Study guide for mid-term exam History 1010- 01/02

Julius Caesar (100 bc -44bc) **The most powerful man in Rome. He was one of the greatest military minds in history and is credited with laying the foundation for the Roman Empire. His death signaled the end of the Roman Republic.

(100 bc -44bc) 1. a Roman politician, military general, and historian who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. 2. The fall of the Roman Republic began in 59 BC with an alliance between three powerful Roman politicians: Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. This alliance became known as the First Triumvirate. These three men essentially ruled Rome. However, when Crassus died in battle in 53 BC, Pompey turned on Caesar and the two became enemies. 3. While Caesar was away from Rome leading his army, Pompey gathered political support against Caesar. Civil war erupted when Caesar led his army across the Rubicon River and approached Rome. Eventually Caesar defeated Pompey and became the most powerful man in Rome. Caesar's enemies did not want him to end the Roman Republic and become king, so they assassinated him in 44 BC. After Caesar died, a Second Triumvirate formed between Mark Antony, Octavian (Caesar's heir), and Lepidus. The Second Triumvirate was officially recognized by the Roman government in 43 BC. Some historians consider this to be the end of the Roman Republic. 4. Significance = Julius Caesar became the most powerful man in Rome. He was one of the greatest military minds in history and is credited with laying the foundation for the Roman Empire. His death signaled the end of the Roman Republic.

Brahmins (1500 to 1000 bc) **Top level of the Indian Caste System which holds priests, Spiritual leader and Teachers and is considered upper class

(1500 to 1000 bc) 1. The category of priests, Spiritual leaders and teachers at the top of the Indian social caste (Varna) system. 2. Varna is a system that existed in the Vedic Society that divided the society into four classes Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (skilled traders, merchants), and Shudras (unskilled workers). (The "untouchables" are not considered part of the Varna system) Varna literally translates to color, but the system has nothing to do with an individual's skin color, but has everything to do with classifying individuals based on their characteristics and attributes. The Varna system was originally created to give structure to Indian society based on each individual's qualities, not based on one's birth right which is what it has developed into. 3. Significance = Your category in the Varna or caste dictated almost every aspect of your Hindu religious and social life. If you were born into the Brahmin category of the caste you could only live with people of this upper category of the castes which led to segregation of the Indian colonies, the water wells were not shared, Brahmins would not accept food or drink from the Shudras, and one could marry only within one's own caste. India's caste system is among the world's oldest forms of social separation surviving to this day. Traditionally, the system bestowed many privileges on the upper castes "Brahmans" while sanctioning repression of the lower castes by privileged groups. This caste system trapped people into fixed social orders from which it was impossible to escape and still exists in some form to this day.

Terra Cotta Army (210 bc) **A group of thousands of clay soldiers with weapons, horses and chariots built and deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty. They represent the emperor's ability to control the resources of the newly unified China. It also shows his attempt to recreate and maintain that empire in the afterlife.

(210 bc) 1. A group of thousands of clay soldiers with weapons, horses and chariots built and deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, 2. The terracotta army is located in the tomb of the first Qin Dynasty ruler Shi Huangdi. It represents the emperor's ability to control the resources of the newly unified China. It also shows his attempt to recreate and maintain that empire in the afterlife. The actual tomb of the emperor has not yet been excavated, for fear of disturbing the fabled river of mercury. 3. Significance = It represents the emperor's ability to control the resources of the newly unified China. It also shows his attempt to recreate and maintain that empire in the afterlife. Considered the "greatest tomb in the world" because its terracotta clay defenders provide insight into ancient Chinese warfare from weapons to armour or chariot mechanics to command structures.

Ashoka's column at Sarnath (250 BCE) **A pillar in the City of Sarnath topped with 4 lions. The pillars and their inscriptions represent the first physical evidence of the Buddhist faith. The inscriptions assert Ashoka's Buddhism and support his desire to spread the dharma throughout his kingdom. It is a symbol of Ashoka's rule and of the modern republic of India.

(250 BCE) 1. One of Ashoka's most important pillars was placed in the City of Sarnath. It was topped with four lions ➢ A symbol of his rule and is still the official symbol of the modern republic of India. ➢It is the site of Buddha's First Sermon where he shared the Four Noble Truths (the dharma or the law). ➢the lion is also a symbol of royalty and leadership 2. Ashoka made his teachings and policies known by inscribing them on pillars like the Column at Sarnath throughout his empire 3. These pillars also had stories of Ashoka's life 4. Significance = The pillars and their inscriptions represent the first physical evidence of the Buddhist faith. The inscriptions assert Ashoka's Buddhism and support his desire to spread the dharma throughout his kingdom. It is a symbol of Ashoka's rule and of the modern republic of India.

Linear A and Linear B (2500 to 1450 BC) **Linear A -an unknown Minoan writing style where symbols stand for syllable **Linear B- a writing style adapted by the Mycenean Greeks based on Linear A, but letters stand for sounds. It was used for private/ religious purposes. Linear B represents the oldest Greek dialect.

(2500 to 1450 BC) 1. two ancient Aegean writings similar to hieroglyphics. 2. The Linear A writing style was established by the Minoans on the Island of Crete in Greece. Linear A is made up of symbols stood for syllables not words and was written from left to right. It is an unknown language who's purpose is currently not understood 3. The Linear B writing style an adapted form of Linear A, which was borrowed from the Minoans by the Mycenaean Greeks, probably about 1600 BC. In Linear B writing each letter stood for a sound (not a syllable like linear A). Its language is the Mycenaean Greek dialect. Linear B script is attested on clay tablets and on some vases. Linear B script was used for private and religious purposes. 4. Linear A and B disappeared with the collapse of the Mycenean empire when the palaces fell to ruin and the inhabitants fled. 5. Significance = The Linear B texts are extremely important for Greek linguistics. They represent the oldest known Greek dialect. Linear B was deciphered as Greek in 1952 by Michael Ventris.

Minoans (27th century BC-15th century BC) **named Minoa after King Minos they were on the Greek Island of Crete in the Mediterranean. With their unique art and architecture, and the spread of their ideas through contact with other cultures across the Aegean, the Minoans made a significant contribution to the development of Western European civilization as it is known today.

(27th century BC- 15th century BC) 1. Discovered by British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in the early 20th century, the Minoan civilization flourished in the Middle Bronze Age on the island of Crete (Greece) located in the eastern Mediterranean. 2. The Minoan people were primarily mercantile people involved in the trade of tin as well as copper. They made these 2 metals into bronze. They also traded wine, olive oil and wool in exchange for grains and textiles. 3. They established colonies on Cyprus and other islands in the Aegean. 4. They built Labyrinth-like palace complexes, vivid frescoes depicting scenes such as bull-leaping and processions, fine gold jewelry, elegant stone vases, and pottery with vibrant decorations of marine life are all particular features of Minoan Crete. ➢ King Minos Palace (Knossos) was very important where all of the officials lived. Palace had indoor plumbing, flushable toilets ➢ Were a very wealthy society ➢ Frescoes (painted wall murals) show the Minoans at play and at work as bull jumpers ➢ Kind of writing known as linear A made up of syllables not words 5. Went through a series of devastating earthquakes 6. Attracted foreign invaders 7. Eventually Fell under foreign domination 8. Significance = With their unique art and architecture, and the spread of their ideas through contact with other cultures across the Aegean, the Minoans made a significant contribution to the development of Western European civilization as it is known today.

