic: sensory (afferent, presynaptic) neuron fires directly to motor (efferent, postsynaptic) neuron - Polysynaptic: Sensory neuron fires on motor neuron and interneurons that fire onto other motor neurons

Isolated system vs. Closed system vs. Open system

- Isolated: System cant exchange energy (heat/work) or matter with surroundings. (ex: insulated bomb calorimeter) - Closed: System can exchange energy (heat/work) but not matter with surroundings. (ex: steam radiator) - Open: System can exchange both energy (heat/work) and matter with surroundings.

Common reducing agents

- Low electronegativity and high ionization energy Elements (Sodium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc). - Metal Hydrides (NaH, CaH2, LiAlH4, NaBH4) also work because of H-. - (LiAlH4 is stronger than NaBH4; LAH can reduce carboxylic acid to primary alcohol, NaBH4 cannot.)

Medicare vs. Medicaid

- Medicare: For people 65+ y/o, those with end-stage renal disease and those with ALS. - Medicaid: Covers patients below a certain socioeconomic level.

SYMLOG (system for multiple level observation of groups): What is it and what are its 3 dimensions?

- Method for analyzing group dynamics and consider groups: 1) Dominant vs Submissive 2) Friendly vs unfriendly 3) Instrumentally controlled (getting something done) vs Emotionally expressive (Sending out social signs)

Mortality vs. Morbidity

- Mortality is death rate caused by illness - Morbidity is the burden/ degree of illness associated with a disease.

3 types of neurons in the nervous system

- Motor (efferent): carry neural impulses away from the CNS to muscles to cause movement. They exit the spinal cord on the ventral side. - Interneurons: transmits impulses between other neurons - Sensory (afferent): carry nerve impulses from sensory stimuli towards the CNS and brain. They enter the spinal cord on the dorsal side. Their cell bodies are found in the dorsal root ganglia.

Fatty Acid Oxidation: Where it occurs What occurs How unsaturated FA's differ

- Occurs in mitochondria and is transported in by carnitine shuttle - ß-Oxidation uses cycles of Oxidation, Hydration, Oxidation and Cleavage. - Unsaturated Fatty Acids use an isomerase and additions reductase during cleavage

Schizophrenia symptoms

- Positive (added to normal): delusions, disorganized thoughts, catatonia - Negative: disturbances of affect (experience/display of emotion) and avolition (decreased goal engagement)

Social action vs Social interaction

- Social action: The effects that a group has on an individual behavior (ex: social facilitation, individualization, bystander effect, social loafing, and peer pressure) - Social interactions: Describes how 2+ individuals influence each others behavior (ex: group polarization and groupthink)

Ionization energy

- The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom. - Increases as you move up and to the right

Polyandry vs. Polygyny

- Two types of Polygamy 1) Polyandry: woman takes 2+ husbands 2) Polygyny: man takes 2+ wives

Qualities of a good nucleophile and how its affected by electron withdrawing groups

- Usually has a lone pair or pi bond and is negatively charged or polarized. - The less electron withdrawing groups present, the stronger the nucleophile.

Qualities of a good electrophile and how its effected by the stability of Leaving Groups

- Usually has positive charge or polarization. - The more stable the leaving group, the more electrophilic

Scalar vs Vector: -Definitions (Examples) - Right-Hand Rule:

- Vector: Quantities with magnitude and direction (Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force...) -Scalar: quantities w/o direction (Speed...) -Right Hand Rule: Used to Determine direction of third vector. A x B = A x B x sinθ Thumb is direction of Vector A, Fingers are vector B. Direction the palm point is vector C

id, ego, superego

- id is living in the subconscious for primordial desires like food and sex. - Superego is just pure intellect, idealness and rationality. Causes guilt when wrong is done. - Ego is middle ground, the referee between the two

Enzyme velocity: -Define kcat -Vmax equation -velocity equation

- kcat: # of substrates converted to product per enzyme every second - Vmax= [E]kcat - v= kcat[E][S]/ (Km + [S])

2 main Hormones that control Kidney function

-Aldosterone: Steroid that increases sodium (and in turn water) reabsorption in Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. This increases blood volume/pressure but does not change blood osmolarity (concentration of all chemical particles found in the fluid part of blood.) -ADH: peptide hormone that is released when blood volume is low or when blood osmolarity is high. This increases the permeability of collecting duct to water which increases water reabsorption. This increases blood pressure/volume while decreasing blood osmolarity.

Anatomy and function of Sarcomere -Z-line -M-line -I-band -H-zone -A- Band

-Basic contractile unit of striated muscle with thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin). Troponin and Tropomyosin are found on thin filament and regulate actin-myosin interaction -Z-line: boundary of each sarcomere -M-line: Located in sarcomere middle -I-band: Only thin filaments -H-zone: Only thick filaments -A- Band: Thick filaments (only part of sarcomere that maintains size during contraction)

role of duodenum in digestion (first part of small intestine)

-Chemical digestion -Disaccharidases break down disaccharides to monosaccharides -Brush border peptidases (aminopeptidase & dipeptidase) convert dimers/trimers to monomers -Secretin: stimulates release of pancreatic juices (bicarbonate, pancreatic amylase and pancreatic peptidase) into digestive tract and slows motility. -Cholecystokinin: stimulates bile release from gallbladder, release of pancreatic juices and satiety.

Types of bones Compact bone Spongy (cancellous) bone Long Bone Periosteum Ligaments/Tendons

-Compact: provides strength and is dense -Spongy (cancellous): has a lattice like structure w/ boney spicules (trabeculae) and the cavities are filled with marrow -Long: Have shafts called diaphyses that flare to form metaphyses and end in epiphyses. Epiphysis contains epiphyseal (growth) plate -Periosteum: layer of connective tissue on bones -Ligaments attach bones -Tendons attach bone to muscles

Parts of the excretory system and Kidney anatomy

-Consists of kidney, ureters, bladder, and urethra -Kidney consists of nephrons that narrow, forming ureter; Urine goes from ureter to bladder to urethra -Kidneys have a Hilum, which contains a renal artery, renal vein and a ureter -Kidney has portal system with 2 capillary beds in series; First blood from renal artery flows to afferent arterioles (forms glomerulus in bowman's capsule) then through efferent arteriole to vasa recta (surrounds nephron) before exiting kidney via renal vein

Lymphatic system anatomy and function

-Consists of one way vessels with intermittent lymph nodes. -Connects to cardiovascular system via thoracic duct in posterior chest -Equalizes fluid distribution transports fats/fat soluble compounds in chylomicrons and provides sites form mounting immune response

Thyroid: What controls it? What does it produce? Terms for under and overproduction?

-Controlled by TSH from APG -Sets BMR & promotes calcium homeostasis -Follicular cells produce T3 & T4. Increasing T3/4 levels increases cellular respiration which increases protein/F.A. turnover by speeding up synthesis & degradation of these compounds. -Hypothyroid: TH underproduced (decrease body temp, slowed HR/RR, weight gain) -Hyperthyroid: TH overproduction (increase body temp, faster HR/RR, weight loss)

Steroid hormones

-Derived from cholesterol and produced by gonads and adrenal cortex -Bind to intranuclear/ cytosolic receptors and causes conformational change which allows hormone-receptor complex to attach to DNA and alter transcription -Slower onset and longer lived -Not water soluble so they must be carried by proteins in bloodstream (inactive while attached). They can pass through plasma membrane due to lipid solubility -Have names that end in -one, -ol, or -oid (testosterone, cortisol, glucocorticoids)

Peptide hormones

-Derived from precursor proteins that are cleaved during post translational modification -Polar and cant pass through plasma membrane, so they bind to extracellular receptor to trigger second messengers (ex: cAMP, IP3 and calcium) -Effects have rapid onset but are short lived -They are water soluble so they can travel in blood w/o a carrier

Electrochemical cell: -What does it describe? -Anode: -Cathode: -Flow of electrons?

-Describes any cell where redox occurs -Anode: site of oxidation and attracts anions -Cathode: site of reduction and attracts cations -Electrons flow from anode to cathode (current is reverse)

Primary and secondary appraisal of stress

-In primary appraisal, the situation is evaluated for the presence of any potential threat. -In secondary appraisal, the personal ability to cope with the threat is assessed.

Bones: Lamellae rings Lacunae Osteoblast/Osteoclast (how they are affected by Vit D, Calcitonin and Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

-Lamellae rings surround Haversian (Volksmann) canal and osteons are the structural unit -Lacunae: between lamellar rings where osteocytes reside and is connected to canaliculi for nutrient/waste transfer -Osteoblast Build Bone, Osteoclast resorb bone -Vit D: increases resorption of bone which increases turnover and produces stronger bones -Calcitonin: increases bone formation and decreases blood calcium levels -PTH: increases reabsorption of bone and increases calcium/ phosphate blood concentration

Cells involved in innate immunity: Macrophages Dendritic cells Natural Killer Cells (NKC) Granulocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils

-Macrophages: Ingest pathogens and present them on Major Histocompatibility complexes (MHC). MHC-1 binds to antigens from inside the cell and presents them on surface so cytotoxic T-cells can detect and kill the infected cell. MHC-2 present antigens from environment to Helper T-cells -Dendritic cells: skins antigen-presenting cell -Natural Killer Cells: Attack cells not presenting MHC molecules (virally infected/ cancer cells) -Granulocytes: Neutrophils (follow bacteria via chemotaxis and ingest them forming pus), Eosinophils (release histamine in response to allergens/parasites) & Basophils in blood (Mast cells in tissues) (release large amounts of histamine in response to allergens)

Liver functions

-Metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. -Excretion of bilirubin, cholesterol, hormones, and drugs. -Storage of glycogen, vitamins, and minerals. -Synthesis of plasma proteins (such as albumin), urea and clotting factors. -Blood detoxification and purification. -Bile production and secretion to gallbladder/ duodenum.

Anatomy of the nephron Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) Descending loop of henle Ascending loop of henle Distal convoluted Tubule (DCT) Collecting duct

-PCT: site of bulk reabsorption of glucose, AA's, soluble vitamins, salt and water. Also the site of secretion of H+, K+, Ammonia and Urea -Descending LOH: permeable to water (not salt) so water is reabsorbed. The vasa recta and nephron flow in opposite directions creating countercurrent multiplier system -Ascending LOH: permeable to salt (not water) so it reabsorbs salt passively and actively -DCT: Responsive to aldosterone and is site of salt reabsorption and waste excretion -Collecting Duct: responsive to aldosterone and ADH and has variable permeability (allows for reabsorption of needed water)

Bile: synthesis location, storage location, components and role

-Synthesized in liver, stored in gallbladder or secreted into duodenum -Emulsifies fats, making them soluble and increasing their surface area -Made of Bile salts, pigments (especially bilirubin for hemoglobin breakdown) and cholesterol

Cell-mediated (Cytotoxic) immunity (part of adaptive immune response) T-Cells Helper T-cells (Th or CD4+) Cytotoxic T-cells (Tc or CD8+) Suppressor (regulatory) T-cells Memory T-cells

-T-cells: Thymosin promotes development. Mature in thymus by positive selection (only selects T-cells that reacts to antigen on MHC) and negative selection (apoptosis in self-reactive T-cells) -Helper: respond to MHC2 antigens and secretes lymphokines to activate immune defense. Th1 secrete interferon gamma, which activate macrophages Th2 activates B-cells (usually for parasites) -Cytotoxic: respond to MHC1 antigens and kill virally infected cells -Suppressor: tone down immune response after infection -Memory: wait for second exposure to mount rapid immune response

Amino acid derivative hormones

-derived from 1 or 2 amino acids w/ additional modifications -Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) bind to G protein coupled receptors --> fast onset & short lived -Thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine and thyroxine) bind intracellularly (slower onset & longer duration) -Have names that end in -in or -ine (thyroxine)

With a reaction where ΔH= -1, when temperature is lowered does it move to products or reactants?

-ΔH is exothermic, so if outside temperature is lowered then the equilibrium compensates by moving towards products.

Kinsey Scale of Sexual Orientation

0: Exclusively heterosexual with no homosexual 1: Predominantly heterosexual, only incidentally homosexual 2: Predominantly heterosexual, but more than incidentally homosexual 3: Equally heterosexual and homosexual 4: Predominantly homosexual, but more than incidentally heterosexual 5: Predominantly homosexual, only incidentally heterosexual 6: Exclusively homosexual

Laws of Thermodynamics: definitions and equations 0th: 1st: 2nd:

0th: Objects at same temp are in thermal equilibrium 1st: Energy cannot be created/destroyed ΔU= Q-W (ΔU: change in internal energy) (Q: energy transferred as heat) 2nd: Energy always spreads out ΔS > 0

1) Major depressive episode 2) Persistent depressive disorder

1) 2+ week period with 5+ of the following: Depressed mood, Anhedonia (Loss of interest), Δappetite, Δweight, Δsleep, decreased energy, guilt/worthlessness, difficulty focusing, feeling slowed down and Suicide thoughts. 2) Dysthymia (depressed but doesn't meet MDE criteria) for 2+ years.

3 main post-transcriptional modifications

1) 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap is added to 5' end (prevents degradation in cytoplasm and is the binding site for ribosomes) 2) Poly-A tail is added to 3' end; longer the tail, the longer it lives in the cytoplasm (time bomb) 3) Splicing is done by snRNA and snRNP in the spliceosome; introns are removed and exons are ligated together.

Aldol Condensation Reaction: - What are the 2 steps (ex: acetaldehyde (most basic aldehyde))? - Retro-Aldol Rxn: What it does and how?

1) Acetaldehyde + Catalytic base = enolate ion 2) Enolate ion + Acetaldehyde = 3-hydroxybutanal (aldol) 3) Reverses reaction by adding a Strong base and high temperature causing dehydration of aldol (loss of H2O) and formation of double bond between α & ß carbons.

Strecker Synthesis (Forming AA's from aldehyde): 1) What are the Reactants? 2) What are Parts of Process 1? 3) What are the Parts of Process 2?

1) Aldehyde is mixed with NH4Cl and KCN 2) Ammonia attacks Carbonyl Carbon, forming Imine which is attacked by Cyanide, forming Aminonitrile. This is then Hydrolyzed by 2 Equivalents to water to make an Amino Acid

3 main types of enzyme activation

1) Allosteric site can be occupied by activator, which increases affinity or enzyme turnover 2) Phosphorylation/ glycosylation can alter enzymatic activity or selectivity. 3) Zymogen: inactive substance which is converted into an enzyme when activated by another enzyme

Solubility-Based Method: Extraction (combines two immiscible liquids where one easily dissolves compound of interest) 1) Aqueous phase: 2) Organic phase: 3) How is it carried out? 4) What is Washing (reverse of extraction)

1) Aqueous: Polar (water) layer dissolves polar compounds and compounds with H-bonds 2) Organic: Nonpolar layer dissolves nonpolar compounds 3) Carried out in separatory funnel. One phase is collected and the solvent is then evaporated. 4) Small amount of solute that dissolves impurities is ran over compound of interest.

3 Types of status'

1) Ascribed: Based on race, gender, background, etc. 2) Achieved: Result of ones efforts/ choices. 3) Master: Status one is identified with

Neuroglia (glial cells): Cells in nervous system in addition to neurons 1) Astrocytes 2) Ependymal Cells 3) Microglia 4) Oligodendrocytes 5) Schwann Cells

1) Astrocytes: nourish neurons and form blood brain barrier. 2) Ependymal cells: line ventricles of brain and make cerebrospinal fluid (supports brain/shock absorber) 3) Microglia: phagocytic cells that break down waste and pathogens in CNS 4) Oligodendrocytes: Produces Myelin in CNS 5) Schwann cells: Produces Myelin in PNS

1) Dorsal prefrontal cortex: 2) Ventral prefrontal cortex 3) ventromedial prefrontal cortex

1) Attention and cognition 2) Connects with brain regions responsible for experiencing emotion 3) Controls emotional responses from the amygdala and decision-making

1) Boiling point elevation equation 2) Freezing point depression equation

1) BPE: ΔTb= i(Kb)m 2) FPD: ΔTf= i(Kf)m i: Van't Hoff factor (number of particles which a compound dissociates into in solution) Kb/Kf: proportionality constant of solvent m: molality (mole/kg)

1) Habituation 2) Dishabituation 3) Observational learning 4) Associative learning

1) Becoming used to stimuli 2) Occurs when second stimulus intervenes causing resensitization to original stimuli 3) Acquire behavior by watching others 4) Pairing stimuli and response (Behavior and consequence)

1) Operant Conditioning 2) Classical conditioning

1) Behavior frequency is modified using reinforcement (increase behavior) or Punishment (decrease behavior) 2) Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus to where the neutral stimuli causes same reaction (becoming conditioned stimuli)

1) Incentive Theory 2) Drive Theory 3) Expectancy-Value Theory 4) Self-Determination Theory

1) Behavior is motivated by a desire for reinforcement or incentives 2) We're born w/ psychological needs and a negative state of tension is created when these aren't met 3) Behaviour is determined by how highly a goal is valued, and the degree the person expects to succeed 4) Focuses on internal sources of motivation (Ex: need for personal growth & fulfillment)

4 ethical tenets of American medicine

1) Beneficence: Act in patients best interest 2) Nonmaleficence: Avoid treatment where risk outweighs reward 3) Respect of Autonomy: Patients have right to make their own decisions about treatment 4) Justice: Distribute resources fairly and offer equal treatment to all.

Sleep: What EEG waves and features are associated with... 1) Awake 2) Stage 1 3) Stave 2 4) Stages 3 & 4 5) REM

1) Beta & alpha waves; can function normal 2) Theta Waves; Light sleep 3) Theta Waves;Sleep spindles and K complexes 4) Delta Waves; Slow wave sleep, dreams, Declarative memory consolidation (some sleep disorders) 5) Beta Waves; Appears awake physiologically, dreams, paralyzed, procedural memory consolidation, (some sleep disorders)

CNS (central nervous system) 1) Contents 2) White matter 3) Grey Matter 4) Location of White/Grey matter: Brain and Spine

1) Brain and spinal cord 2) White matter: myelinated axons 3) Grey matter: unmyelinated cell bodies 4a) Brain: White matter is deeper than grey, 4b) Spine: Grey matter is deeper than white matter

Cell-Cell junctions: Regulate transport in/ between cells 1) Gap Junctions 2) Tight Junctions 3) Desmosomes/ Hemidesmosomes

1) Gap junctions: Allow rapid exchange of ions and other small molecules between adjacent cells 2) Tight junctions: Prevent paracellular transport by forming a barrier 3) Desmosomes/ Hemidesmosomes: Anchor layers of Epithelial tissue together

Hypothalamus (Above pituitary gland & below thalamus) 1) Function: 2) 5 Paracrine Hormones released on Anterior Pituitary Gland via Hypophyseal portal system 3) 2 Endocrine Hormones released by Posterior Pituitary Gland (stimulated by neurons from Hypothalamus)

1) Bridge between nervous and endocrine systems. Directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp). Linked to emotion and reward. 2a) GnRH: stimulates LH and FSH 2b) GHRH (Growth hormone releasing hormone) stimulates GH 2c) TRH stimulates TH (Thyroid Hormone) 2d) CRF (corticotropin releasing factor) stimulates ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) 2e) (EXCEPTION): PIF (prolactin inhibiting factor/ dopamine) inhibits Prolactin release 3) ADH and Oxytocin are released in blood by PPG

cell adhesion molecules (CAMs): Aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or to other cells (3 types: C.I.S.)

1) Cadherins: calcium-dependant glycoprotein; holds similar cells together 2) Integrins: Have 2 membrane spanning chains and permit cells to adhere to proteins in extracellular matrix (also has signaling abilities) 3) Selectins: allow cells to adhere to carbs on other cell surface (most common in immune system)

Rules of oxidation states: 1) Cations vs Anions writing order 2) Free element: 4) Monatomic ions: 5) Hydrogen and oxygen: 6) Group 1A and 2A: 7) Halogens:

1) Cation is written before anion (NaH has H-, HCl has H+) 2) Free elements are 0 3) Monatomic ions equal their charge 4) Hydrogen is +1, Oxygen is usually -2 5) Group 1A is +1, 2A is +2 6) Halogens in a compound are -1, unless when combined with an element of higher electronegativity (Cl is -1 in HCL, but +1 in HOCl)

Humoral immunity (part of Adaptive immune response): 1) What is it centered on and activated by 2) Antibodies: Anatomy and How they deal with pathogens 3) Memory B Cells: Purpose

1) Centered on antibody production by plasma cells (activated by B-cells). 2) Antibodies: 2 heavy and 2 light chains with a constant and variable region. The tip of the variable region is Antigen binding region. These regions undergo hypermutation to improve specificity when activated. They can Opsonize pathogens (mark for destruction), aggulate (clump) them for ingestion by phagocytes or neutralize them. 3) Memory B-Cells: wait for second exposure to mount rapid immune response

Lipid Transport: 1) Chylomicrons: 2) Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL): 3) Intermediate-Density Lipoproteins (IDL): 4) Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL): 5) High Density Lipoproteins (HDL): 6)Apoproteins:

1) Chylomicrons: Transport dietary Triacylglycerol via lymphatic system 2) VLDL: Transport newly made Triacylglycerol from liver to peripheral tissues in bloodstream 3) IDL (VLDL remnant): Picks up cholesteryl esters from HDL 4) LDL: Transports Cholesterol for use by tissues (Bad cholesterol) 5) HDL: Picks up excess cholesterol from blood vessels for excretion (good cholesterol) 6) Apoproteins: Control interactions between lipoproteins

Shapes of bacterial cells

1) Cocci: sphere 2) Bacilli: rod 3) Spirilla: Spiral

Three components of emotion

1) Cognitive (subjective) 2) Behavioral (facial expressions and body language) 3) Physiological (changes in the ANS)

5 main structural proteins

1) Collagen: trihelical fiber, makes up most of extracellular matrix of connective tissue. Strong and flexible 2) Elastin: Provides stretch and recoil of extracellular matrix of connective tissue 3) Keratin: intermediate filament in epithelial cells. Contributes to mechanical integrity of the cell and functions as regulatory protein. 4) Actin: most abundant protein in eukaryotes, makes microfilaments and thin filaments of myofibrils, Has positive and negative end allowing motor proteins to travel unidirectionally. 5) Tubulin: makes microtubules for structure, chromosome separation and intracellular transport with Kinesin and Dynein. These are polar with negative end near nucleus and positive in the cell periphery.

Column Chromatography: 1) Function: 2) Ion-Exchange: 3) Size-exclusion: 4) Affinity:

1) Column: uses polar beads with nonpolar solvent to separate proteins based on affinity of mobile and stationary phase. 2) Ion-exchange: Uses charged beads in column with variable saline eluent. (Cation-exchange column only binds to "+" charged proteins) 3) Size-exclusion: Uses porous beads so that larger molecules elute first 4) Affinity: Uses bound receptor/ligand and eluent with free ligand or receptor for protein of interest.

1) Compliance 2) Obedience 3) Confomity

1) Compliance: accepting the requests of a person without actual authority 2) Obedience: changing one's behavior in response to an order from an authority figure. 3) Changing behavior or beliefs to fit in with a group

Reserves of additional energy used by muscle cells to reduce oxygen debt and stall fatigue

1) Creatine Phosphate: adds phosphate group to ADP to form ATP 2) Myoglobin: heme-containing protein that is muscles oxygen reserve

Object Recognition: 1) Bottom up: 2) Top Down 3) Gestalt Principles

1) Data Driven; uses parallel processing and feature detection. (Slow but more accurate) 2) Concept Driven; uses memories and expectations w/ little attention to detail. (Faster but less accurate) 3) Ways brain can infer missing parts of an image

Decarboxylation: 1) What does this describe: 2) How is it triggered

1) Decarboxylation: Complete loss of Carboxyl group as Carbon Dioxide and replacing it with H+ 2) Triggered by Increasing heat.

5 Type of chromosomal mutations (Deletion, Duplication, Inversion, Insertion and Translocation)

1) Deletion mutation: large DNA segment is lost 2) Duplication mutation: a DNA segment is copied multiple times 3) Inversion mutation: DNA is reversed 4) Insertion mutation: DNA is moved from one chromosome to another 5) Translocation mutation: DNA segment is swapped with DNA segment of another chromosome

1) Principle quantum number (n) 2) Azimuthal quantum number (l) 3) Magnetic quantum number (m sub l) 4) Spin quantum number (m sub s)

1) Describes which shell the electron resides 2) Determines which subshell the electron resides. (L=0 is s, L=1 is p, L=2 is d, L=3 is f) (Range: 0 to n-1) 3) Determines which orbital electron resides. (Range: l to -l) 4) Describes electrons spin (+.5 or -.5)

Fructose and Galactose: Where the body gets them, What traps them within a cell and how they are metabolized.

1) Galactose: Comes from lactose in milk; It is trapped in the cell and converted to Glucose 1-phosphate via Galactose-1-Phosphate Uridyltransferase and an epimerase. 2) Fructose: Comes from honey, fruit & sucrose (table sugar). Its trapped in the cell by Fructokinase and then cleaved by Aldolase B, producing Glyceraldehyde and DHAP.

Important Glycolysis Intermediates: 1) Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP) 2) 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) and Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)

1) Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP): Formed from Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate and can be isomerized to Glycerol 3-P, which can then be converted to Glycerol (triacylglycerol backbone) Used in hepatic and adipose tissue for triacylglycerol synthesis. 2) 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) and Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP): High-energy intermediates used to make ATP via substrate level phosphorylation. This is the only ATP gained by anaerobic respiration

1) Distress 2) Eustress 3) 3 Stages of general adaptation syndrome

1) Distress: unpleasant psychological stressor 2) Eustress: interpreted as beneficial for experiencer 3) Alarm > Resistance > Exhaustion

3 shunts in fetal circulation

1) Ductus venosus: Shunts blood returning from placenta to inferior vena cava to pass liver 2) Foramen ovale: one way valve that connects atriums to avoid lungs 3) Ductus arteriosus: Shunts blood from pulmonary artery to aorta to avoid lungs

Enantiomers vs. Diastereomers

1) Enantiomers: Non-superimposable mirror images with identical physical AND chemical properties (except optical activity) 2) Diastereomers: Chiral with same connectivity but are NOT mirror images. Will have MULTIPLE chiral centers (2^n stereoisomers) but at least one stays the same and at least one is different. They have different chemical AND physical properties

Skin anatomy: 3 Layers Melanocytes Langerhans cells

1) Epidermis: 5 layers (stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum and corneum). Stratum Basale has stem cells that proliferate into keratinocytes. Keratinocytes nuclei are lost in stratum granulosum and many thin layers form in stratum corneum 2) Dermis: Contains sweat glands, Blood vessels, hair follicles, Merkel cells (deep pressure/ texture), Free nerve endings (pain), Meissner's corpuscles (light touch), Ruffini endings (stretch) and Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure/ vibration) 3) Hypodermis (subcutaneous): has fats and connective tissue (holds skin to body) -Melanocytes: produce melanin which protects DNA from UV and is passed to keratinocytes -Langerhans cells: Macrophages of skin (antigen presenting)

Equations: 1) Equivalents 2) Gram weight equivalents 3) Normality (N)

1) Equivalents = (compound mass)/ (gram equivalent weight) 2) Gram weight equivalent = (Molar Mass) / n 3) Normality (N)= equivalents/Liter = Molarity x n Usually used for [H+]; 1N solution of acid has [H+] equal to 1 mole per liter. In 1 N of H2CO3, the molarity is .5 M because its diprotic.

3 main components of blood and antigens/ Rh factor

1) Erythrocytes (RBC): lack mitochondria, nucleus and organelles 2) Leukocytes (WBC): Formed in blood marrow 3) Thrombocytes (platelets): fragments from megakaryocytes used for coagulation. They bind to collagen and are stabilized by fibrin (activated by thrombin) -Antigens: A and B alleles are Codominant while O is recessive. Individuals have antibodies for any AB allele they don't have -Positive Rh factor is dominant. Rh negative people only creates anti-Rh antibodies after exposure to Rh-positive blood

Jung's 3 dichotomies of personality

1) Extraversion vs. introversion 2) Sensing vs. intuition 3) Thinking vs. feeling

1) Standard reduction potential (E°red) 2) Standard electromotive force (E°cell)

1) E°red: Tendency to be reduced under std conditions. Difference of reduction potential of 2 half rxns are "+" in galvanic cells & "-" in electrolytic cells. - More "+" E°red is reduced, less "+" E°red is oxidized 2) E°cell: Difference in E°red between 2 half-cells. The electromotive force and ΔG always have opposite signs (-ΔG (+E°cell) in galvanic, ΔG=0 in concentration and +ΔG in electrolytic)

Solute movement of the kidney participate? 1) Filtration 2) Secretion 3) Reabsorption

1) Filtration: At Glomerulus, Filtrate (small solutes and fluid) passes through passively. Starling forces account for hydrostatic and oncotic pressure differences between glomerulus and bowman's capsule to determine direction and rate of filtration. 2) Secretion:Acids, Bases and Ions from Interstitial fluid to filtrate to maintain pH, [K+] and [waste] 3) Reabsorption: movement of solutes from filtrate back to blood

3 trimesters of pregnancy

1) First: major organs develop, skeleton hardens to bone by 7th week, brain and organs are fairly developed by 8th week and it's a fetus 2) Second: growth period, fingers/toes elongate and by the end the fetus is 30-36 cm 3) Third: Growth and brain development as well as transfer of antibodies from mother

Menstrual cycle phases 1) Follicular Phase 2) Ovulation 3) Luteal Phase 4a) Menstruation 4b) Fertilization

1) Follicular phase: GnRH stimulates LH and FSH to promote follicle development. Estrogen is released, stimulating vascularization/ glandularization of decidua 2) Ovulation: Stimulated by LH surge which triggers when estrogen levels reach threshold and go from negative to positive feedback. 3) Luteal phase: LH causes follicle rupture (becomes corpus luteum), which secretes progesterone to maintain uterine lining. High estrogen/ progesteron causes negative feedback on GnRH, LH and FSH 4a) Menstruation: no fertilization causes drop in progesterone/ estrogen levels so endometrial lining sloughs off and the block on GnRH production is removed. 4b) If fertilized, Blastula produces hCG (LH analog) which maintains corpus luteum. Placenta takes over progesterone production after first trimester.