The Gracchi brothers (2nd century bc) **Represented the Pleabians in the Roman Government. The Gracchi Brothers were the main proponents of social reform in the Roman Republic. They worked to limit the amount of conquered land that an individual could hold, but were unsuccessful. One was killed the other committed suicide....Their deaths proved that the problems Rome faced were internal

(2nd century bc) 1. Two Roman brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi, who tried to reform Rome's social and political structure to help the lower classes. 2. They were politicians who represented the Plebeians in the Roman Government, and members of the populares, a group of progressive activists. 3. One brother was killed when he was beaten to death after and election. The other committed suicide when a decree came out allowing for the summary execution of enemies of the state. 4. Significance = The Gracchi Brothers were the main proponents of social reform in the Roman Republic. They worked to limit the amount of conquered land that an individual could hold, but were unsuccessful. Their deaths proved that the problems Rome faced were internal

The Ptolemaic Pharaohs of Egypt (304 - 30 BCE) ***??

(304 - 30 BCE) 1. A group of Pharoahs (rulers) in Egypt who controlled Egypt for three centuries. 2. They were not Egyptian but more Greek 3. Rulers = Ptolemy I, his son - Ptolemy II , Ptolemy III, Ptolemy IV, Ptolemy V, Ptolemy VI 4. Egypt was gained by Ptolemy, who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty under the name Ptolemy I. This dynasty ruled in Egypt for three centuries and it enriched the Pharaohs land with elements of the Hellenistic civilization 5. Significance = Egypt reached a new economic boom under the centralized rule of the Ptolemaic dynasty. The biggest boom experienced Alexandria, which became the capital of Egypt. The local port developed rapidly, which was situated at the intersection of overland and sea ways into Europe, Asia and Africa as well. The Ptolemaic dynasty lived according to Greek manners .

Indo-European Migrations (4 m to 2 m BC) **a group of semi-nomadic peoples who, about 1700 B.C., began to migrate from what is now southern Russia to the Indian subcontinent, Europe, and Southwest Asia. The world wouldn't be what it is today had it not been for the Indo-Europeans. They spread languages that we can all interpret throughout the world.

(4 m to 2 m BC) this was when humans migrated throughout Eurasia **a group of seminomadic peoples who, about 1700 B.C., began to migrate from what is now southern Russia to the Indian subcontinent, Europe, and Southwest Asia 1. Early humans first left East Africa about 100,000 years ago. 2. Migrating into Asia, early humans fanned out across the continent. 3. By 12,000 years ago, humans had reached North and South America. 4. Modern scholars agree that Rome's beginnings were made up of Indo-European migrants who crossed the alps and mixed with the local inhabitants. 5. Indo-Europeans make up the great majority of people's ancestors in Europe, India, the Middle East, and even peoples in North Africa.. These people came in as many as three major waves starting in 2700 BCE when Indo-Europeans began to settle in Anatolia (modern day Turkey). The Indo-Europeans went to Persia (Iran 1800-1500 BCE) and central Asia (1800-1500 BCE), India (1500-1000 BCE), Greece (1200-1000 BCE), Iran again (1200 BCE,) Egypt (1000 BCE), and France, Belgium, and Germany (600 BCE), to name just a few destinations. 6. Significance = The world wouldn't be what it is today had it not been for the Indo-Europeans. They spread languages that we can all understand throughout the world.

The Socratic method (470 BC-399 BC) **The method of teaching used by the Greek philosopher Socrates; it employs asking question after question, until students arrive at a clear understanding of the subject. It is the groundwork of philosophy

(470 BC-399 BC) 1. The method of teaching used by the Greek philosopher Socrates; it employs asking question after question, until students arrive at a clear understanding of the subject. He was trying to help his students dissect their thoughts and motives by asking questions until they arrived at their own conclusions. 2. The principle underlying the Socratic method is that students learn through the use of critical thinking, reasoning, and logic. This technique involves finding holes in their own theories and then patching them up. 3. Significance = Socrates's passion for questioning used in his "Socratic method," developed a form of logic that was expanded by his followers and continued after his death. He laid the groundwork for philosophy.

Athens (470-404 BC) **the ancient Democratic Polis (city-state) in Greece

(470-404 BC) 1. Most important city state in Greece which started out as a small Mycenaen community 2. Athens was the basic opposite of Sparta. Population growth and economic development caused political and social strain so Athens created a democratic government that had no representation for women, slaves or foreigners, only free males. The rich controlled the government. 3. Under Pericles, Athens became a sophisticated polis that encouraged art, literature, education and architecture over military. It was a city of great thinkers, writers and artists including: Socrates, Hippocrates Aristotle and Plato 4. Athens had a Democratic government 5. Athens had no representation for slaves or women 6. Athens was the location of a battle between rich and the poor which came to a compromise by Solon, an aristocrat, in 6th century bce 7. Significance = Athens grew to become a city that, at its height, epitomized the best of Greek virtues. Athens still conjures to the mind words and images of the classical world and the heights of intellectual, artistic and poetic creativity of ancient Greece.

Tribunes (494 bc to 23 bc) Men appointed by Plebians in the Roman Republic to represent their interests in government.

(494 bc to 23 bc) 1. Men who were appointed to represent the Plebians in the Roman Republic. The Patricians gave the Plebians the right to elect Tribunes who represented their interests in the government in Rome. 2. Tribunes ran The Plebian Council which passed many new laws 2. Tribunes wielded great political power as they effectively ran the popular assembly of Rome, proposing bills to vote on.. 3. Significance = Tribunes were important because they protected the general citizens from oppression and abuse. From the mid-2nd century BCE, tribunes had power to sway legislation in Rome.

The Analects (500 bc) **A book containing a record of the words and acts of the central Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius and his disciples

(500 bc) 1. a record of the words and acts of the central Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius and his disciples 2. It is an anthology of brief passages that present the words of Confucius and his disciples, describe Confucius as a man, and recount some of the events of his life. The Analects includes twenty books, each generally featuring a series of chapters that encompass quotes from Confucius, which were compiled by his disciples after his death. 3. Confuscious's teachings that were preserved in the Analects ■ creating ethical models of family ■ creating ethical models of public interaction ■ setting educational standards 4. Significance = One of the most influential books of all time, The Analects of Confucius collects the sayings and wisdom of the Chinese philosopher and his followers. These teachings present a moral code that values virtue above all, and make up the core values of the Confucian tradition.

Romulus and Remus (753 BC) ** Traditional story of the founding of Ancient Rome

(753 BC) = date of the founding of Rome 1. Traditional story of how Rome began. Twins (Romulus & Remus) were abandoned and rescued by a she-wolf who fed and nursed them to health. 2. When Romulus and Remus became adults, they decided to found a city where the wolf had found them. The brothers quarreled over where the site should be and Remus was killed by his brother. This left Romulus the sole founder of the new city and he gave his name to it - Rome. 2. In 753 Romulus founded the city of Rome and established himself as the first king. 3. Significance = Romulus is given credit for founding Ancient Rome - so legend has it. Rome is named after Romulus. Children in Roman schools were taught this story and it became almost set in stone.

Roman Forum (753BC - 500BC to today) **The Roman Forum was the main center of a Roman city. Usually located near the physical center of a Roman town, it served as a public area in which commercial, religious, economic, political, legal, and social activities occurred.

(753BC - 500BC to today) 1. a political and civic center built by the Romans with temples, and public buildings where leading citizens took care of government business. 2. a site located at the center of the ancient city of Rome which was the location of important religious, political and social activities. 3. Historians believe people first began publicly meeting in the open-air Forum around 500 B.C., when the Roman Republic was founded. 4. Significance = The Roman Forum was the main center of a Roman city. Usually located near the physical center of a Roman town, it served as a public area in which commercial, religious, economic, political, legal, and social activities occurred. The Roman Forum was the most grand. It is like the Greek Agora in concept and even design somewhat.

Olympic game (776 BCE to 393 CE) **originally part of the Panhellenic Games they were sporting events held every 4 years in Olympia. Most important cultural event in Greece.

(8th century B.C. to the 4th century A.D) 1. a sporting event (which was part of the Panhellenic games) and was held every four years at the sacred site of Olympia, in the western Peloponnese, in honor of Zeus, the supreme god of Greek religion. Involving participants and spectators from all over Greece and even beyond, the Games were the most important cultural event in ancient Greece. Greeks placed importance on sport and teaching men to have a healthy body and competitive spirit for their sport was a large part of Greek education. 2. The Olympic games were revived in the late 19th century and have become the world's preeminent sporting competition. 3. The ancient games held approximately 18 events over a week: foot-races of the stadium, pentathlon, boxing, chariot races, horse races, wrestling etc... 4. Significance = Involving participants and spectators from all over Greece and even beyond, the Games were the most important cultural event in ancient Greece!! So important were the Games in the ancient world that they were even used as a basis for the calendar.

Sparta (900 bc - 396 bc) ** A Military Polis or city-state in ancient Greece

(900 bc - 396 bc) 1. Sparta was one of the most important Greek Poleis (city-states) throughout the Archaic and Classical periods. It was situated in the Peloponnesus where they extended their control over their neighboring people and reduced them to the status of helots (slave) with their massive army. Their ruler was Lycurgus. Their biggest enemy was Athens. 2. Sparta was famous for its MILITARY PROWESS. ➢ Boys taken at a very young age ➢ Mothers told boys to die for sparta ➢ Helots are basically slaves which were the neighboring people that they conquered 3. Spartan economy grew in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE ➢ Large subject population ➢ Mostly farmers or Helots- concentrated on military proficiency 4. Rankings: ➢ Spartiates ■ Spartans who had full rights & underwent military training ■ Men born into the city states who were not slaves ➢ Mothakes ■ Non spartan free men raised as spartans ➢ Perioikoi ■ Free residents ➢ Helots ■ Slaves ➢ Women not included in any of these 5. There were a lot of rebellions that took place which Spartans used their resources to keep peace ➢ Rigorous military training ➢ Came up with phalanx ( Tight military formation) 6. Spartans had little family ties ➢ Warriors lived communally and ate together ➢ Were initiated by killing a helot (slave) ➢ Women were also trained in the army to help ■ Had to give birth to strong men ■ Were allowed to live with their husband later in life 7. Significance = Spartans were best and most feared fighters in Greece. The city was also in constant rivalry with the other major Greek cities like Athens, evetually defeated Athens. During the 5th century BC Sparta was very powerful. This was due to its army, which was feared by other Greeks. Sparta focused on producing good soldiers and all Spartan male citizens were part of the army. The Spartan army played an important role in the Greek victory over the Persians, in 480-479 BC.

Ashoka (c. 265-238 BCE) **Last major emperor of Mauryan Dynasty India. He integrated India creating a stable economy & government.

(c. 265-238 BCE) 1. The last major emperor (268 bc) in the Mauryan dynasty of India. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya ➢ He expanded the economy and created a stable government ➢ Built infrastructure which encouraged trade because it had access to Bactria and Persia ■ 1000 mile long highway ■ Planted banyan trees all along the road to give shade to travelers ● Also dug wells and built inns on the roads ■ Built irrigation systems to expand agriculture 2. Ashoka had a tightly organized bureaucracy, following the administrative structure put in place by Chandragupta Maurya and Kautalya. He ruled from his capital at Pataliputra. He ensured that his subordinates implemented his policies. Taxes were efficiently collected by a central treasury that paid the salaries of all the officials, accountants, clerks, soldiers and imperial employees. 3. He had a successful but bloody conquest of the Kalinga country on the east coast where he killed 100,000 Kalingans. His conscience bothered him so at that time Ashoka got rid of armed conquest and adopted a policy that he called "conquest by dharma" or "principles of right life" 4. Ashoka made his teachings and policies known by inscribing them on pillars that were placed throughout the empire.These pillars also document Ashoka's thoughts and his life events. One of the most important Pillars at Sarna. His vigorous patronage of Buddhism during his reign furthered the expansion of the Buddhist religion throughout India. 5. Significance = Under Ashoka many regions in India were well integrated into the empire. He expanded the economy, and created a stable government. He encouraged trade by building up the infrastructure. ( A 1000 mile long highway linking Pataliputra with the chief political and commercial center of N. India, Taxila), that that had access to Bactria and Persia. He also planted Banyan trees to provide shade to the travelers, and administrators, as well as dug wells and built inns on the roads. He built irrigation systems to expand agriculture. He denouced fighting and encouraged the idea of dharma (right life) which led to the spread of Buddhism in India. Ashoke felt Buddhism could unite India, which was a large and culturally diverse empire. Under Ashoka many regions in India were well integrated into the empire. He built monasteries and stupas in India.

Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 - c. 297 BCE) ** founder of Maurya dynasty in India who created the first pan-Indian empire with the help of Kautalya

(c. 321 - c. 297 BCE) 1. founder of Maurya dynasty who ruled a lot of land in India; he was impressed by Alexander the Great and drove his successors out of India and established the first empire in Indian subcontinent 2. established the first centralized government since Harappan civilization 3. He is credited with the setting up of the first (nearly) pan-Indian empire. Aided by his mentor and later minister Chanakya, Vishnugupta or Kautalya (c. 4th century BCE), he set up a vast centralized empire, details of whose functioning, society, military and economy are well preserved in Kautalya's book Arthashastra. 4. Kautalya was instrumental in taking over the kingdom of megadha and built a bureaucratic administrative system that enabled Chandragupta to implement centralized policies throughout the imperial states 5. Significance = credited with the setting up of the first (nearly) pan-Indian empire with the help of his mentor and later minister, Kautalya, he set up a vast centralized empire in India, details of whose functioning, society, military and economy are well preserved in Kautalya's Arthashastra.

Solon (c. 640 - c. 560 BCE) *Founder of Democracy in Athens

(c. 640 - c. 560 BCE) 1. He was an Athenian Artistocrat, statesman, lawmaker, and poet 2. He was a reformer during the 6th century in Athens. When population growth and economic development caused political and social strain in Athens a democratic government was created with no representation of the women, slaves or foreigners, only free male were able to participate. A battle between the classes led to the rich merchants and landowners creating efficient landholdings ( farms ) and putting the less fortunate out of business. The rich also controlled the government. This situation led to rebellion by unfortunate. The situation was stopped by Solon when he mediated between the groups and devised a solution. He established laws that eased the burden of debt on farmers and forbade enslavement for debt. ➢ Allowed wealthy to keep their land ➢ Cancelled debts and forbade slavery ➢ Set free those who were enslaved because of debt ➢ Allowed commoners to participate in the government ■ Later salaries were added so they were not independently wealthy so they would not suffer during their time serving ➢ Wanted Nothing in excess 3. Significance = he is credited with restructuring the social and political organization of Athens and thereby laying the foundations for Athenian democracy. FOUNDER of DEMOCRACY -ATHENS

Achaemenids (559-330 BCE) **People who established the first Persian dynasty (what is now Iran)

1. (559-330 BCE) 2. Came from Indo-European group (Aryan) known as the "Medes" through migration from Central Asia to Persia and inhabited the Northwestern portion of what is now Iran 3. Established a huge empire that stretched from modern day Azerbaijan to Afghanistan. 4. became Persia's (Iran's) first great dynasty 5. Founded by Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) and peaked under Darius. 6. Achemenid improvements: a) The Achaemenid roads and administrative machinery and political stability allowed them to rule a vast empire and extend their influence over a vast territory. b) They undertook vast building projects such as the construction of underground canals which enhanced agriculture and in turn- population growth c)Engaged in metallurgy d) The population maintained their various ethnic identities and became part of the larger Persian empire e) New coins were introduced 7. Achaemenids were people of an ancient Iranian dynasty whose kings founded and ruled the Achaemenian Empire 8. Alexander the Great defeated the last ruler, Darius III, and the dynasty ended 9. Significance = The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) around 550 B.C. It became one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe's Balkan Peninsula in the West to India's Indus Valley in the East. It was a global hub of culture, religion, science, art and technology for more than 200 years before it fell to the invading armies of Alexander the Great.

Caste system (1500 to 1000 bc) * System of rigid social classes in India: Brahmins, Kshatiyas. Vaishyas, Shudras - you were born into it and could not move out of it

1. 1500 to 1000 bc 2. Found in India during the Vedic Period, especially with the Hindu Religion 3. a set of rigid social classes that determined not only a person's occupation and economic potential, but also his or her position in society 4. citizens were classified according to their Varna or castes. 'Varna' defines the hereditary roots of a newborn, it indicates the color, type, order or class of people a person belongs to 5. Brahmins (priests, gurus, teachers.), Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, aristocrats.), Vaishyas (artisans and merchants such as agriculturalists, traders, etc), Shudras (peasants, serfs, laborers) and lastly but considered outside the class system are The Untouchables 6. Significance = the caste of a person in India used to define his or her occupation until death. People from the upper castes were not allowed to mingle and marry with a person from any other caste. Thereby, castes in India were exactly separating, not uniting the society which is a form of discrimination. The political and social force of the caste system has not disappeared from India completely (especially in terms of marriage). The Indian government has officially outlawed caste discrimination and made widespread reforms through the efforts of Indian nationalists like Gandhi.

The Greek Agora (6th century BC to 1st centruy BC) **Greek "open assembly place" in a city where people met to hear government announcements, muster for military campaigns or discuss politics. Later the Agora defined the open-air, often tented, marketplace of a city where merchants had their shops and where craftsmen made and sold their wares. This place of open communication led to improvements in the sciences, government (democracy), medicine & math.

1. Agora is Greek for 'open place of assembly' and, in Greece's early history was the area in the city where free-born citizens could gather to hear government announcements, muster for military campaigns or discuss politics. Later the Agora defined the open-air, often tented, marketplace of a city where merchants had their shops and where craftsmen made and sold their wares. 2. The Agora had a library which was important to Greek life and thinkers. 3. Great philosophers like Socrates met in the Agora to discuss the meaning of life. Aristotle became a student of Socrates and mentored Alexander the Great. Plato was here too. 4. Significance = The Greek Agora led to the radical improvement of all sciences as well as to the economic cultural flourishing at the time. The world today would be entirely different without this place of social gathering and communication. It led to scientific theory, beginnings of democracy, medicine and mathematics theories. It gave great thinkers a place to meet and discuss their philosophies. It was the center of the athletic, artistic, spiritual and political life of the each Greek city.

Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC) **Greek philosopher and scientist who was a student of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great. Opened a school "The Lyceum" where he taught philosophy, physics of existence, ethics/politics, and rhetoric/poetry. His works were very influential from late antiquity through to the time of the enlightenment.

1. Greek philosopher and scientist. 2. A student of Plato and the tutor of Alexander the Great 3. He was a polymath. 4. He was orphaned at the age of 10 and was sent to the academy at the age of 18. 5. He left behind approximately 200 works, of which only 31 survive. 6. He opened his own school, the Lyceum. He believed that Philosophy was a an "actual" science 7. He believed that in order to be "good" one had to be actually virtuous. The ultimate goal in life was called the "Highest Good". 8. His works are grouped into four categories: a)The organon, a set of writings that provide a logical toolkit for use in philosophical or scientific investigation. b)Treatises on animals, cosmology, the "physics", and the "metaphysics" _ an investigation of existence. c) The "Nicomachean ethics" and "Politics"- Both investigations into the nature of human flourishing on the individual, familial and societal levels. d) "Rhetoric" and "Poetics" which concentrates on the finished products, including what makes a convincing argument. 9. His thoughts: a)Live life in moderation b)Achieve the ultimate good c)The Good of the Many outweigh the Good of the few. d)A friend to all is a friend to none. e) All men by nature desire knowledge. f) Even when laws have been written down, they ought not always remain unaltered. g) Good habits formed at youth make all the difference. h) Happiness depends upon ourselves 10.Significance = Aristotle contributed, through his works, to nearly every aspect of human knowledge, from logic, to biology, to ethics and aesthetics.His works were very influential from late antiquity through to the time of the enlightenment.