Protecting Groups for aldehydes and ketones: 1) How are they formed and what do they protect from? 2) What are the products called? 3) How to convert back?

1) Formed by reacting aldehyde/ketone with 2 equivalents of alcohol or with a diol. Their products don't react with LiAlH4 like carbonyls do 2a) Acetals: Primary carbon with 2 -OR groups and an H atom 2b) Ketals: Secondary carbon with 2 -OR groups 3) Reversed by adding aqueous acid

Cerebral Cortex lobes

1) Frontal lobe 2) Parietal Lobe 3) Temporal Lobe 4) Occipital Lobe

5 stages of the cell cycle

1) G1 (presynthetic gap): cell makes organelles for energy and protein production and increases size. The restriction point (DNA is quality checked) must be passed to go to next phase (p53). 2) S (synthesis): DNA replicates, centromere holds chromatids. 3) G2 (postsynthetic): further cell growth and another quality check (p53) 4) M (mitosis): mitosis and cytokinesis occurs 5) G0: no preparation, normal function

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases assumptions

1) Gas particles have negligible volume 2) Gas particles don't have intermolecular attraction/repulsion 3) gas particle collisions are elastic and random 4) average KE of particles is proportional to temp.

Pancreas produces what 3 hormones to regulate glucose homeostasis?

1) Glucagon: Produced by Alpha cells; raises blood glucose by stimulating protein/fat degradation, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis 2) Insulin: Produced by Beta cells; lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose uptake in cells and promoting glycogen/ fat/ protein synthesis.

3 main substrates of gluconeogenesis and where they are obtained from

1) Glycerol-3P (from stored Fats in Adipose Tissue) 2) Lactate (from Anaerobic Glycolysis) 3) Glucogenic A.A.'s (from Muscle Proteins): All A.A.'s except Leucine and Lysine; These are A.A.'s that can be converted to intermediates that fuel gluconeogenesis.

1) 7 Nonpolar, non-aromatic amino acids 2) 3 Aromatic Amino Acids 3) 5 Polar Amino Acids 4) 2 Acidic Amino Acids (Has "-" charge at ph 7) 5) 3 Basic Amino Acids (Has "+" charge at ph 7)

1) Glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, proline 2) Tryptophan, phenylalanine, tyrosine 3) Serine, Threonine, Tyrosine, Asparagine, Glutamine 4) Aspartic acid & Glutamic acid 5) Lysine, Arginine & Histidine

Glycogenolysis: Process & 2 main enzymes, their functions and what inhibits/stimulates them.

1) Glycogen Phosphorylase (Rate Limiting Enzyme): Breaks α 1,4 Glycosidic Links releasing G1P. G1P is then converted to G6P via Mutase, then converted to glucose by G-6-Phosphatase. Activated by Glucagon in liver and by AMP and Epinephrine in Skeletal Muscle. Inhibited by ATP. 2) Debranching Enzyme: Deconstructs glycogen branches that were exposed by Glycogen Phosphorylase. It breaks an α-1,4 bond adjacent to the branch glucose and moves the oligosaccharide to main chain. Then it hydrolyzes the α 1,6 bond which releases a single residue.

Net Energy Products: 1) Glycolysis: 2) PDH: 3) Citric Acid Cycle: 4) ATP of NADH and FADH2 5) Total ATP

1) Glycolysis: 2 NADH and 2 ATP 2) PDH: 1 NADH per pyruvate (2 per Glucose) 3) Citric Acid Cycle: 3 NADH, FADH2 and GTP (6 NADH, 2 FADH2 and 2 GTP per glucose) 4) ATP of NADH and FADH2: NADH form 2.5 ATP and FADH2 forms 1.5 ATP 5) Total ATP: 30-32 ATP per glucose (15-16 ATP per pyruvate)

Rate Limiting Enzymes: 1) Glycolysis: 2) Fermentation: 3) Glycogenesis: 4) Glycogenolysis: 5) Gluconeogenesis: 6) Pentose Phosphate Pathway:

1) Glycolysis: Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) 2) Fermentation: Lactate Dehydrogenase 3) Glycogenesis: Glycogen Synthase 4) Glycogenolysis: Glycogen Phosphorylase 5) Gluconeogenesis: Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphatase 6) Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase

1) Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 2) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (male vs female) 3) Luteinizing hormone (LH) (male vs female)

1) GnRH: from hypothalamus, causes release of FSH and LH 2) FSH: Males: Stimulates sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis. Females: Stimulates development of ovarian follicles. 3) LH: Males: Causes interstitial cells to make testosterone. Females: Causes ovulation.

4 types of Potential energy

1) Gravitational PE: U= mgh 2) Elastic PE: U= .5k(x^2) 3) Electrical PE: U= kQq / r (k: electrostatic constant) (Q: source charge magnitude) (q: charge placed in e-field) 4) Chemical PE:

General Equations of... 1) Gravity: 2) Kinematics (no displacement) 3) Kinematics (no final velocity) 4) Kinematics (no time) 5) Kinematics (no acceleration) 6) Centripetal Force 7) Torque: 8) Pressure (N/m^2)

1) Gravity: Fg= G(m1)m2/ r^2 2) Kinematics (no d): v= v(i) +a x t 3) Kinematics (no Vf): x= v(i) x t + .5z(t^2) 4) Kinematics (no T): v^2= v(i)^2 +2ax 5) Kinematics (no a): x= v(average)t 6) Centripetal Force: F(c)= m(v^2)/r 7) Torque: t= r x F= rFsinθ = q(d)E x sinθ 8) Pressure: P= F/A

1) In group 2) Out Group 3) Primary Group 4) Secondary Group

1) Group to which one psychologically identifies as a member 2) Group an individual does not identify with. 3) Small, characterized by personal relationships that last a long time. 4) Impersonal, temporary relationships that are goal-oriented.

Electron donating (activating) groups 1) How they affect electron density and charge? 2) Effects on acidity? 3) What kind of director is this?

1) Groups that push (donate) electron density towards another functional group through sigma or pi bonds. 2) Decrease acidity 3) All are ortho/para directors.

What are the body's three main portal systems (system where blood passes through 2 capillary beds in series)

1) Hepatic P.S.: Blood travels from gut capillary beds to liver capillary bed via hepatic portal vein 2) Hypophyseal P.S.: From capillary bed of hypothalamus to capillary bed of APG 3) Renal P.S.: Blood from glomerulus (cluster of capillaries around the end of a kidney tubule where waste products are filtered from blood) to the vasa recta through efferent arteriole

Amide Hydrolysis (Amide + H2O): 1) What kind of conditions are required? 2) What are the Steps? 3) What are the Products?

1) Highly Acidic/ Basic conditions are required b/c this allows carbonyl Oxygen to become protonated. 2) Refer to Picture 3) NH3 and carboxylic acid

Cooperative Enzymatic Activity: 1) What does Hill's Coefficient indicate? 2) Hills Coefficient < 1: 3) Hills Coefficient = 1: 4) Hills Coefficient > 1:

1) Hill's coefficient Indicates nature of binding by the molecule 2) HC < 1: negative cooperative binding (after one ligand binds the affinity for another decreases) 3) HC = 1: enzyme does not exhibit cooperative binding. 4) HC > 1: positive cooperative binding (after one ligand binds the affinity for another increases)

1) Role Engulfment 2) Role Confusion 3) Role Strain 4) Role Conflict

1) How one's identity becomes based on a role the person assumes 2) Confusion in Role 3) Experienced within one particular role 4) Occurs between two different roles (Ex: being a student & an employee)

Mesylates And Tosylates (alcohols): 1) How they affect (-OH) leaving groups: 2) How they act as protecting groups:

1) Hydroxyl groups are poor LG's for substitution reactions. They can be formed into Mesylates (by MsCl and a base) or Tosylates (by TsCl) to be better LG's. 2) Mesylates and Tosylates can also protect the Alcohol from unwanted reactions (especially oxidation)

3 Steps of Simplifying Organic chemistry reactions

1) Identify most reactive functional group: More oxidized carbons tend to be more reactive to nucleophilic, electrophilic and redox reactions 2) See how Reagent will interact with this functional group. 3) Consider stereospecificity: SN2 flips stereospecificity. Also consider steric hindrance

Following a chemical reaction, the relative configuration is retained if... The absolute configuration is retained if...

1) If the stereocenters are not broken and the positions around the chiral carbons are maintained. 2) If the chirality of product and reactant are the same (R stays R, S stays S)

2 main types of joints and how synovial fluid and articular cartilage affect them

1) Immovable Joints: fused together to form sutures or similar fibrous joints 2) Movable Joints: usually strengthened by ligaments and contain synovial capsule -Synovial fluid: secreted by synovium and aids in motion by lubricating the joint -Articular cartilage: aids in movement and provides cushioning

1) Phonemes 2) Morphemes

1) In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit 2) In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix)

Effects on reactivity by increasing... 1) Steric Hindrance 2) Induction (uneven distribution of charge across sigma bonds due to differences in ELECTRONEGATIVITY) 3) Conjugation (alternating single and multiple bonds) 4) Steric Strain

1) Increased Steric Hindrance decreases reactivity 2) Increased Electronegative groups in carbonyl containing compound Increases reactivity 3) Increased Conjugation increases reactivity (b/c transition state is more stable) 4) Increased Steric Strain increases reactivity

1) Bipolar Disorder: Cause in the Brain chemistry and requirements of classification. I) Bipolar I II) Bipolar II 2) Cyclothymic Disorder

1) Increased norepinephrine and serotonin in brain I) single manic episode, no MDE required II) 1+ hypomanic episode and 1 MDE 2) Contains Hypomanic episodes with Dysthymia

Steps 2 and 3 of translation

1) Initiation 2) Elongation: adds new aminoacyl-tRNA at ribosome's A site and transfers the growing chain from tRNA of P site to tRNA of A site. The now uncharged tRNA pauses in the E site before exiting ribosome. 3) Termination: When A site has stop codon, a release factor places a water molecule on the chain and releases the protein. Once done chaperones assist in protein folding.

Attribution Theory: 1) Dispositional 2) Situational 3) Correspondent Inference Theory 4) Fundamental Attribution Error

1) Internal; Causes are related to features of a person who's being considered. 2) External; Causes are related to features of the surroundings. 3) Attributions made by observing the intentional behaviors of another person 4) Bias to making dispositional rather than situational attributions

Filtration: 1) Definition 2) 2 types of filtration and when they are used.

1) Isolation of solid (residue) from liquid (filtrate) 2a) Gravity Filtration: Used when product of interest is in filtrate (Hot solvent is used to maintain solubility) 2b) Vacuum Filtration: Used when product of interest is in solid.

Keto-Enol Tautomerization (interconverting from keto to enol tautomer) 1) Define Tautomer (and where equilibrium lies) 2) How does this occur? 3) Michael Addition? 3) Thermodynamic vs Kinetic enolates of ketones w/ 2 different alkyl groups:

1) Isomers which differ in placement of a proton and the double bond (equilibrium lies on keto side) 2) Enolate carbanions result form α-Carbon deprotonation by strong base. This makes them readily react with electrophiles. 3) MA: Enolate attacks α,ß-unsaturated carbonyl, creating a bond 4a) Thermodynamic: Double bond goes on more substituted (more substituents) carbon 4b) Kinetic: Double bond goes on less substituted (less substituents) carbon

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): 1) What other chromatography method is it similar to? 2) Why is it used?

1) It is similar to Column Chromatography but uses a computer mediated solvent and temperature gradient. 2) Used if the Sample size is small or if Forces like capillary action affect results

Ketogenesis & Ketolysis: Where they occur What causes them What are the important reactants and reagents

1) Ketogenesis: Occurs in mitochondria of liver cells when Acetyl-CoA accumulates while fasting. HMG-CoA Synthase forms HMG-CoA, which is then broken down by HMG-CoA Lyase into Acetoacetate. This is subsequently deposited into the blood with its reduced form 3-Hydroxybutyrate. 2) Ketolysis: Acetoacetate picked up from blood is activated in the mitochondria of Muscles, Renal Cortex and the brain by thiophorase into Acetoacetyl-CoA and then becomes 2 Acetyl-CoA for use in CAC.