On what common Chinese traditions were Confucius's principles based on? And how did they differ from Daoism?

1. Harmony is the central feature of the philosophy/religion Confucianism, which revolves almost entirely around issues related to the family, morals, and the role of the good ruler. It stresses the need for kind rulers, the importance of inner moral harmony and its direct connection with harmony in the physical world. Rulers and teachers, according to this view, are important models for society: a good government should rule by virtue and moral example rather than by punishment or force. Filial piety and ancestor worship, which are old traditional Chinese values, are also part of the key components of Confucian doctrine. Confucius believed in the perfectibility of all men and - he was against the idea that some men are born superior to others. 2. Daoism is a harsh critic of Confucianism. This philosophy/religion developed as a response to the turbulence during the Zhou states (warring state) and its aim was that through personal reflection and retrospection people could hope for an understanding of the natural principles that governed the earth. They believed that over time this approach would bring harmony to the earth. In the broadest sense, a Daoist attitude toward life can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character...that people should "go with the flow" and accept the natural order of things without trying to fight it. It focuses on spiritual growth and following a proper spiritual pathway. Daoists believed that rather than involve yourself with affairs of state or government, it is better to keep to your own doings and live simply. They believed that there should be no formal government and that people should live in harmony with the "Dao" by staying away from politics and administration. Silence is valued above words; inaction and stoicism are valued above action and outrage. Daoists believed that if all people ceased striving for glory, riches, and attainment, there would be no war, no envy, and lessened suffering. 3. Confucianism believes in setting good examples for others to follow, primarily in 5 key relationships: ruler and subject, wife and husband, older and younger sibling, friend and friend, and father and son. Daoism focuses on living harmoniously; this is where the concept of yin and yang originates. **Confucianism deals with social matters and expects people and government leaders to lead by example, while Daoism concerns itself with the search for meaning and encourages people to keep to their own doings and live simply. They believed that there should be no formal government and that people should live in harmony with the "Dao" by staying away from politics and administration.

Alexander the Great was truly a remarkable leader, having conquered most of the world by the age of 32. Discuss a few of his achievements and his important legacy .

1. He expanded the Macedonian territory taking over Thebes and Athens. In 13 years Alexander the Great amassed the largest empire in the entire ancient world — an empire that covered 3,000 miles. 2. He destroyed the mighty Persian Empire 333 BC 3. He conquered Egypt 331 BC 4. He defeated the Persians again at the Battle of Gaugamela and was simultaneously King of Macedon, Pharaoh of Egypt, and king of Persia. 5. He spread Greek culture, known as Hellenism, across his empire.• 6. Alexander's reign marked the beginning of a new era known as the Hellenistic Age because of the powerful influence that Greek culture had on other people. 7. He founded 70 cities and named 20 of them after himself. 8. In 15 years of fighting Alexander never lost a battle. 9 Alexander the Great's legacy: Alexander the Great's legacy is both far reaching and profound. Alexander destroyed the Persian Empire forever and his conquests spread Greek culture, also known as Hellenism, across his empire. Alexander's reign marked the beginning of a new era known as the Hellenistic Age because of the powerful influence that Greek culture had on other people. Without Alexander's ambition, Greek ideas and culture might well have remained confined to Greece.

Cyrus I of Pershia (600 to 580 BC or, according to others, from 652 to 600 BC.) **King of Anshan part of Persia

1. King of Anshan in Persia from c. 600 to 580 BC or, according to others, from c. 652 to 600 BC. 2. Cyrus was an early member of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was a grandson of its founder Achaemenes and son of Teispes, king of Anshan. Teispes' sons reportedly divided the kingdom among them after his death. Cyrus reigned as king of Anshan while his brother Ariaramnes was king of Parsa. 3. He was the grandfather of Cyrus the Great, also known as Cyrus II. 4. Significance = King of one section of a divided Persia known as Anshan

The Nile River (6,000 bc to today) ** It played an important role in shaping the lives and society of Ancient Egypt.

1. The river in which early kingdoms in Egypt were centered around. 2. The Nile River played an important role in shaping the lives and society of Ancient Egypt. The Nile provided the Ancient Egyptians with food, transportation, building materials, and more. 3. The Nile River is the longest river in the world. It is over 4,100 miles long! The Nile is located in northeast Africa and flows through many different African countries including Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Burundi. The Nile River flows north through Egypt and into the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. 4. The most important thing the Nile provided to the Ancient Egyptians was fertile land. Most of Egypt is desert, but along the Nile River the soil is rich and good for growing crops. The three most important crops were wheat, flax, and papyrus. 5. Around September of each year the Nile would overflow its banks and flood the surrounding area. This sounds bad at first, but it was one of the most important events in the life of the Ancient Egyptians. The flood brought rich black soil and renewed the farmlands. 6. Since most of the major cities of Ancient Egypt were built along the Nile River, the river could be used like a major highway throughout the Empire. Boats constantly traveled up and down the Nile carrying people and goods. 7. Significance = The Nile has played a vital part in the creation of Egypt. Permanent settlements gradually rose along the banks of the river beginning in 6000 BCE and this was the beginning of Egyptian civilization and culture. Egypt became the world's first recognizable nation state by c.3150 BCE. Since the Nile cut through the Sahara desert it was seen as the source of all life.

Aryans (1,000 BC) *People who spoke an archaic Indo-European language and settled in ancient Iran & India

1. immigrants who arrived at the Ganges river valley in India by the year 1000 BC 2. people who were said to speak an archaic Indo-European language and who were thought to have settled in prehistoric times in ancient Iran and the northern Indian subcontinent. 3. One long-held theory about the origins of South Asia's caste system was that Aryans from central Asia invaded South Asia and introduced the caste system in India as a means of controlling the local populations. This is a theory that Adolph Hitler bought into in his attempts to assert the "racial superiority" of so-called light-skinned people from Europe over so-called dark-skinned people from the rest of the world — and thus provide justification for genocide. 4.Significance = Aryans migrated into the Indian subcontinent, the Aryan language gained ascendancy over the local languages. Indians also gradually adopted an agricultural lifestyle which was widely established by around 1000 BCE.

Kautalya (350 BCE - 275 BCE) **Advisor to Chandragupta Maurya, helped Chandragupta Maurya unify India, wrote book Arthashastra about the uses of power & principle of government

AKA Chanakya or Vishnugupta 1. He was the advisor to Chandragupta Maurya of India and he wrote the ancient political handbook known as the Arthashastra, which offers detailed instructions on the uses of power and the principles of government in ancient India 2. Kautalya advocated spies, assassinations, when to kill family members, how to manage secret agents and when it is useful to violate treaties in the running of an empire. 3. Significance = With Kautalya's help Chandragupta Maurya was able to take over the kingdom of Megadha and build a bureaucratic administrative system that enabled Chandragupta to implement centralized policies throughout the imperial states of ancient India.