Solubility product constant (Ksp): 1) Definition 2) Use of Isoelectric Point 3) Ksp / IP equation 4) IP < Ksp 5) IP = Ksp 6) IP > Ksp

1) Ksp: Equilibrium constant for dissociation reactions 2) IP: compared to Ksp to determine level of saturation and behavior 3) Ksp= [A^n+]^m[B^m-]^n = IP 4) IP < Ksp: unsaturated solution 5) IP = Ksp: saturated (equilibrium) 6) IP > Ksp: supersaturated (forms precipitate)

Major Enzyme Classifications: (LIL HOT) 1) Ligase: 2) Isomerase: 3) Lyase: 4) Hydrolase: 5) Oxidoreductase (includes peroxidases, hydroxylases, oxygenases, and reductases) : 6) Transferase:

1) L : catalyze addition/synthesis reactions between large similar molecules (usually w/ ATP) 2) I: catalyze rearrangement of bonds in molecule. Works for stereoisomers and constitutional isomers 3) L: Cleave one molecule to two (aka synthases when fulfilling function) 4) H: Cleaves one molecule to two with addition of H2O. (ex: phosphatase, nuclease, peptidase, lipase) 5) O: Catalyze redox reactions (electron transfer) Usually has cofactor (NAD+) 6) T: Catalyze transfer of functional group. (ex: Kinase moves phosphate group)

1) Nativist theory 2) Learning theory of language development

1) Language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity ("humans are pre-programmed with the innate ability to develop language") 2) Parents reinforce phonemes that sound most like their language

2 parts of hypothalamus controlling hunger

1) Lateral Hypothalumus: promotes hunger 2) Ventromedial Hypothalumus: responds to cues that we are full and promotes satiety

Types of Rechargeable batteries (batteries that have both charging (electrolysis) and discharging (galvanic) states)

1) Lead-acid (low energy density) Discharging: Pb anode and PbO2 cathode in sulfuric acid solution Charging: PbSO4 - plated electrodes are dissociated to resotore Pb and PbO2 electrodes and concentrate the electrolyte 2) Nickel-Cadmium (medium energy density) (stops accepting electrons when electrodes are recharged) Discharging: Cd anode and NiO(OH) cathode in concentrated KOH solution Charging: Ni(OH)2 and Cd(OH)2 plated electrodes are dissociated to restore originals and concentrate the electrolyte. 3) Nickel-Metal Hydride (replaced Ni-Cd because of higher energy density, less toxic and cheaper)

1) Lewis Acid 2) Bronsted-Lowry Acid 3) Arrhenius acid

1) Lewis Acid: Electron acceptor in formation of covalent bond 2) B-L Acid: Species that can donate a proton. 3) Arrhenius acid: dissociates to produce excess H+ in solution (Arrhenius base is same but with -OH) - All arrhenius acids are B-L acids; All B-L acids are Lewis acids

1) Log (1) = 2) Log (10) = 3) Log (A/B) = 4) Log (A^B) = 5) Log (n x 10^m) =

1) Log (1) = 0 2) Log (10) = 1 3) Log (A/B) = Log A - Log B 4) Log (A^B) = B x Log A 5) Log (n x 10^m) = m + 0.n

Effects of: 1) Low blood protein levels on osmotic pressure and amount of fluid in body tissues 2) High FA concentration in intestines

1) Low Blood Protein = Low Blood Osmotic Pressure which in turn increases return of fluid to body tissues 2) High [FA] = Increased Osmotic pressure in Intestines which leads to diarrhea

Manifest vs Latent functions

1) Manifest functions: Deliberate actions that serve to help a given system 2) Latent functions:Unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions

1) Autosomal Recessive 2) Autosomal Dominant 3) Imprinted Gene

1) May skip generations 2) Appears in every generation 3) Genes whose expression is determined by the parent that contributed them (Maternal or Paternal)

IR spectroscopy: 1) What does it measure? 2) Requirements to appear on IR spectrum 3) Shape and size of O-H peak 4) Shape and size of N-H peak 5) Shape and size of C=O peak 6) What is the plot? (___vs___)

1) Measures IR light absorption which causes molecular vibration 2) Vibration of a bond must change the dipole moment 3) Broad peak around 3300 cm^-1 4) Sharp peak around 3300 cm^-1 5) Sharp peak around 1750 cm^-1 6) Percent Transmittance vs Wavenumber (1/λ)

UV spectroscopy: 1) What does it measure? 2) How the difference between Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) effects this. 3) How does conjugation effect this? 4) What is the plot? (___vs___)

1) Measures absorption of UV light, which causes movement of Electrons between Molecular Orbits 2) The Energy difference between HOMO and LUMO must be small enough to permit an electron to move between orbitals. The smaller the difference, the longer wavelengths the molecule can absorb 3) Conjugation (only in molecules w/ unhybridized P-orbitals) shifts the absorption spectrum to higher max wavelength 4) Transmittance or absorbance vs wavelength

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 1) What does it measure? 2) How do The α and ß states of Nuclei effect this? 3) How is this used in medical field. 4) What is the plot (___vs___) 5) How is it calibrated and where are higher/lower chemical shifts located?

1) Measures alignment of nuclear spin with applied magnetic field. Useful for determining connectivity. 2) The Nuclei can be in α-state (Lower energy) or ß-state (higher energy). Radiofrequency pulses push nucleus from α to ß state and these frequencies are measured. 3) These are used in MRI's 4) Frequency vs Absorption of energy 5) Calibrated by TMS (chemical shift of 0 ppm); Higher shifts are located to the left (downfield), Lower are to the right (upfield)

3 Hindbrain components

1) Medulla 2) Pons 3) Cerebellum

1) Implicit memory 2) Flashbulb memory 3) Eidetic memory 4) Rote Memory 5) Prospective memory 6) Reproductive memory 7) Reconstructive Memory

1) Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously 2) Compelling memories of details associated with reception of news about emotionally arousing events 3) Photographic memory 4) Memory that was formed through repetition 5) Remembering to do/ recall a planned action at some future point 6) Retrieval of info from memory, w/o alteration 7) Recall is affected by perception, imagination, semantic memory and beliefs

3 main types of DNA repair: 1) Mismatch Repair 2) Nucleotide Excision Repair 3) Base Excision Repair

1) Mismatch: In G2 phase, enzymes encoded by genes MSH2 & MLH1 (MutS & MutL in prokaryotes) detect and remove errors introduced by replication that were missed in S phase 2) Nucleotide excision repair: UV light induces formation of thymine dimer. Excision endonuclease cuts backbone and DNAP fills gap. 3) Base excision repair: glycosylase removes affected base, leaving AP (abasic) site. AP endonuclease recognizes AP site and removes damaged sequence. DNAP and DNA ligase fill gap

Ionic compound nomenclature: 1) Monoatomic anions 2) Elements that can form more than one cation 3) Elements that form 2 forms of oxyanions 4) Prefixes used for molecules with 3+ oxyanions 5) NH4 +, C2H3O2 -, CrO4 2-/Cr2O7 2-

1) Monoatomic anions: Add suffix -ide (ex: hydride) 2) Elements that can form more than one cation: use roman numerals (ex: Fe 2+ is Iron(II)) 3) Elements that form 2 forms of oxyanions: -ite describes oxyanion with less oxygen, -ate describes one with more. (ex: Nitrite: NO2 -, Nitrate: NO3 -) 4) Prefixes used for molecules with 3+ oxyanions: Hypo- is used for least amount of oxygen, Per- is used for most amount of oxygen. 5) Ammonium: NH4 + Acetate: C2H3O2 - Chromate/dichromate: CrO4 2-/Cr2O7 2-

Effects of... 1) Serotonin 2) Dopamine 3) GABA/ Glycine 4) Glutamate 5) Acetylcholine

1) Mood (aggression), dreaming and appetite 2) Smooth movement, Postural stability 3) Brain Stabilization (Main inhibitory in body) 4) Brain Excitation. Also Learning and memory 5) Voluntary muscle control, PNS, Attention and alertness

How muscles contract (at rest, all gates are closed)

1) Motor neuron releases acetylcholine that binds to sarcolemma receptor causing depolarization that spreads to T-tubules, triggering Ca2+ release that binds w/ troponin to shift Tropomyosin and expose myosin binding site on thin actin filament. 2) Sarcomere shortens as head binds to site, pulling actin along thick filament. 3) Acetylcholinesterase degrades acetylcholine, causing relaxation. Ca2+ returns to SR and ATP binds to myosin head to release actin.

4 main secretory cell types lining the stomach

1) Mucous cells: make bicarbonate rich mucus to protect stomach 2) Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (protease activated by acidic stomach environment) 3) Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor (used for Vit B12 absorption) 4) G-cells: secrete gastrin (peptide hormone that increases HCL secretion and gastric motility)

4 stages of mitosis

1) Prophase: chromosome condenses, nuclear membrane dissolves and the kinetochore of chromosome interacts w/ spindle fibers of centrioles 2) Metaphase: chromosomes align on metaphase plate 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles 4) Telophase: nuclear membrane reforms and cytosol/ organelles are split by cytokinesis

Motor Proteins Function: 1) Myosin: 2) Kinesins: 3) Dyeins:

1) Myosin: Protein that interacts with actin. Plays role of thick filament in a myofibril. Each subunit has a head and neck. 2) Kinesins: Aligns chromosomes during metaphase and depolymerizes microtubules during anaphase. Also brings vesicles to the "+" end of microtubule. (kicks out) 3) Dyneins: Help sliding movement of cilia/flagella. Also brings vesicles to "-" end of microtubule. (drags in) Both 2 and 3 have two heads and one stays connected to tubulin at all times

What is it and how is it corrected? 1) Myopia 2) Presbyopia 3) Amblyopia 4) Nystagmus

1) Nearsightedness and is fixed using concave (diverging) lenses 2) Inability to focus vision on close-up objects and is fixed using convex (converging) lenses 3) Brain fails to process inputs from one eye and favors the other eye 4) Eyes make repetitive, uncontrolled movements

Palindromic Binding Sequence

1) Nucleic acid sequence in double-stranded DNA/ RNA molecule where reading in a certain direction (ex: 5' to 3') on one strand matches the sequence reading in same direction (ex: 5' to 3') on complementary strand. 2) Capable of forming Hairpin structure 3) Many restriction endonucleases (restriction enzymes) recognize palindromic sequences and cut them.

Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution of Carboxylic Acids: 1) Step 1? 2) Step 2? - What forms when _____ is Nucleophile and does it require basic or acidic conditions? 3) NH3 4) Alcohol 5) another carboxylic acid

1) Nucleophile attacks carbonyl carbon, causing a "-" charge to move to Oxygen 2) The LG is then kicked off as the "-" charge reforms carbonyl (if LG is OH like with carboxylic acid, you need an acidic solution to form H2O (good LG)) 3) Amide; Can be acidic or basic solution 4) Ester (Fischer Esterification); Must be acidic conditions 5) Anhydride; neither

Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution of Anhydride: 1) Process Products when Anhydride is added to... 2) NH3 3) Alcohol 4) H2O

1) Nucleophile binds to one of 2 carbonyl carbons and the "-" charge moves to that carbonyls Oxygen. It then loses a H+ to the middle O. The O- loses the "-" charge to reform carbonyl and the center O gains electrons from bond that was holding them together, forming 2 molecules (one is always carboxylic acid) 2) Forms C.A and Amide 3) Forms C.A. and Ester 4) Forms Two C.A.'s

Determining R and S configuration

1) Number groups 1-4; 1 being highest priority (4=lowest) 2) Place 4 group on dash 3) if 1,2,3 is... Clockwise= R ("R"ight way a clock spins) Counterclockwise= S (Sinister=left)

Cholesterol Metabolism: 1) 2 ways its obtained 2) 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase: 3) Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) 4) Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP)

1) Obtained from diet or through de novo synthesis in the liver (driven by Acetyl-CoA and ATP) 2) HMG-CoA reductase (Rate Limiting Enzyme): Synthesizes Mevalonic acid synthesis in smooth ER. 3) LCAT: Catalyzes forming of cholesteryl esters for transport with HDL 4) CETP: Catalyzes transition of IDL to LDL by transferring cholesteryl esters from HDL

Chemical Digestion of lipids: 1) Where it occurs and 4 Main helpers to facilitate digestion 2) Short chain vs Long chain F.A. absorption location 3) How they are mobilized from adipocytes vs lipoproteins.

1) Occurs in Small intestine and is facilitated by Bile, Pancreatic lipase, colipase, and cholesterol esterase. 2a) Short chain FA's: Absorbed across intestine into blood. 2b) Long Chain FA's: Absorbed as micelles and assembled into chylomicrons for release into lymphatic system. 3a) Hormone-sensitive Lipase: mobilizes lipids from adipocytes 3b) Lipoprotein lipase: Mobilizes lipids from lipoproteins.

3 Requirements of Jones oxidation (primary alcohols to carboxylic acids (other than w/ PCC) and secondary to ketones) includes...

1) Oxidizing agent 2) Solvent 3) Acidic conditions

Equations: 1) Optics (P) 2) Magnification (m) 3) Positions of dark fringes in slit-lens (a x sinθ) 4) Position of dark fringes in double-slit (d x sinθ)

1) P= 1/f = 1/o + 1/i = 2/r = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2) 2) m = -i/o 3) a x sinθ = n x λ 4) d x sinθ = (n + .5) x λ o: distance between object and mirror (+ is in front of mirror i: distance between mirror and image (+ is in front of mirror (real)) r: radius of curvature (+ is concave) m: + is upright, - is inverted

Isoelectric Point (PI) of amino acids: 1) Definition 2) How to determine PI of AA's w/o charged side chain? 3) PI < 6: 4) PI = 0: 5) PI > 6:

1) PH where amino acid is a zwitterion 2) PI of amino acids w/o charged side chain is average of two pKa values 3) PI < 6: Acidic Amino Acid 4) PI = 0: Amino acid w/o charged side chain 5) PI > 6: Basic Amino Acid

Self concept: 3 parts

1) Past self 2) Future self 3) Self schema (self given label that comes with a set of qualities)

The 4 Jungarian archetypes

1) Persona: personality we show to world 2) Anima: mans inner women 3) Animus: woman's inner man 4) Shadow: unpleasant/ socially wrong thoughts & actions

Prefrontal cortex

1) Planning cognitive functions, personality and decisions. 2) Manages parts of the limbic system like the amygdala. Lower activity causes increased aggression

Active transport: Primary vs Secondary

1) Primary: uses ATP hydrolysis to move 2) Secondary: Uses concentration gradient of one molecule to push another Symport: both flow in same direction Antiport: flow in opposite directions

Saponification: 1) Definition 2) How its done 3) How products function

1) Process of forming soap (salts of free fatty acids) 2) Ester hydrolysis of triacylglycerols using strong base (KOH/NaOH). 3) Soaps act as surfactants and form micelles that can dissolve a lipid-soluble molecule.

Enzyme inhibition: 1) Feedback 2) Competitive 3) Noncompetitive 4) Mixed 5) Uncompetitive 6) Irreversible 7) Allosteric

1) Products inhibit enzyme 2) Inhibitor is similar to substrate; overcome by adding more substrate 3) Binds with equal affinity to enzyme or E-S complex 4) Binds with unequal affinity to enzyme and E-S complex. 5) Only binds to E-S complex 6) Alters enzyme so the active site is unavailable for prolonged time/ permanently 7) Binds to site other than substrate binding site

Meiosis 1 and 2

1) Prophase 1: same as mitosis except homologues intertwine via synapses to for tetrad and cross over. Final stages are same as mitosis. 2) sister chromatids (same DNA held together by centromere) undergo same steps as mitosis.

Proton NMR: 1) Integration (Area under curve) of peak: 2) Deshielding of protons: 3) Spin-Spin coupling (splitting) 4) Range for Protons on sp3-hybridized, sp2-hybridized and sp-hybridized carbons 5) Range for Aldehydic Protons 6) Range for Carboxylic Acid Protons 7) Range for Aromatic Protons

1) Proportional to the number of H+'s contained under the peak. 2) Occurs when EWG's pull electron density away from nucleus, which moves the peak to the left (downfield) 3) Occurs when H+'s on adjacent atoms interfere with each others magnetic environment. The H+'s peak splits to (n+1) subpeaks (n: # of H+'s 3 bonds from H+ of interest) 4) sp3: 0 - 3 ppm / sp2: 4.6 - 6 ppm / sp: 2 - 3 ppm 5) Aldehydic: 9 - 10 ppm 6) C.A.: 10.5 - 12 ppm 7) Aromatic: 6 - 8.5 ppm

Oxidative Phosphorylation: 1) Define Proton Motive Force 2) Main Enzyme and its 2 portions

1) Proton-Motive Force: Electrochemical gradient made by ETC in IMM. The Intermembrane space has higher [H+] than matrix, causing gradient which can form ATP by chemiosmotic coupling 2) ATP Synthase: Forms ATP from ADP and Pi. - F0 portion is ion channel that allows H+ to flow down gradient from Intermembrane space to Matrix. - F1 portion uses energy released to phosphorylate ADP.

Citric Acid Cycle Substrates: 1) Please 2) Can 3) I 4) Keep 5) Selling 6) Seashells 7) For 8) Money, 9) Officer

1) Pyruvate 2) Citrate 3) Isocitrate 4) α-Ketoglutarate 5) Succinyl-CoA 6) Succinate 7) Fumarate 8) Malate 9) Oxaloacetate

Gluconeogenesis: Occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria (mostly in liver) - 4 main enzymes, their functions and what inhibits/stimulates them.

1) Pyruvate Carboxylase: Converts Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate. Activated by Acetyl-CoA. 2) Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK): Converts Oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate. Activated by Glucagon and Cortisol 3) Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphatase (Rate Limiting Enzyme): Converts F1,6BP to F6P. Activated by ATP and Glucagon (b/c it decreases [F2,6BP]). Inhibited by AMP and insulin (b/c it increases [F2,6BP]) 4) Glucose-6-Phosphatase: Only found in ER of Liver and it converts G6P to Free glucose. 1 & 2 bypass pyruvate kinase, 3 bypasses PFK-1 and and 4 bypasses Glucokinase.

3 Main ways to form Acetyl-CoA

1) Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex 2) Fatty acids: Enters Mitochondria via carriers; F.A.'s couple w/ CoA in cytosol to form Fatty acyl-CoA, which moves into intermembrane space. Here the Acyl group is transferred to Carnitine, forming Acyl-CoA and it crosses into IMM. The Acyl group then moves to mitochondrial CoA and this undergoes ß-oxidation, forming Acetyl-CoA 3) Ketogenic A.A.'s carbon skeletons, Ketone bodies and Alcohol:

Equations... 1) Resistance (R) 2) Current (I) (C/s) 3) Capacitance (C) 4) E-field in capacitor (E) 5) Power (P) (J/S) 6) Voltage (V) (J/C)

1) R= L x density / (Area of cross section) 2) I= Q/Δt 3) C= Q/V 4) E= V/d = h(planck's constant) x f = h(c)/λ 5) P= W/t = IV = R(I^2) = (V^2)/R 6) V= IR (Q: charge passing through conductor per unit time)

Path of Kidney (start with renal artery)

1) Renal Artery 2) Glomerulus 3) Bowman's Capsule 4) Proximal convoluted tubule 5) Loop of Henle 6) Distal Convoluted Tubule 7) Collecting duct

Defense mechanisms 1) Repression: 2) Suppression: 3) Regression: 4) Reaction formation: 5) Projection: 6) Rationalize: 7) Displacement: 8) Sublimation:

1) Repression: unconscious removal of idea 2) Suppression: conscious removal of idea 3) Regression: return to earlier development stage 4) Reaction formation: (example) 2 people fight b/c they like each other 5) Projection: attributes thoughts/desires to someone else (cheater thinks hes cheated) 6) Rationalize: justify action/thought 7) Displacement: change emotional target 8) Sublimation: channeling socially unacceptable behavior into a good one

6 General Solubility Rules for Aqueous Solutions: H2O soluble or not? Exceptions? 1) Salts w/ NH4+, Group 1 and Nitrate (NO3-)/ Acetate (CH3COO-) anions: 2) Halides (excluding fluorides): 3) Salts of sulfate ion: 4) Metal Oxides: 5) Hydroxides: 6) Carbonates, Phosphates, Sulfides, and Sulfites:

1) Salts containing NH4+, Group 1, Nitrate (NO3-) and Acetate (CH3COO-) are H2O-soluble 2) Halides, excluding fluorides, are H2O-soluble, with the exceptions of those formed with Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg2(2+) 3) Salts of the sulfate ion are H2O-soluble except those formed with Ca++, Sr2+, Ba2+ or Pb2+ 4) Metal oxides are insoluble, except those formed with Group 1 metals, ammonium, CaO, SrO, and BaO - all of which hydrolyze to form solutions of corresponding metal hydroxides 5) Hydroxides are insoluble with the exception of those formed with the Group 1 metals, Ca2+, Sr2+, or Ba2+ 6) Carbonates, phosphates, sulfides, and sulfites are insoluble, except those formed with Group 1 metals and ammonium

Types of attachment (S.A.A.D) (caregiver and child)

1) Secure: Requires consistent caregiver so child has safe base to return to. 2) Avoidant: Occurs when caregiver gives little response to distress. Child shows no preference between caregiver and stranger. 3) Ambivalent: Occurs when caregiver has inconsistent response to distress. Child is distressed when caregiver leaves but is ambivalent when they return. 4) Disorganized: Occurs with erratic/abusive caregiver. Child shows no clear pattern of behavior to caregivers presence.

PNS (peripheral nervous system) 1) Anatomy 2) Somatic: (How its neurons connect) 3) Autonomic: 2 Neurons 4) 2 sections of Autonomic Nervous Systems

1) Sensory/ motor neurons (connects CNS to body) 2) Somatic: voluntary, motor neurons go directly from spine to muscle w/o synapsing 3) Autonomic: Contains 2 neurons that work in series to transmit messages from spine: A) Preganglionic (soma in CNS and axon travels to a ganglion in PNS) B) Postganglionic (stimulates target tissue) 4a) Parasympathetic: Rest and Digest 4b) Sympathetic: Fight or Flight

Distillation: 1) Definition: 2) Simple distillation 3) Vacuum distillation 4) Fractional distillation

1) Separates liquids according to BP differences 2) Simple: used for BP under 150°C and are at least 25°C apart 3) Vacuum: Used for BP over 150°C 4) Factional: Used for BP that are under 25°C apart

Epithelial cells: layers and shapes

1) Simple epithelia: one layer 2) Stratified epithelia: many layers 3) Pseudostratified epithelia: one layer, different heights A) Cuboidal cell: cube-shaped B) Columnar cell: long and narrow C) Squamous cell: flat and scalelike

1) Sinθ = 2) Cosθ = 3) Tanθ =

1) Sinθ = Opposite / Hypotenuse 2) Cosθ = Adjacent / Hypotenuse 3) Tanθ = Opposite / Adjacent

3 categories of muscles

1) Skeletal: Support, movement, Propulsion of blood in venous systems and thermoregulation. Its striated, somatic control and polynucleated. Red (slow twitch) fibers do oxidative phosphorylation while White (fast twitch) fibers do anaerobic metabolism 2) Smooth: Nonstriated, autonomic control, uninucleated and displays myogenic activity (contraction without neural input) 3) Cardiac: Striated, autonomic control, uninucleated, displays myogenic activity and cells are connected by intercalated discs w/ gap junctions

1) Functionalism 2) Conflict Theory 3) Symbolic interactionism 4) Social Constructionism

1) Society's function and relation of each component 2) How power differences are created and how they maintain order 3) Study of how individuals interact through shared words, gestures, symbols... 4) How individuals and groups make decisions to agree on a social reality

1) Buffer solution Q) If ph of phosphate buffer is 7.6, How can we lower it?

1) Solution made from a weak acid/base and its conjugate salt that resists change in pH A) Alter ratio of monosodium/Disodium phosphate added to favor monosodium species

Anatomy of Neuron: 1) Soma 2) Axon Hillock 3) Axon 4) Nerve Terminal (synaptic bouton) 5) Nodes of Ranvier 6) Myelin 7) Dendrite

1) Soma: contains nucleus, ER and ribosomes 2) Axon hillock: where action potentials are initiated 3) Axon: appendage AP travels down 4) Nerve terminal (Synaptic bouton): End of axon where neurotransmitters are released 5) Nodes of ranvier: exposed area on axon, allows saltatory conduction 6) Myelin: protects against signal loss, created by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in PNS 7) Dendrite: receive signals

Types of Sphingolipids (contains sphingosine/sphingoid backbone)

1) Sphingophospholipid: contain phospholipid 2) Sphingomyelin: major part of myelin sheath (Ceramide: component lipids that make up sphingomyelin) 3) Glycosphingolipids: attached to sugar moieties rather than phosphate. Cerebrosides have one sugar connected, Globosides have 2+ 4) Gangliosides: has oligosaccharides with at least one terminal N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA aka sialic acid)

Types of selection and how they effect a populations phenotypes Stabilizing Selection Directional Selection Disruptive Selection Adaptive Radiation

1) Stabilizing: Keeps phenotypes in narrow range and excludes extremes 2) Directional: Moves average phenotype to one extreme 3) Disruptive: moves population to 2 different phenotypes at extremes (can cause speciation) 4) Adaptive radiation: rapid emergence of many species from common ancestor (each occupies its own ecological niche)

3 main polysaccharides

1) Starch main energy storage for for plants; Amylose: α-D-glucose linked by α-1,4 bonds Amylopectin: amylose but with α-1,6 bonds too ß amylase cleaves amylose at nonreducing end (end with acetal) to make maltose while α amylase cleaves randomly 2) Cellulose: main structural component of plants; ß-D-glucose molecules linked by ß-1,4 bond 3) Glycogen: carb storage of animals; Same bonds as amylopectin but with 10 glucose gap of branching and not 25

Magnetic field equation: straight wire vs loop wire Magnetic force equation: moving point charge vs current carrying wire

1) Straight: B= 2(10^-7) x I / r 2) Loop: B= 2pi(10^-7) x I / r 3) MPC: F(B)= qvB x sinθ 4) CCW: F(B)= ILB x sinθ

Electron withdrawing (deactivating) groups: 1) How they affect electron density and charge? 2) Effects on Acidity? 3) What kind of director is this?

1) Strongly electronegative; pulls electron density, and stabilize negative charge. 2) Increase acidity 3) Acts as meta director (all except halogens)

3 main disaccharides

1) Sucrose: Glucose-α-1,2-fructose 2) Lactose: Galactose-ß-1,4-glucose 3) Maltose: Glucose-α-1,4-glucose

1) Social Facilitation 2) Deindividualization 3) Bystander effect 4) Group polarization 5) Groupthink 6) Social loafing

1) Tendency to perform at a different level with others around 2) Loss of self-awareness in large groups (leads to drastic behavior change) 3) Individuals in group are less likely to respond to one in need 4) Group decisions are more extreme than those of individuals 5) Make decisions based on ideas of the group w/o considering outside ideas 6) People do less work in groups than when alone

1) Self Verification 2) Self-Serving Bias 3) Self Efficacy

1) Tendency to seek out and accept info that agrees with one's self-concept 2) Cognitive/ perceptual process that's distorted by the need to maintain & enhance self-esteem 3) Belief in one's own capacity to execute necessary behaviors

Signaling lipids: 1) Terpenes: 2) Steroids 3) Prostaglandins 4) Fat Soluble Vitamins

1) Terpenes: odiferous steroid precursor; made of 2 isoprene units 2)Steroids: 1 cyclopentane and 3 cyclohexane rings; hormones affect gene expression and metabolism; cholesterol is precursor to a lot 3) Prostaglandins: autocrine/paracrine signaling that regulates [cAMP]; regulates smooth muscles, body temp, fever, pain and sleep-wake cycle. 4) Fat soluble Vitamins: A (vision/gene expression), D (bone formation and controls calcium/phosphorus levels), E (antioxidant destroys free radicals) and K (modifies Prothrombin (clotting) and introduces calcium binding sites)

3 Potency types

1) Totipotent: Most potent; can be any cell 2) Pluripotent: Can be any cell except those in placental structures 3) Multipotent: can be many cells within a particular group

Bacterial genetic recombination: 1) Transformation 2) Conjugation 3) Transduction 4) Transposons 5) Episomes

1) Transformation: Cell picks up genetic material from surroundings 2) Conjugation: F+ cells transfer plasmids to F- cells across a conjugation bridge 3) Transduction: Bacteriophage vector accidentally transfers genes from another bacteria 4) Transposons: Genetic elements insert or remove themselves from the gene 5) Episomes: Plasmids that can be integrated into genome

3 main types of proteins on cell membrane

1) Transmembrane proteins: have 1+ hydrophobic domain and act as receptor/ channel 2) Embedded protein: part of catalytic complex or involved in cellular communication 3) Membrane associated proteins: Act as recognition molecules or enzymes

1) Auditory pathway to brain 2) Utricle and Saccule 3) Semicircular Canals

1) Tympanic membrane > Incus > Malleus > Stapes > cochlea > auditory nerve > Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN) of thalamus > Auditory complex in temporal lobe 2) Detect linear acceleration 3) Detects rotational acceleration

Thin-Layer And Paper Chromatography: 1) What is it used for? 2) Mobile Phase? 3) Stationary Phase? 4) Use of Card 5) Equation for Rf (retardation factor) 6) Reverse-Phase Chromatography

1) Used to identify sample 2) Mobile: nonpolar solvent (climbs card via capillary action) 3) Stationary: Polar material (Silica, alumina or paper) 4) Card is spotted, then developed. The Rf values can be calculated and compared to reference values 5) Distance spot moved / Distance solvent front moved 6) R-P: Uses nonpolar card with polar solvent

Gas Chromatography: 1) Why is it used? 2) Stationary Phase? 3) Mobile Phase?

1) Used to separate vaporizable compounds by how well they adhere to adsorbent in column 2) Stationary: Coil of crushed metal or a polymer 3) Mobile: Nonreactive gas

1) PET Scan 2) EEG Scan 3) MRI 4) CT

1) Uses a special dye containing radioactive tracers that help see how well your organs and tissues are working. 2) Tracks and records brain wave patterns and electrical waves 3) Makes images of brain/ brainstem using a magnetic field and radio waves 4) Rotating X-ray machines create cross-sectional images of the soft tissues, blood vessels, and bones

What are the 3 parts of the Pleura that covers the lungs and line the chest wall?