Polis or Poleis (750-479 bc) Archaic age **City-States of Greece: foundation of the governmental system and held some of the first recorded democratic governments (Athens) (examples: Sparta & Athens)

AKA City-State **the most important poleis in Greece were Sparta and Athens **the primary political unit in ancient Greece **had the first democracy **it was made up of a city and its surrounding countryside which included numerous villages (750-479 bc) Archaic age 1. a city state in ancient Greece (examples: Athens, Sparta) ➢ Were originally citadels or fortresses where people to refuge in danger ➢ Turned into urban and trade centers that ruled over surrounding regions ➢ Levied taxes on the hinterland and used the surplus takes to feed the population 2. Poleis originated from the natural divisions of the Greek country by mountains and the sea and from the original local tribal (ethnic) and cult divisions. There were several hundred poleis but most ancient Greek history is recounted in terms of the histories of Athens and Sparta. 3. Instability on the Greek peninsula and islands led to the emergence of Greek poleis or city-states. Without a powerful, centralized state, smaller governing bodies created political order. One such type of governing body was the city-state or polis. Initially, the term polis referred to a fortified area or citadel which offered protection during times of war. Because of the relative safety these structures afforded, people flocked to them and set up communities and commercial centers. 4. Over time, poleis—the plural of polis—as governments some poleis became monarchies ruled by generals or popular tyrant leaders. The poleis became urban centers whose power and influence extended to the surrounding agricultural regions, which provided resources and paid taxes to the poleis. 5. Significance = the Polis or poleis was the foundation of the governmental system and held some of the first recorded democratic governments. It was a culture built around the expansion of the human intellect - through philosophy, architecture, drama, and mathematics.

Cyrus II (the Great) of Pershia (553-530 bc) ** Founder of Persian Empire during Achaemenid Dynasty

AKA Cyrus the Great (553-530 bc) 1. Grandson of Cyrus I 2. founder of the Persian Empire during the Achaemenid Dynastytar 3. military genius who created a strong army and increased empire's territory; excellent leader 4. He conquered the Medes, Babylonians, Lydia and Bactria and united the Persian Kingdom....in 20 years he had conquered from India to Egypt 5. Became King of Persian tribes 558BC 6. By 548 he brought all of Iran under his control 7. He was a brilliant military strategist, known for his tolerance where he did not impose Persian culture or religion (Zoroastrianism) onto his conquered subjects 6. Allowed 40,000 exiled Babylonian Jews to return to Jerualem 7. killed in battle 530 B.C. and his body lies in a tomb at his palace at Pasargadae 8. Significance = Ruler of the first Persian Empire who united three important sites of early human civilization: Mesopotamia, Egypt's Nile Valley and India's Indus Valley under one government

Confucius (551-479 BCE) ** Kong Fuzi, Chinese philosopher, teacher and politician who created one of the most influential philosophies in Chinese history, Confucianism. The focus of Confucianism was to achieve harmony through self-discipline. Confucianism is one of the 3 core Chinese religions

AKA Kong Fuzi, Kong Qui or K'ung Fu-tzu (551-479 BCE) 1. A Chinese philosopher, teacher and politician who created one of the most influential philosophies in Chinese history, Confucianism. The focus of Confucianism was to achieve harmony through self-discipline. 2. Came from an aristocratic family in the state of Lu in Northern China and sought to obtain a high office at the court of Lu and when he did not he traveled through Northern China 3. teachings are preserved in the Analects which focused on creating ethical models of family and public interaction and setting educational standards 4. Responsible for the Golden Rule= ➢ DO UNTO OTHERS WHAT YOU WANT DONE UNTO YOU ➢ Family piety -loyalty ➢ Ancestor Worship ➢ Hierarchy of respect - respect of elders by children, respect of husbands by wives 5. His political beliefs = ➢ based on the concept of self discipline ➢ leaders needed to exercise self discipline in order to remain humble and treat his followers with compassion ➢ Lead by positive example 6. His philosophy of education with the "Six Arts" ■ archery ■ Calligraphy ■ Computation or math ■ Music ■ Chariot driving ■ Ritual ➢ The main object of being an educator was to teach people to live with integrity 5. Significance = He established Confucianism, one of the 3 core practices of Chinese religion that influenced government. After death Confucius became the official imperial philosopher of China and became one of the most influential teachers in Chinese history. His philosophies are still followed by many people in China today and he's influenced thinking in Japan, Korea and Vietnam.

Dharma **"Principles of Life" The moral order of the universe and a code of living that embodies the fundamental principles of law, religion, and duty that governs all reality. The principle of Dharma, moral order, led to Ashoka's policies that worked toward public welfare in India.

AKA Principles of Life 1. The moral order of the universe and a code of living that embodies the fundamental principles of law, religion, and duty that governs all reality. 2. Ashoka turned to this Buddhist principle after the Battle of Kalinga where 100,000 Kalingans were killed. 3. The Main Principles of Dharma ➢ Nonviolence ➢ Tolerance of all sects ➢ Obedience to parents ➢ Respect for Brahmans, teachers, and priests ➢ Liberality towards friends, neighbors, and people of other creeds ➢ Human treatment of servants and animals (Ashoka became a vegetarian and banned sports hunting) 4. Ashoka urged people to exert themselves to increase their inner worthiness 5. Ashoka practiced dharma actively by going on periodic tours to the more rural areas to india ➢ Helped alleviate the suffering of the peasants ➢ Ordered his high officials to do the same ➢ Appointed special "dharma ministers" ➢ Look out for special needs of the women and those who lived in outlying areas ➢ He preferred to reason with people rather than by issuing commands ➢ He built hospitals for men and animals and supplied them with medicine ➢ Advocated for less cruelty to animals 6. Significance = The principle of Dharma, moral order, led to Ashoka's policies that worked toward public welfare in India.

Daoism (221 BCE-220 CE, 6th century BC) **a Chinese religion that seeks a world of harmony. Keep to your own doings.

AKA Taoism, "The Way" or "The Path" **one of the great religions of the world (221 BCE-220 CE, 6th century BC) 1. an indigenous religious tradition that seeks a world of harmony and has shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years. In the broadest sense, a Daoist attitude toward life can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character. It focuses on spiritual growth and following a proper spiritual pathway 2. It is both opposite and complimentary to Confucianism which encourages a moral and duty-conscious, austere and purposeful character. 3. It encourages living in harmony with the Dao, by staying away from politics and administration. It recognizes no law but the Dao, or the Way. 4. believes there should be no formal government 5. Significance = Daoism is one of the three core Chinese religions that influenced government. Daoists believed that rather than involve yourself with affairs of state, it is better to keep to your own doings and live simply. Silence is valued above words; inaction and stoicism are valued above action and outrage. Daoists believed that if all people ceased striving for glory, riches, and attainment, there would be no war, no envy, and lessened suffering. Daoism influenced many elements of later Chinese philosophy, especially Chinese Buddhism.