1) Visceral Pleura: lies adjacent to lungs 2) Parietal pleura: Lines chest wall 3) Intrapleural space: thin layer of fluid that lubricates 2 pleural surfaces

1) Voltmeter (& Potentiometer) 2) Ammeters 3) Ohmmeters Amount of resistance? What they measure

1) Voltmeter: Inserted in parallel in a circuit to measure voltage drop (large resistance). Potentiometer is a type of voltmeter that draws no current and more accurate 2) Ammeters: Inserted in series and measure current (small resistance) 3) Ohmmeters: Inserted around a resistive element to measure resistance (self powered and have negligible resistance

Five traits of personality (OCEAN) 1) Openness 2) Conscientiousness 3) Extraversion 4) Agreeableness 5) Neuroticism

1) Willingness to try new activities 2) Responsibility and planning 3) Outgoing, socially confident behavior. 4) Friendly, cooperative and considered more likeable 5) Emotional stability or instability

B-DNA vs Z-DNA vs cDNA (complementary DNA)

1) most DNA is B-DNA, forming a right-handed helix 2) low concentrations of Z-DNA, with a zigzag shape, may be seen with high GC-content or high salt concentration 3) cDNA: contains only exons; formed from mRNA via reverse transcription

3 main types of ion channels

1) ungated: always open 2) voltage-gated: open within certain range of membrane potentials 3) ligand-gated: Open in presence of specific hormone/neurotransmitter

Equations: 1) Wave speed (v) 2) Period (T): Time between repetition 3) Intensity (I) (W/m^2)

1) v = f(λ) = (B/ density) 2) T = 1/f 3) I = P/A B: Measure of mediums resistance to compression (gas<liquid<solid)

α-Hydrogens: 1) Where they are located 2) pH compared to other hydrogens 3) pH in Aldehydes vs Ketones

1) α-Hydrogens are connected to α-Carbons, which is the carbon adjacent to carbonyl carbon 2) α-H's are relatively more acidic and can more easily be deprotonated due to induction caused by O in carbonyl. 3) α-H's in aldehydes tend to be more acidic (more easily deprotonated) than in ketones due to electron donating properties of alkyl group.

Equations: 1) Closed pipe wavelength 2) Closed Pipe Frequency 3) Open pipe/string Wavelength 4) Open pipe/string Wavelength

1) λ = 4L / n 2) f = nv / 4L 3) λ = 2L / n 4) f = nv / 2L n: # of half wavelengths

1) Sperm path in the body 2) Seminal Vesicles 3) Bulbourethral gland:

1)Formed in seminiferous tubules, nourished by sertoli cells, stored in epididymis (also where it gains motility) and goes through vas deferens to ejaculatory duct to urethra. 2) Seminal vesicles contribute fructose and produce alkaline fluid (also produced by Prostate gland) 3) Bulbourethral gland: produce clear fluid to clean urine and lubricate urethra.

Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development

1. trust vs. mistrust (0-1) 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3) 3. initiative vs. guilt (3-6) 4. industry vs. inferiority (6-12) 5. identity vs. role confusion (12-20) 6. intimacy vs. isolation (20- 40) 7. generativity vs. stagnation (40 - 65) 8. integrity vs. despair (65+)

A + B ⇌ C + Heat - How to Shift to right 1) Changing Reactants 2) Changing Products 3) Pressure change 4) Volume Change 5) Temperature Change

A + B ⇌ C + Heat - How to Shift to right 1) Add more A or B 2) Take Away C 3) Apply Pressure 4) Decrease volume 5) Reduce temperature

Na+/K+ ATPase

A protein found in the plasma membrane of all cells in the body that uses the energy of an ATP (hydrolyzes ATP) to move three Na+ ions out of the cell and two K+ ions into the cell

disproportionate reaction

A reaction in which an element in one oxidation state is both oxidized and reduced

Kohlberg's 6 stages of moral development: A) Preconventional B) Conventional C) Postconventional

A) 1. obedience 2. self-interest B) 3. conformity 4. law/order C) 5. social contract 6. universal ethics

3 components of attitude

A) Affective: How one feels towards something B) Behavioral: How one behaves with respect to something. C) Cognitive: Provides reason for other 2 components (Ex: why one is afraid of snakes)

10 General Personality Disorder: A) Odd, Eccentric B) Dramatic, emotional, wild, erratic C) Anxious, fearful, worried

A) Paranoid, Schizotypal (odd/eccentric thinking) and Schizoid (decreased emotions and desire to interact) B) Antisocial (disregard of others rights), Borderline (use splitting and are unstable with mood/self image), Histrionic (attention seeker), Narcissist C) Avoidant (fear of rejection), Dependant (need reassurance), OCD

How to determine the size of DNA molecule? Quantity?

Agarose Gel Electrophoresis: separates DNA by size Southern blotting: detects presence/quantity of DNA. After electrophoresis, a sample is transferred to a membrane that can be probed with S.S. DNA molecules to look for sequence of interest.

Albumin

Albumin transports hormones, fatty acids, and other compounds, buffers pH, and maintains oncotic pressure. It is synthesized in the liver.

Chirality of Amino acids: α carbon and side chain

All α carbons except for Glycines are chiral Only isoleucine and threonine have chiral carbon in side chain.

How is an operon w/ 2 genes in prokaryotic cells transcribed?

An operon w/ two genes in prokaryotic cells is transcribed from a single promoter upstream of the first gene in the operon

Learning Theory

Attitudes are developed by direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction and conditioning.

Functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serve 4 functions: 1) Knowledge 2) Ego expression 3) Adaptation: One will be accepted if they have socially acceptable attitude 4) Ego defense: Holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem or justify actions that make us feel guilty

Conformational isomers

Stereoisomers where the isomers can be interconverted just by rotating about single bonds.

Doppler effect: f' (frequency heard by person) vs f (frequency of horn on passing train)

Before passing horn: f' > f After passing horn: f' < f f = c/λ

B. F. Skinner

Behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

Lev Vygotsky's Theory of cognitive development

Biological development & cultural experience both influenced children's ability to learn. Believed social contact was essential to cognitive development. Developed zone of proximal development

Parkinson's disease cause and characteristics

Bradykinesia (slow move), Tremor, stooped posture and cogwheel rigidity (locking muscle) caused by decreased dopamine production in substantia nigra (allows proper use of basal ganglia (movement start/stop))

arcuate fasciculus

Bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area with Broca's area; damage causes inability to repeat words heard

Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory

By watching the behavior of others, people learn novel responses without having had the opportunity to make the responses themselves. Bobo doll experiment with monkeys.

Electron Transport Chain (Matrix facing IMM surface): 2 Shuttles (Helps NADH cross IMM) and 4 Complexes 1) NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase 2) Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase 3) CoQH2-cytochrome c Oxidoreductase 4) Cytochrome c oxidase A) Glycerol 3-P Shuttle B) Malate Aspartate Shuttle

C1) Iron-Sulfur cluster transfers electrons from NADH to Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN), then to CoQ forming CoQH2. 4 H+'s are translocated here. C2) Iron-Sulfur cluster transfers electrons from succinate to FAD, then to CoQ. C3) Iron-Sulfur cluster transfers electrons from CoQH2 to heme, forming Cytochrome c. 4 H+'s are pumped here. C4) Uses cytochromes and Cu2+ to transfer electrons from H- of Cytochrome c to oxygen, forming H2O. 2 H+'s are pumped here. SA) G3P Shuttle: Electrons go from NADH to DHAP, forming Glycerol 3-P. The electrons then go to FAD forming FADH2 SB) MA Shuttle: Electrons of NADH go to Oxaloacetate, forming Malate which crosses IMM and transfers electrons to mitochondrial NAD+ forming NADH

Forming and Naming cyclic carbohydrates

Carbon 1 (anomeric): ketone/aldehyde; Oxygen loses double bond and grabs carbon 5 Pyranose: 6 Carbons Furanose: 5 Carbons "Downright uplefting": Hydroxyls on right go down and on left go up α anomer: Axial hydroxyl on anomeric carbon ß anomer: Equatorial hydroxyl on anomeric carbon D isomer: CH2OH is up (most common in body) L isomer: CH2OH is down

Priority of functional groups

Carboxylic acid > Anhydride > Ester > Amide > Aldehyde > Ketone > Alcohol > Alkene/Alkyne > Alkane

Midbrain (mesencephalon) Function

Connects the brainstem to the cerebellum; controls sensory processes w/ inferior & superior colliculi

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Childhood stages of development (oral 0-1, anal 1-3, phallic 3-5, latency 5-12, genital 12+) where, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Bernoulli's equation

Deals with change in pressure and velocity of the fluid P(1) + .5ρv(1)^2 + ρgh(1) = P(2) + .5ρv(2)^2 + ρgh(2) P : absolute pressure of the fluid v: linear speed h: height of the fluid ρ: Density

Root Means Square Speed (u(rms)) purpose and equation

Defines average KE per gas particle u(rms)= (3RT/M)^.5

Continuity equation: Q

Describes flow of quantity Q = V1(A1) = V2(A2)n Q: volumetric flow rate A: cross sectional area of flow V:mean velocity n:# of cross sections combined (ex: one vein flows to n capillaries)

Use of Tollens or Benedict's reagents

Detects sugars that can be oxidized (reducing sugars because they are reducing agents)

electrodeposition equation and purpose (mol M)

Determines number of moles of element being deposited on plate mol M = It/nF mol M: amount of metal ion being deposited on a specific electrode I: current t: time n: number of electron equivalents for a specific metal ion F: Faraday's constant (96485 C/mol e-)

Anatomy of Bladder: Detrusor Muscle Internal Urethral Sphincter External Urethral Sphincter

Detrusor Muscle: Parasympathetic activity causes contraction Internal Urethral Sphincter: Smooth muscle that relaxes when detrusor muscle contracts (micturition reflex) External Urethral Sphincter: Skeletal muscle that causes urination when relaxed.

Basic model of emotional expression (Charles Darwin)

Emotions serve an evolutionary purpose, thus they are similar across cultures.

Enthalpy vs Entropy

Enthalpy (H) = Measure of PE of a system found in intermolecular attractions and chemical bonds. Entropy (S) = A thermodynamic quantity that is a measure of the degree of randomness/disorder in a system

epimer vs anomer

Epimer: diastereomer that differs at one carbon Anomer: Epimer who's carbon is the anomeric carbon (new chiral center formed via ring closure)

How many liters of 2M Ba(OH)2 are needed to titrate a 4L solution of 6M H3PO4?

Equivalence point equation: NaVa=NbVb Ba(OH)2 dissociates 2 hydroxides, so its normality is 2M x 2= 4N H3PO4 dissociates 3 H3O+ so its normality is equal to 6M x 3 = 18N 18N x 4L = 4N x (Vb) 18 liters are required

Role of Frontal Lobe

Executive function, impulse control, long-term planning (prefrontal), Motor function, Speech production (Broca's area)

Jacob-Mondel model of repressors/ activators (inducible vs repressible systems)

Explains workings of operons (inducible/ repressible clusters of genes transcribed by 1 mRNA) Inducible system: Bonded to repressor; can be turned on by inducer pulling repressor from operating site. (ex: lac operon) Repressible system:transcribed w/ normal conditions; can be turned off by corepressor coupling with repressor and binding this complex to operator site. (trp operon)

What does Generalizability refer to?

External validity, which is the extent which results of a scientific investigation would generalize to other settings and populations.

Archimedes Principle of Buoyancy equation: F(b)

F(buoyancy)= Density x Volume x Gravity = g X m

Coulomb's Law: Quantifies magnitude of electrostatic force (Fe) between 2 charges Equation?

Fe= k(q1)q2 / (r^2) = E x q Fe: magnitude of force felt on q k: Coulomb's constant 8.99 x 10^9 E: electric field magnitude in Newtons / Coulomb

Oocyte path after Fertilization and function of Zona Pellucida and Corona Radiata

Fertilized oocytes complete meiosis 2, becoming ovum. An egg is is ovulated into the peritoneal sac and is drawn to fallopian tube or oviduct from abdominal cavity, then to the uterus. Oocytes are surrounded by zona pellucida (glycoproteins helping to attach sperm) and corona radiata (adhere ovum during ovulation).

Mendel's First law of segregation Mendel's Second Law of independent assortment

First Law of segregation: an organism has 2 alleles for each gene which separate in meiosis resulting in gametes only carrying one allele of a trait. Second Law of independent assortment: Inheritance of one allele does not influence the probability of inheriting an allele of a different trait

Prefixes: Form- vs Acet-

Form-) Only one carbon for aldehydes and carboxylic acids Acet-) 2 Carbon units with one Carbon in a carbonyl group

GLUT 2 vs GLUT 4

GLUT 2: Glucose transporter located in liver (glucose storage) and pancreatic ß-islet cells (glucose sensor for insulin release). It has a high Km (about 15 mM) so the liver will pick up glucose and store is after a meal (first order kinetics) GLUT 4: Found in adipose tissue and is stimulated by insulin; Has a low Km so the transporter is saturated when glucose levels are high. The transporter accepts the glucose at a constant rate, so to increase intake it increases the number of GLUT 4 transporters. (2nd order kinetics)

Galvanic cell vs electrolytic cell: Are they spontaneous and what charge does the Anodes and Cathodes have?

Galvanic: House spontaneous reaction with a + emf. Anode is negatively charged and cathode is positively charged. Electrolytic cell: House nonspontaneous reaction with a -emf. Used to create useful products via electrolysis. Anode is positively charged and cathode is negatively charged.

Between HCN and H2O, which has a larger dipole moment?

HCN has a larger dipole moment because the differences in electronegativity are in a linear fashion. The bent shape of H2O causes their dipole moments to slightly cancel each other out.

Glycogenosis: Process & 2 main enzymes, their functions and what inhibits/stimulates them.

Glucose is phosphorylated into G6P and then isomerized to G1P. G1P is activated by interacting with Uridine Triphosphate (UTP) to Form UDP-Glucose and Pyrophosphate (PPi). UDP-G is the added to glycogen chain via Glycogen Synthase. 1) Glycogen Synthase (Rate Limiting Enzyme): Creates α-1,4 glycosidic links between glucose molecules. Activated by Insulin in liver and muscles. Inhibited by Epinephrine and Glucagon. 2) Branching Enzyme: Moves oligosaccharide block from chain and adds it to new branch via α-1,6 glycosidic link

Gram positive vs gram negative bacteria

Gram positive: thick cell wall composed of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid. Gram negative: Thin cell wall composed of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane containing phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides.

Sperm anatomy and spermatogenesis

Has head (genetic material covered in acrosome), midpiece (generates ATP from fructose) and flagellum (for motility) Primary spermatocyte: after S stage Secondary spermatocytes: after meiosis 1 Spermatids: After meiosis 2 Spermatozoa: After maturation

How to compare relative Thermodynamic stability of Isomers

Heat of Combustion: amount of heat produced when its combusted (less heat is more stable)

How to increase/ decrease DNA accessibility

Histone acetylation increases accessibility by decreasing positive charge of lysine residues and weakening histone-DNA interactions DNA methylation decreases accessibility by adding methyl to cytosine and adenine via DNA methylase to silence the gene

Hormones involved in hunger, thirst and satiety

Hunger: Glucagon and Ghrelin Thirst: ADH and aldosterone Satiety: Leptin and Cholecystokinin

Fermentation: When it occurs and Enzyme involved

If Oxygen or mitochondria is not present, NADH from glycolysis is oxidized by cytoplasmic Lactate Dehydrogenase (Rate Limiting Enzyme). This occurs in RBCs, Skeletal muscles (during short intense exercise) and any cell deprived of Oxygen.

alter-casting (impression management)

Imposing an identity onto another person (Ex: a GOOD friend would do this)

RNA virus replication

In Cytoplasm, These require REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE to replicate

Histone proteins (H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) Heterochromatin vs euchromatin

In eukaryotes, DNA is unwound to form nucleosome by H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. H1 stabilizes the nucleosome DNA with its associated histones make up chromatin. Heterochromatin: dense and transcriptionally silent (appears dark under microscope) Euchromatin: less dense and transcriptionally active (appears light under microscope)

Hippocampus

In temporal lobe, helps make long term memories and in retrieval of emotional memories. Contains more NMDA receptors than cortex

Alcohol Boiling point: Effects of number of hydroxyl groups and chain size

Increasing the number of hydroxyl groups increases BP. Increasing chain size also increases BP due to van der waals attraction

Active site binding; Induced fit model vs Lock and key theory

Induced Fit: enzyme and substrate undergo conformational change to interact fully Lock and Key: Enzyme and substrate are exactly complementary

Inhibitory vs Excitatory signals

Inhibitory: hyperpolarize the neuron Excitatory: depolarize the neuron

First stage of 3 for Translation: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes

Initiation: Prokaryotes has 30s ribosome attach to Shine Dalgarno sequence which scans for start codon. It lays down N-formylmethionine in ribosome's P site. Eukaryotes has 40s ribosome attach to 5' cap and scan for start codon. It lays down methionine in ribosome's P site.

Insulin: What triggers release and what are the 4 main counterregulatory hormones

Insulin releases in response to high blood sugar levels and acts to lower the levels Glucagon, Epinephrine, Cortisol and Growth Hormone are counter regulators that release in response to low blood sugar levels and act to raise blood sugar levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

Interspecific vs Intraspecific communication

Interspecific: communication between members of a different species Intraspecific: communication among same species.

DNA cloning process

Introduces DNA into vector plasmid. A restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) cuts plasmid and fragment. Fragment binds to plasmid and is introduced to bacteria to replicate

Isobaric vs adiabatic vs isothermal vs isovolumetric (isochoric)

Isobaric: Occurs at constant pressure Adiabatic: No heat is exchanged with environment Isothermal: Occurs at constant temperature Isovolumetric (isochoric): Occurs at constant volume

What must occur for a ketose sugar to act as a reducing sugar?

It must be tautomerized to undergo a keto-enol shift. This forms an aldose which can act as a reducing sugar.

Limbic system: What does it include and what is it associated with?

It's a neural system (including hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

James-Lange Theory of emotion Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion Schachter-Singer Theory of emotion

J-L) Stimuli > Arousal of NS > emotion response C-B) Stimuli > Arousal of NS & conscious emotion > Action S-S) Stimuli > Arousal of NS & cognitive appraisal > emotion response

Glycolysis: - Main 6 Enzymes - 3 irreversible steps - Products

Makes 2 ATP & 2 Pyruvate per glucose 1) Glucokinase: Uses ATP to convert glucose to G-6-P. Present in pancreatic ß-Islet cells and is responsive to insulin in liver. (Hexokinase in peripheral tissues) (1st Irreversible) 2) Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1): Uses ATP to phosphorylate fructose-1-P to F 1,6-Bisphosphate (Rate Limiting Step). Activated by AMP/ Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate. Inhibited by ATP/ Citrate. (2nd Irreversible) 3) PFK-2: Produces F2,6-BP which activates PFK-1. Activated by Insulin. Inhibited by Glucagon. 4) Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate dehydrogenase: produces NADH (for ETC) 5) 3-Phosphoglycerate kinase & pyruvate kinase (3rd Irreversible): Performs substrate level phosphorylation by adding Pi to ADP making ATP

Inclusive fitness

Measure of offspring #, how one supports offspring and how the offspring supports others. Promotes altruism (helping at the expense of self)

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Minimum number of calories required for basic functions at rest

Molarity (M) vs. molality (m)

Molarity= moles of solute/liters of solution molality= moles of solute/ kg of solvent

Stages of blastulation

Morula (solic mass of cells) undergoes blastulation to form blastula (hollow ball of cells with fluid filled cavity called blastocoel). Blastocyst (mammalian blastula) has trophoblast (surrounds blastocoel and gives rise to chorion and later the placenta) and the inner cell mass (gives rise to organism). Trophoblastic cells give rise to chorionic villi which penetrate the endometrium. These become placenta, but until its functional the embryo is supported by the yolk sac.

Moving up and to the right of periodic table: 1) Atomic radius? 2)Ionization energy? 3)Electron affinity? 4)Electronegativity?

Moving up and to the right: 1) Atomic radius: Decreases 2)Ionization energy: Increases 3)Electron affinity: Increases 4)Electronegativity: Increases

How sarcomeres relate to Myofibrils, Myocytes, Sarcolemma and T-Tubules

Myofibrils (sarcomeres attached end-to-end) are surrounded by Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (Modified ER containing calcium) and a the cell membrane of myocyte is sarcolemma. Each Myocyte contains many myofibrils. A system of T-Tubules connects to sarcolemma and is perpendicular to myofibrils, allowing the AP to reach all parts of muscle.

If Radioactive AA is added after protein synthesis began, where would it be located?

N-terminus forms first. Then some AA were added so its probably located at only one end of the molecule

Nerve vs. Tract

Nerve (PNS): May carry many types of info (sensory, motor or both). Neurons of the same type within a nerve cluster to form ganglia. Tract (CNS): Only carry one type of info. Individual neurons within a tract cluster together to form a nuclei.

Arousal theory of motivation

People perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal

Neurulation (ectoderm)

Notochord (rod of mesodermal cells) forms and induces ectodermal cells to slide inward forming neural folds which surround a neural groove. These folds grow toward one another until they fuse into the neural tube (becomes CNS) and the tips of these folds are neural crest cells (becomes PNS)

Nucleosides vs Nucleotides

Nucleosides: 5-C rings (pentose) with a Nitrogen base and sugar, but no phosphate. Nucleotides: Consists of a Nitrogen base, a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and one to three phosphate groups.

Socioeconomic status (SES) determining factors

Occupation, Income, Education

Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) (AKA Hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt) Where it occurs, Products, Main enzyme used and how its stimulated/inhibited

Occurs in Cells Cytoplasm to produce NADPH and serve as a source of Ribose 5-Phosphate for nucleotide synthesis. 1) G6P dehydrogenase (G6PD) (Rate Limiting Enzyme): Adds NADP+ to G6P, forming NADPH and 6-Phosphogluconate. Another NADP+ is added and this forms CO2, NADPH and Ribulose 5-P. This is isomerized to Ribose 5-P. Stimulated by Insulin. It is inhibited by NADPH (Its Product)

Coordinate covalent bond

Occurs when a single atom provides both the electrons in a covalent bond; Most common in Lewis acid-base chemistry where H+ is Lewis acid

Process of releasing neurotransmitters once AP reaches nerve terminal

Once AP reaches nerve terminal, Volt-gate calcium channels open. The influx of calcium causes exocytosis of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. These bind to receptors on postsynaptic cell, which can be ligand gated ion channels or G protein-coupled receptors. The neurotransmitter can then be broken down, reabsorbed via reuptake channels, or just diffuse out of cleft.

Polarity of DNA

One end 5' has phosphate (parital +) while the 3' has -OH (partial -) 5' to 3': DNA synthesis, DNA repair, RNA transcription and RNA translation (reading codons) 3' to 5': Only reading done via DNA polymerase

Ortho, meta and para positions on benzene ring

Ortho: 2 adjacent carbons Meta: Separated by one carbon Para: Opposite sides of ring

Ought self vs. Tactical self

Ought) The way others think we should be. Tactical) The self we present to others when we adhere to their expectations

Inner vs Outer mitochondrial membrane

Outer: highly permeable to metabolic molecules and small proteins Inner: Surrounds matrix (where Krebs cycle produces electrons for ETC) and contains infoldings called cristae

Citric Acid Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix): Oxidizes Carbon in intermediates to 2 CO2, Generating 3 NADH, FADH2 and GTP 8 main Enzymes? 1) Citrate Synthase (CS) 2) Aconitase (A) 3) Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (IDH) 4) α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex (AKDHC) 5) Succinyl-CoA synthetase (SS) 6) Succinate Dehydrogenase (SDH) 7) Fumarase (F) 8) Malate Dehydrogenase (MDH)

Oxidizes Carbons in intermediates to CO2, Generating NADH, FADH2 and GTP 1) CS: Adds Acetyl CoA to Oxaloacetate, then hydrolyzes it forming citrate and CoA-SH. Negative feedback w/ ATP, NADH, Citrate and Succinyl-CoA 2) Aconitase: Isomerizes Citrate to Isocitrate 3) IDH (Rate Limit Enzyme): Oxidizes/ decarboxylates isocitrate, forming CO2, NADH and α-Ketoglutarate. Stimulated by ADP and Ca2+. Inhibited by ATP and NADH. 4) AKDHC: Metabolizes α-K to Succinyl-CoA, CO2 and NADH. Stimulated by ADP and Ca2+. Inhibited by ATP, NADH and Succinyl-CoA. 5) SS: Hydrolyzes Succinyl-CoA's thioester link, forming Succinate, GTP and CoA-SH. 6) SDH: Oxidizes Succinate to Fumarate 7) F: Hydrolyzes Fumarate into Malate 8) MDH: Oxidizes Malate to Oxaloacetate and NADH

Bernoulli's Equation

P1 + .5(density)(v1^2) +(density)g(h1) = P2 + .5(density)(v2^2) + (Density)g(h2)

Only reactant capable of converting primary alcohol to an aldehyde

PCC; CrO3 and dichromate salts will take it to carboxylic acid

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDHC): - Function and what stimulates/ inhibits it - Where does Product go - 5 main enzymes and their cofactors PYT

PDHC: Stimulated by Insulin, inhibited by NADH & Acetyl CoA. Converts Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA which goes to Krebs Cycle if ATP is needed. If ATP isnt needed, it undergoes F.A. Synth (cytoplasm) 1) PDH: Oxidizes Pyruvate, producing CO2; Requires Vitamin B12 (TPP) and Mg2+ 2) Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase: oxidizes remaining 2-C molecule via lipoic acid and transfers Acetyl group to CoA, forming Acetyl CoA 3) Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase: Uses FAD to reoxidize lipoic acid, making FADH2 (can transfer electrons to NAD+, making NADH for ETC 4) Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase: phosphorylates PDH when ATP/Acetyl CoA levels are high, turning it off. 5) Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Phosphatase: Dephosphorylates PHD with high ADP levels, turning it on.

Paramagnetic vs Diamagnetic vs Ferromagnetic

Paramagnetic: Contains at least one unpaired electron who's spin is parallel with a magnetic field, causing attraction Diamagnetic: Contains no unpaired electrons causing them to be slightly repelled by a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic: Exhibits parallel alignment of moments resulting in large net magnetization even w/o an active magnetic field

Penetrance vs. expressivity for genes

Penetrance: proportion of population with a given genotype who express the phenotype Expressivity: varying phenotypic manifestations of given genotype

Peptidyl transferase vs initiation/elongation factors

Peptidyl transferase: catalyzes formation of peptide bond between A.A. in A and P sites using GTP for energy source Initiation factor: transport charged tRNA into ribosome Elongation factor: Advances ribosome down mRNA transcript

Conversion disorder

Person experiences very real & specific physical symptoms with no physiological basis (EX: woman goes blind shortly after watching her son die)

Positive sense vs negative sense single strand RNA

Positive: Can be translated by host cell Negative: Requires complementary strand to be synthesized by RNA replicase before translation

Gabriel Synthesis (Forming AA's from Potassium Phthalimide and Diethyl Bromomalonate): - What are Steps?

Potassium Phthalimide and Diethyl Bromomalonate undergo SN2 rxn, then they're reacted w/ a base to form Deprotonated phthalimidomalonic ester. The R group is added by alkyl halide (R-Br) via SN2 rxn. Then its Hydrolyzed into Phthalic acid (w/ 2 Carboxyl groups) and 1 carboxyl group is removed via decarboxylation to form L- & D- AAs (Racemic Mixture)

Effects of Amygdala and Prefrontal cortex on aggression

Prefrontal cortex can put the brakes on the amygdala, so high aggression is linked to active amygdala with inactive prefrontal cortex.

Neurotransmitter released by Preganglionic/ postganglionic neurons in sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Preganglionic in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic releases Acetylcholine Postganglionic in Parasympathetic releases Acetylcholine Postganglionic in Sympathetic releases norepinephrine

Absolute (hydrostatic) Pressure (P)

Pressure created by the weight of liquid above measurement point P= P(i) + (Density)gz z: depth P(i): surface pressure

Protein structure: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

Primary: Linear amino acid sequence (stabilized by peptide bonds) Secondary: Local structure of Amino acids, Stabilized by H bonds (α-helix/ß-sheet) Tertiary: 3-D shape of polypeptide. Stabilized by hydrophobic effects and disulfide bonds Quaternary: interactions of separate polypeptides

Primary vs secondary socialization

Primary: before age 5; family influence Secondary: late childhood and adolescence. non-family members, peers, teachers.

Prions vs Viroids

Prions: infectious proteins that trigger misfolding by converting α helix to ß pleated. This decreases proteins solubility and increases resistance to degrading. Viroids: Plant pathogens with small circle of complementary RNA that can turn off genes.

Edman Degradation

Process for determining the AA sequence in a protein where the amino-terminal residue is labeled and cleaved from the peptide w/o disrupting the bonds between other AA's.

Calorimetry definition and equation (phase change vs no phase change)

Process of measuring heat transfer (no phase change) q= mc(Δt) c: specific heat (amount of energy to raise 1g by 1K/1C) (during phase change) q= m x l l: latent heat (cal/g)

Parathyroid glands (4 pea sized structures on Thyroids posterior surface)

Produces PTH (Parathyroid hormone) which raises blood calcium levels by decreasing excretion in kidneys, increasing bone resorption and activating Vit D to help absorb more calcium and phosphate in the gut.

Alzheimer's disease: causes and symptoms

Progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by ß-amyloid (misfolded protein in ß pleated sheet), reduced [Acetylcholine] and enlarged cerebral ventricles.

DNA polymerase

Prokaryotes: DNAP 1: Removes RNA primer and adds DNA nucleotides where RNA primer was located DNAP 3: synthesize daughter strand in 5' to 3' Eukaryotes: DNAP δ: fills gap after primer is removed by RNase H DNAP α, δ & ε: synthesize leading and lagging strands DNAP γ: Replicates mitochondrial DNA DNAP β & ε: help process of DNA repair DNAP δ & ε: forms trimer with PCNA protein to make sliding clamp. This strengthens DNAP interaction with template strand.

Increasing gene variability: Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic: Polycistronic genes (starts transcription in different sites to make different product) Eukaryotic: Alternative splicing (combines different exons to acquire new gene product)

Conjugated proteins definition and function

Protein with a lipid or carbohydrate tag added. These direct proteins to cell membrane/organelle and provide activity of protein.