Qui Shi Huangdi (259-210 bc) **ruled Qin Dynasty and he unified China in 221 BC and built the Great Wall

AKA Zhao Zheng (259-210 bc) = ruled Qin dynasty in China 1. Emperor of the Qin dynasty who reunited China in 221 bc creating the 1st unified Chinese Empire. With the help of espionage, extensive bribery, and the ruthlessly effective leadership of gifted generals, Zheng eliminated the remaining six rival states that constituted China at that time, and annexed the last enemy state. His final triumph was the unification of China under the supreme rule of the Qin. To herald his achievement, Zheng assumed the sacred titles of legendary rulers and proclaimed himself Shihuangdi ("First Sovereign Emperor") 2. He centralized the government in China 3. He divided China into provinces and districts. He used his officers to implement his policy and communicate his orders to the rest of the empire. 4. He built roads to facilitate travel and to move his troops extending more than 4000 miles 5. He Created the first version of the Great Wall of China 6. He was opposed by the Confucians and the Daoists and burned many books off theirs. A whole generation of Chinese people couldn't get an education because of him 7. He standardized the script/writing 8. He was the 1st emperor to implement centralized imperial rule. 8. He built the Terracotta Army 9. Significance = He unified the Chinese empire politically and culturally. He institutionalized the government and administrative structures which remained the basis of all subsequent dynasties in China. He built the Great Wall of China.

Second Triumvirate (43 BC - 33 BC) **Octavian, Mark Antony, Lepidus. These 3 came together after Caesar's death. Caesar's death & this coalition signaled the end of the Roman Republic

AKA made up of = Octavian, Mark Antony, Lepidus (43 BC - 33 BC) 1. After Caesar died, a Second Triumvirate formed between Mark Antony, Octavian (Caesar's heir), and Lepidus. 2. The Second Triumvirate was officially recognized by the Roman government in 43 BC. Some historians consider this to be the end of the Roman Republic. 3. The Second Triumvirate ruled for ten years until 33 BC. However, it began to split up when Octavian removed Lepidus from power in 36 BC. 4. Significance = This is considered the end of the Roman Republic.

Alexander the Great (356BC to 323 bc) *Fierce Warrior, King of Macedonia who took over Persia and established a large empire (3,000miles)

AKA: Alexander of Macedon (356BC to 323 bc) 1. Born in Pella in Macedonia in 356 BC. He was son of Philip of Macedon and Queen Olympias- Although according to legend, it was thought that he was the son of Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods. He was taught by Aristotle. 2. Took over as Leader of Macedonia from his father Philip II at age 20. He fought against the Greek poleis (city-states) to get to Persia. 3. Between 331 and 323 B.C.E. as ruler of Macedonia (North of Greece) he conquered and destroyed the Persian Empire from Darius III (leader of the Achaemenids), at the battle of Gaugamela dissolving the mighty empire that Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) had created. He reached the Indus Valley and founded many Greek-style cities and spread Greek culture across the Middle East. 4. Alexander burned Persepolis and took over as heir to the Achaemenid rulers 5. He ws simultaneiously King of Macedon, Pharaoh of Egypt and King of Persia. He is one of history's greatest military minds who established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen 6. a charismatic and ruthless leader, he was brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty. Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they'd follow him anywhere. In 15 year of fighting he never lost a battle. 7. Many cities founded by Alexander flourished, Alexandria being one. He died at age 32 in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylonia and was buried in an anthropoid sarcophagus filled with honey. He conquered most of the world. Alexander's empire was divided by a group of three generals: a) Ptolemy took Egypt -created Ptolomeic dynasty. b) Seleucus took the former Achaemenid empire c)Antigonis took Greece and Macedon. 8. Significance = In 13 years he amassed the largest empire in the entire ancient world. As King of Macedonia and Persia he established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen (over 3,000 miles). He destroyed the Persian empire. He founded 70 cities and named 20 of them after himself. He spread Greek culture, known as Hellenism, across the middle east and wanted to blend the Greek and Persian cultures. Alexander's reign marked the beginning of a new era known as the Hellenistic Age because of the powerful influence that Greek culture had on other people.

Herodotus (484 - 425/413 BCE) *"Father of History" in notes it said Herodutus would be on midterm or quiz & to know the 4 criteria for his version of history

AKA: Father of History (484 - 425/413 BCE) 1. a Greek writer who invented the field of study known today as `history'. He traveled widely in Egypt, Africa and Asia Minor and wrote down his observations/experiences. 2. He established 4 criteria: Language, religion, customs, ancestry ➢ 1. Language ■ Many dialects ➢ 2. Religion ■ polytheistic ➢ 3. Customs ■ Holidays ■ theater ➢ 4. Ancestry ■ Mixture of historic character with religion 3. Significance = Herodotus is considered a primary source for reliable information on the ancient world. Scholarly studies in all disciplines concerning Herodotus's work (from archaeology to ethnology and more) substantiate all of his most important observations.

Buddha (553 BC to 483 BC) **"Awakened or Enlightened One" who discovered a path to ending suffering in India: 4 Noble Truths - follow the Eightfold path. Founded Buddhism

AKA: Siddhartha Gautama, "The Awakened or Enlightened One" 1. Prince Siddharta Gautama (Buddha) was born about 553 BCE. His father was the governor of a small tribal state. Buddha was a spiritual leader and teacher whose life serves as the foundation of the Buddhist religion. 2. He lived a privileged life, with loving parents and many servants, because his father wanted him to only be happy 3. But, Siddhartha Gautama had a desire to wander and he found his world full of suffering, once he saw that painful old age, sickness, and death were all part of life in this world 4. The wise men said that Buddha would either be a ruler (which is what his dad wants him to be) or be a monk 5. He meets a monk who is calm in a world full of suffering and decides to leave his wealth, comfort, wife and son to become a monk. He eventually becomes: Buddha = "The Awakened or Enlightened One" 6. After traveling for 6 years throughout India he describes the way to end suffering in his speech "Turning the Wheel of Law". He talks about ending suffering through the 4 Noble Truths: Life is suffering- suffering is caused by selfishness - to stop suffering we must stop desiring - to end selfish desire we need to follow the Eight Fold Path. The Eight Fold Path is taking the middle way by avoiding over indulgence and severe asceticism. This middle way leads to liberation, consisting of right understanding, right aim, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. 9. Significance = founder of one of the world's major religions, Buddhism. The Buddhist religion spread rapidly throughout Southern and Easter Asia. He is said to have found a path for overcoming suffering. Buddhism inspires people to take responsibility for their own lives.