Purines vs. Pyrimidines

Purines (A & G) pair with pyrimidines (T C & U) A binds to T via 2 h bonds G binds with C via three H bonds

Poiseuille's Law rate of laminar flow equation

Q= pi(r^4)(ΔP) / (8nL) (Q: flow rate)(n: viscosity)(L: length)

Poiseuille's Law rate of laminar flow equation: Q

Q= π(r^4)(ΔP)/(8nL) Q: flow rate n: viscosity L: length

RNAP 1, 2 & 3 function

RNAP 1: Synthesizes rRNA in nucleolus RNAP 2: Binds to TATA box within the promoter region (25 base pairs away from first transcribed base). Also synthesizes hnRNA (preprocessed mRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA) RNAP 3: synthesizes rRNA and some tRNA in nucleus

1) Zero order reaction 2) First order reaction 3) Second order reaction 4) Broken order reaction

Rate is related to the concentration of reactants in the rate determining step (not overall reaction) 1) Zero: rate of product formation is independent of reactant concentration. k is M/s 2) First: Rate is connected to concentration of one reactant. Rate= k x [A] (in s^-1) and plotting ln[A] vs time gives straight line 3) Second: Rate connected to concentration of 2 reactants or one reactant squared. Rate= k x [A][B] or k x [A]^2 (in M^-1 s^-1) and plotting 1/[A] vs time gives straight line 4) Broken: involve non-integer orders Rate= k1[C][A]^2/(K2+K3[A]) (C is catalyst)

Polarization of membrane with action potential

Resting membrane potential: -70 mV Peak AP: +35 mv; once reached the sodium channels are inactivated and potassium channels open. This causes potassium to flow out and repolarize the cell. This causes hyperpolarization as it overshoots the AP and then the potassium channel closes and Na+/K+ ATPase restores resting potential

Optical Pathway

Retina > Optic Nerve > Optic Chiasm > Optic Tracts > Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) of Thalamus > Visual Radiations > Visual Cortex

If K(eq) is .1 for forward rxn, what is it for reverse?

Reverse = 1/K = 1/.1 = 10

Path of blood through the body

Right atrium> tricuspid valve> right ventricle> Pulmonary valve> Pulmonary veins> left atrium> Bicuspid (mitral) valve> left ventricle> aorta> arteries> arterioles> capillaries> venules> veins> vena cava> Right atrium LAB RAT: Left Atrium Bicuspid, Right Atrium Tricuspid

Role and anatomy of Large intestine: Cecum Colon Rectum Gut bacteria

Role: absorb H2O/salts and forms semi solid feces -Cecum: outpocketing that accepts fluid from small intestine via ileocecal valve and is the site of attachment of appendix -Colon: Divided into ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid portions. Absorbs water and salts left from small intestine -Rectum: stores feces, excretes via anus -Has gut bacteria that produces Vit K & B7 (biotin)

Role of Jejunum and Ileum in digestion (second and third parts of small intestine)

Role: absorption Lined with villi covered in microvilli to max surface area. Villi contain capillary bed and a lacteal (vessel for lymphatic system). Water soluble compounds (monosaccharides, A.A.'s, small fatty acids) enter capillary bed while lipid soluble compounds (fats, cholesterol) enter lacteal.

rough vs. smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough: Ribosomes are found on its surface; permits translation of proteins destined for secretion. Smooth: Used for lipid synthesis and detoxification

R(series) and V(series) and C(series) R(parallel) and V(parallel) and C(series)

Rs= R1+R2+R3... Vs= V1+V2+V3... 1/Cs= 1/C1 = 1/C2 = 1/C3... Rp= 1/R1 = 1/R2 = 1/R3... Vp= V1=V2=V3.... Cp= C1 + C2 + C3....

Electrical conduction of the heart

SA node (wall of right atrium) is where impulse initiation occurs and it causes simultaneous contraction of both atria (Diastole) AV Node (Junction of ventricles and Atria) is next and it delays the signals continuation to let ventricles fill with blood. The signal then travels down the bundle of His and branches to the Purkinje fibers which causes ventricle contraction (Systole) The vagus nerve provides parasympathetic signals to slow down the heart

SN1 vs SN2 Reactions: - How many steps? - Does it prefer less or more substituted carbon? - What does the rate depend on?

SN1: 2 Step reactions. First step has LG leave, forming carbocation. The second step has a nucleophilic attack from either side (racemic mixture). This reaction prefers more substituted carbon. Rate = k[Substrate] SN2: 1 Step Reaction. The Nucleophile attacks from the opposite side of the leaving group, causing an inversion of stereochemistry. This rxn prefers less substituted carbon. Rate = k[Nuc][Substrate]

Transcription factors

Search for promoter and enhancer DNA regions Promoters: within 25 base pairs of transcription start site Enhancers: more than 25 base pairs away from transcription start site; Enhance RNAP activity at a single promoter site

Determining E and Z configuration

Select the 2 highest priority groups Z: "zame side" E: "epposite side"

What allows for sequencing without total degradation of the protein?

Selectivity: selective cleavage of proteins by digestive enzymes allows fragments of different lengths with known Amino Acid endpoints to be made.

Role of the Thalumus

Sensory impulses travels from the body surface towards the thalamus, which receives a sensation. This sensation is passed to the cerebral cortex for interpretation as touch, pain or temperature.

3 types of Nucleotide mutations

Silent: no effect on protein synthesis Nonsense (truncation): produce premature stop codon Missnese: Produces codon that codes for a different amino acid.

Role of Temporal Lobe

Sound processing, Speech Perception (Wernicke's area), memory and emotion (limbic system)

Spirometry: Total lung capacity (TLC)? Residual Volume (RV)? Vital Capacity (VC)? Tidal Volume (TV)? Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)? Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)?

Spirometry:Measure lung capacity/volume -Total lung capacity (TLC): Max volume in lungs when one fully inhales -Residual Volume (RV): Volume remaining after full exhale -Vital Capacity (VC): TLC- RV -Tidal Volume (TV): volume of air inhaled/exhaled in a normal breath -Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): Volume of air that can be exhaled after normal exhale -Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): Volume of air that can be inhaled after normal inhale

Demographic Transition Model (4 stages)

Stage 1) preindustrial society: high birth and mortality rate Stage 2) Death rate lowered by improved nutrition, sanitation, wages and healthcare. Stage 3) Birth rate decreases by improving women's rights, contraception, and increased support required per child for schooling. Stage 4) Industrialized society: Low birth and mortality rates.

Standard conditions vs Standard temp and pressure

Standard conditions: For Kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics; shows most stable physical state of a compound. 25C (298K), 1 atm, 1M (1 mol/L) STP: For ideal gas calc. only 0C (273K), 1 atm, 1 mole= 22.4 Liters

Start Codon? Stop codons?

Start: AUG Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA

Raoult's Law of partial pressure: Purpose, Equation and what causes deviation?

States the partial pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids equals the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. P(A)=X(A)P°(A) P(A): Solvent A vapor pressure X(A): mole fraction P°(A): Vapor pressure of pure Solvent A Deviation from this is caused by weak solvent solute interaction (ex: water and oil)

Why are aldehydes more reactive than ketones?

Steric hindrance of the 2 alkyl groups of ketones vs the 1 alkyl group of aldehydes.

Strong acids relation to pH, pKa and Ka pKa value association with acid/base strength

Strong acids have low pH & pKa with high Ka pKa < 3 is for a strong acid 3 < pKa < 7 is for a weak acid 7 < pKa < 11 is for a weak base 11 < pKa is for a strong base

Basal ganglia

Structures in the forebrain that help to control movement smoothness

Adrenal Cortex (above kidneys) secretes what 3 classes of corticosteroids? (Sugar, Salt, Sex)

Sugar, Salt, Sex 1) Glucocorticoids (Cortisol/ Cortisone) increase blood glucose concentration, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit immune system and participate in stress response (stimulated by ACTH) 2) Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone): promote sodium (and thus water) reabsorption and increases potassium/ hydrogen ion excretion 3) Cortical Sex Hormones: androgens and estrogens

Locus of control over outcomes

The degree to which people believe they have control over the outcome of events in their lives, as opposed to external forces beyond their control

Whats the difference between nonpolar, polar and ionic bonds?

The difference in elements electronegativity... 0-.5: Nonpolar .5- 1.7: Polar 1.7+: Ionic

What is required of an atom involved in coordination of calcium ions?

The must be a lewis base (Ex: Oxygen)

Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

The net positive charge experienced by electrons in the valence shell. Increases from left to right (no significant change from top to bottom)

Why is Sn1 a first order reaction?

The rate-limiting step only involves one molecule, making it first order

What makes a good leaving group?

They are usually weak bases and must be stable once they leave. The weaker the base, the better the leaving group

Aligning Actions (Impression Management)

The use of excuses to account for questionable behavior

Role of Parietal lobe

Touch, Temp, Pressure, Pain, spatial processing, orientation and manipulation

Psychoticism

Traits such as aggressiveness, manipulation, tough-mindedness, risk taking, irresponsibility, and impulsivity versus ones opposites.

What type of element will likley form a complex ion with H2O?

Transition Metals can form hydration complexes with water because of their various oxidation states (Fe2+ or Fe3+)

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): 1) Central Route Processing: 2) Peripheral Route Processing:

Two different routes to persuasion: 1) CRP (high elaboration): Analyzes content of persuasive info. 2) PRP (low elaboration): Focuses on superficial detail of persuasive info.

Internalization

Type of conformity where one changes their outward opinion to match the group.

Helicase

Unwinds DNA at an origin of replication (prokaryotes have one, eukaryotes have many) Single stranded dNA binding proteins keep strands from reannealing or degrading Causes supercoiling which can be reduced by DNA topoisomerase

Titration: What its used for and Titrant vs Titrand.

Used to determine concentration of known reactant in solution. Titrant: known concentration; added slowly to titrand Titrand: unknown concentration but known volume

Electrophoresis: function and 3 main types

Uses gel matrix to observe migration of proteins in response to electric field 1) Native page: maintains protein shape but results are hard to compare due to mass-to-charge ratio differing for each protein 2) SDS-Page: Denatures proteins and gives them a negative charge so comparison by size is more accurate, but the functional protein can't be recaptured from the gel. 3) Isoelectric focusing: separates proteins by pI; they migrate until pH=pI

Base rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Voltage equation:

V = U x q = kQ / r = kqd(cosθ) / r^2

Michaelis-Menten equation: Describes how reaction rate (v) depends on the [substrate] ([S])

V= Vmax[S] / (Km+[S]) - Km (Michaelis constant): Measure of enzymes affinity for substrate - Vmax: rate achieved at saturation and is when enzyme is working at max velocity. - When v is half of Vmax, Km = [S] - Graph is v vs [S]

Bacteriophage: function, life cycles and anatomy

Viruses that target bacteria Their tail sheath injects the genetic material into a bacterium Their tail fibers allow them to attach to host cell 2 life cycles: Lytic cycle (bacteria is termed virulent) and virions are produced until cell lyses. The Lysogenic cycle has virus integrate into host genome as provirus/ prophage

Role of Occipital lobe

Visual Processing

gram weight equivalent (ex: H3PO4 98 g/mol)

Weight (grams) that releases 1 acid/base equivalent from a compound H3PO4 has 3 protons, so do 98/3 to get gram weight equivalent of 32.7 g

Ingratiation

When an individual attempts to influence another person by becoming more likeable to their target

Stages of Gastrulation and primary germ layers

When blastula implants, it invaginates to form 3 layers. The invagination gap is called archenteron (becomes gut) and its opening is blastopore. Ectoderm: outer layer; makes epidermis, hair, nails, nose, mouth, eye lens, nervous system, inner ear and anal canal. Mesoderm: middle; Develops into circulatory, musculoskeletal and excretory systems as well as gonads, notochord and connective tissue of digestive and respiratory system. Endoderm: develops into pancreas, thyroid, bladder, urinary tracts and epithelial lining of respiratory and digestive tracts.

Equation of Critical speed: v(c)

Where the flow becomes turbulent with chaotic motion v(c)= N(R) x n/(Density x Diameter) N(R): Reynolds number

Vapor pressure ([A]) equation

[A]= K(h) x P(A) [A]: concentration of A in solution K(h): Henry's constant P(A): A's partial pressure

Equation for specific rotation [α]

[α]= (angle of rotation)/ (concentration x length (decimeters)) Clockwise rotation is positive

Equation for density at STP

density= m/v= PM/RT

The suffix -ide is used primarily __________.

for monatomic anion names

Arrhenius equation (formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates)

k = A(e)^(-Ea/(RT)) k: rate constant T : absolute temperature (in Kelvin), A: frequency of collisions in the correct orientation Ea: Activation energy R: universal gas constant (8.314 J/molK) Increasing T causes an increases k Decreasing Ea increases k

What does "4l + 2" represent

maximum number of electrons within a subshell (s= 2, p= 6, d= 10, f= 14)

Exponential decay equation (n) 1) α decay 2) Beta-negative decay 3) Beta-positive decay 4) Gamma decay 5) Electron capture

n= n(i) x e^(-t x λ) 1) α decay: Emission of α particle (helium nucleus) 2) ß-negative decay: Decay of neutron to proton with emission of electron and antineutrino 3) ß-positive decay: Decay of proton to neutron with emission of positron and neutrino 4) Gamma decay: Emission of gamma ray and stabilizes nucleus. 5) Electron capture: Absorption of electron from inner shell that combines with proton to form neutron.

Pathway of the digestive tract

oral cavity → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine (duodenum, then jejunum, then ileum) → large intestine → rectum

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation (pH, pOH, Kw & Ka)

pH = pKa + log [A-]/[HA] = -log[H+] pOH = pKb + log [B+]/[BOH] = -log[OH] Kw (water dissociation constant)= Ka x Kb = 10^-14 Ka= [H3O+][A-]/[HA] ([H3O+] and [A-] are equal is molecule dissociates into a H+ and an anion)

Determining pKa and equivalence points on pH vs volume graph

pKa: Located on the midpoint of plateau on graph Equivalence point: located on the midpoint of steep portions of graph

Rate of Diffusion/ Effusion equation

r1/r2 = (m2/m1)^.5

Interstitial cells of Leydig

secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens); located in testes

Standard free energy equation in terms of E°cell (standard electromotive force) and Keq (equilibrium constant) 1) Keq > 1 2) Keq = 1 3) Keq < 1

ΔG°= -RTln(Keq) = -nFE°cell n: # of moles of electrons exchanged (determined by looking at the balanced half reaction occurring during redox) 1) Keq > 1: Spontaneous (-E°cell) 2) Keq = 1: Equilibrium (E°cell = 0) 3) Keq < 1: Nonspontaneous (+E°cell)

osmotic pressure equation

π = iMRT π = Osmotic pressure; i = # of molecules obtained from solvation M = Molarity R = Ideal gas constant T = temperature