Plebeians (494 bc- 287 bc) **The lower social class of farmers, craftsmen, laborers and soldiers of the Roman Republic

AKA: the farmers, craftsmen, laborers, and soldiers of Rome (494 bc - 287 bc) 1. When Rome was established as a Republic in 509 BC 2 social classes of citizens emerged: the plebeians and patricians (elite class) 2. Plebeians were the farmers, craftsmen, laborers, and soldiers of Rome. 3. Starting around 494 BC, the plebeians began to fight against the rule of the patricians. This struggle is called the "Conflict of the Orders." 4. Over the course of around 200 years the plebeians gained more rights. They protested by going on strike. They would leave the city for a while, refuse to work, or even refuse to fight in the army. Eventually, the plebeians gained a number of rights including the right to run for office and marry patricians. The Patricians gave the plebeians the right to elect officials know as tribunes, who represent their interests in the government. 5. There became few legal differences between the plebeians and the patricians. The plebeians could be elected to the senate and even be consuls.Plebeians and patricians could also get married.Wealthy plebeians became part of the Roman nobility. Over time the Plebeians gained wealth and notoriety, but were never able to become richer than the patricians 6. Significance = In the beginning of the Roman Republic the Patricians were part of the ruling class and enjoyed greater privileges and rights than the Plebeians. Following the Conflict of the Orders, however, the distinction between Patrician and Plebeian lost importance, as the Plebeians were given the right to elect officials (known as tribunes) and (at least the wealthiest Plebians) could now aspire to political power. **Cicero the famous Roman Senator was a Plebian

What were some of Ashoka's major achievements and their significance?

Ashoka's Major Achievements : 1. Overtook the Kalinga empire in India in a bloody war 2. Kalinga's bloody battle made Ashoka convert to Buddhism 3. established a capital at the city of Pataliputra 4. established a central treasury that oversaw the efficient collection of taxes 5. communicated his policies by inscribing edicts in stone Significance of Ashoka's Achievements: 1. Many regions in india were well integrated into the empire 2. Because Kalinga battle was bloody he converted to Buddhism which made him a different ruler. His vigorous patronage of Buddhism during his reign furthered the expansion of the Buddhist religion throughout India. 3. By establishing a capital city at Pataliputra he create a stable government 4. By establishing a central treasury that oversaw tax collection he was able to improve the economy ➢ Built infrastructure (roads) which encouraged trade because it had access to Bactria and Persia ■ 1000 mile long highway ■ Planted banyan trees all along the road to give shade to travelers ● Also dug wells and built inns on the roads ■ Built irrigation systems to expand agriculture 5. By communicating his policies through stone inscription he was able to effectively unify India. He bound it further by one dharma, one language, and virtually one script called Brahmi which was used in most of his inscriptions. 6. Significance: Under Ashoka many regions in India were well integrated into the empire. He expanded the economy, and created a stable government. He encouraged trade by building up the infrastructure. ( A 1000 mile long highway linking Pataliputra with the chief political and commercial center of N. India, Taxila), that that had access to Bactria and Persia. He also planted Banyan trees to provide shade to the travelers, and administrators, as well as dug wells and built inns on the roads. He built irrigation systems to expand agriculture. He denouced fighting and encouraged the idea of dharma (right life) which led to the spread of Buddhism in India. Ashoke felt Buddhism could unite India, which was a large and culturally diverse empire. Under Ashoka many regions in India were well integrated into the empire.

Chandragupta Maurya's counselor Kautalya, wrote a famous theses, Arthashastraon how to run an empire, similar to the treatise that Machiavelli wrote for his ruler in his book The Prince in which he advocates that the aims of princes - such as glory and survival - can justify the use of immoral means to achieve those ends. What kind of advice did he, ,Kautalya give ? How was his advice similar or different to Machiavelli's?

Chandragupta Maurya's counselor Kautalya, wrote a famous book, Arthashastraon in which he advocated spying, assassinations, proper times to kill family members, the managing of secret agents, the usefulness of violating treaties and spying on ministers to further your government and empire. He is compared to Machiavelli the author of The Prince who advocates that the aims of princes - such as glory and survival - can justify the use of immoral means to achieve their survival. Although both Kautalya and Machiavelli advocate immoral means in the running of an empire, Kautalya differed from Machiavelli because he actually cared about the welfare of the subjects of his empire, where Machiavelli's princes did not. Kautalya wrote "the happiness of the subjects is the happiness of the king; their welfare is his. His own pleasure is not his good but the pleasure of his subjects is his good. ** Although both advocated the use of unscrupulous and immoral means to get ahead in one's government/empire, Kataluya showed some measure of caring when he wrote that the moral duty of the king was the happiness of his subjects/people. Machiavelli's princes did not care about their subjects/people.

What was the role of women in the Greek, Roman, and Mauryan (or Indian) societies?

GREECE 1. Women had little freedoms unless they were upper class. Upper class women were educated, but never became literary figures ■ Had to stay home ■ Some worked, not much ■ Second-class citizens ■In Sparta: women were trained in the army to help a) had to give birth to strong men b) were allowed to live with their husbands later in life ROME 1. Women were citizens with limited power. 2. They could own land, but could not vote or hold public office. 3. They had more freedom than Greek women, and did play a major role in politics MAURYAN/INDIAN Societies 1. Women of the Gupta Dynasty a) women during the rule of the Guptas had little rights b) They could not own or inherit property c) They could not participate in any major rituals. d) They were married very young, and had to perform Sati (a former practice in India whereby a widow threw herself on to her husband's funeral pyre, killing herself) upon their husband's death.

Name a few innovations and changes that the rulers of different civilizations introduced to help facilitate long-distance trade. Give examples

The Kushan Empire of ANCIENT GREECE encouraged commerce and trade and played a crucial role in the Silk Road network Ashoka, ruler of most of INDIA, encouraged trade by building up the infrastructure. ( A 1000 mile long highway) giving access to Bactria. Darius, emperor of PERSIA, promoted imperial trade and and commerce by: 1. Standardizing Coinage, weights and measures. 2. Developed sea routes. 3. Repaired a canal that had begun to be built during the time of the Egyptian delta lords that led from the Nile River to the Red Sea.for trade. 4. Built the Royal Road (1,677 miles long from Ephesus to Sardis ) that connected the empire in a unified way, and provided a quick mode of communication through the use of the Kingdom's messengers. Caravans took 90 days to travel this road, that had lodgings and inns along the way Han Wudi, who was the Martial emperor of CHINA during the Han Dynasty: 1. added more canals and roads to facilitate trade and communication. 2. Silk was the most prized Chinese product. They had a secret method for making silk. Revealing the secret of silk making was punishable by death.. The silk road started off during the time Han dynasty. The silk road stretched 4000 miles from China to the Mediterranean.•Most of the commodities traded were luxury goods- Mostly because camel caravans were expensive.•China traded graded Silk, Spices, tea, Porcelain.. India traded Ivory, textiles, Stones, and Pepper on the Silk Road. Rome traded Wool , Linen clothes, glass, and stone of the Silk Road. 3. Ironworkers made iron armor swords, and artisans made pottery, jade and bronze objects. 4. 3 new inventions •Gunpowder •A compass to help travelers know where to travel •Paper - which was cheaper than silk