sugars
Is caramelization enzymatic or non-enzymatic browning? What about Maillard reaction?
both are non-enzymatic
Examples of galactose
broken down lactose in dairy, organ meat
What can sugar do that intensive sweeteners can't do?
browning, crystallization, volume/tenderness, fermentation and preservation
What is molasses?
byproduct of sucrose from sugar cane, it has impurities and is acidic and contains some minerals (Ca, Mg, K, Fe)
Source of lactose
dairy products
What is a reducing sugar?
free carbonyl in cyclical form that will react with amino acid
Which sugar is the sweetest and most soluble?
fructose
Which sugars are the most soluble to least soluble? (between fructose, lactose, sucrose)
fructose > sucrose > lactose
How is fructose different in regards to temperature and taste?
fructose gets sweeter with cooling
What are examples of fructose?
fruit, honey, agave nectar
Source of maltose
germinating grains
Which sugars are considered reducing sugars?
glucose, galactose, fructose, maltose, lactose (simple sugars except sucrose)
How is glucose absorbed vs. fructose?
glucose: absorbed and enters blood, insulin triggers uptake by cells (including liver) fructose: all goes to the liver
Source of starch
grains, tubers
How does caramelization work?
heat sugar until molecules break apart (sucrose needs to break into fructose and glucose first) --> chemical rxns change color, flavor, aroma
What are non-crystalline candy preparation methods?
heat to much higher temps so that it's too viscous to move around, don't beat in crystals
How does taste of sugar change with heat?
higher temperature --> more sweet (i.e. ice cream is sweeter when it is melted than when it is frozen)
Which sugar has the highest melting and caramelization point? Which has the lowest?
highest: maltose lowest: fructose (glucose and sucrose is the same)
How does rate of cooling affect texture of candy?
hot syrups produce fewer and larger crystals --> coarser or grittier texture
What is impacted when you heat sugar?
hydrogen bonds --> increase sugar solubility
Why does temperature affect texture of candy?
increase temp = less water => more viscous or harder candy
What are the ways to accelerate Maillard reaction?
increase temp or pro/sugar content, remove water, add acid or base
____ is 300 times sweeter than sucrose and has a bitter aftertaste, also deemed a weak carcinogen
saccharin
____ is 300 times sweeter than sucrose and has a woody aftertaste
stevioside (Stevia)
_____ is 600 times sweeter than sucrose and has minimal aftertaste and is heat stable
sucralose
What is sucralose made of?
sucrose and chlorines
How can you use sucrose in Maillard reaction?
sucrose has to be inverted first with heat and acid
How is confectioners or powdered sugar made?
sucrose pulverized and blended with cornstarch
What does Maillard reaction involve?
sugar + protein + heat
Source of sucrose
sugar cane, sugar beets
Sweetness is determined by _______
sugar concentration
What determines viscosity?
sugar concentration and water evaporation
Why does sugar contribute to tenderness?
sugar interferes with protein coagulation and is also hygroscopic
How does sugar and fermentation work?
sugar is food for microbes --> CO2 is the byproduct (alcohol)
How does sugar and preservation work?
sugar is hygroscopic so it absorbs water and doesn't leave any for microbes (i.e. Wonder bread)
What are the sources of granulated sugar?
sugarcane or sugar beets
How does sugar compare to other reducing sugars when it browns?
sweeter, retains more moisture, browns more slowly
Functions of sugar?
sweetness, complex flavors, alters structure/texture, fermentation, preservation, balances harsh flavors, enhance food aromas
Why is sucrose not a reducing sugar?
there is no free carbonyl
Why are sugar alcohols more like sugar?
they have more OH groups
Unique non-crystalline candies
thick caramels, toffee, gummy candy, taffy
What does sugar solubility depend on?
type of sugar, temperature (higher temp = more solubility)
What is supersaturation?
when a solution temporarily contains more dissolved sugar than it would normally
What is the chemical formula for sucrose?
C12H22O11
What is the chemical formula for glucose?
C6H12O6
What is the chemical compound made from Maillard reaction?
N-Glycosylamine
What does taste receptor TRPM5 sense?
bitter, umami, sweet
How does supersaturation affect texture of candy?
a few large crystals = coarse, grainy many small crystals = smooth, creamy
How do you make a finer crumb?
add sugar --> increase time for protein coagulation so you can beat more air into batter and create a finer crumb without proteins clumping together
What does acidity in brown sugar contribute?
aids in inversion, flavor, browning, texture
_____ is 200x sweeter than sucrose and is more sweet in things that are cold.
aspartame
What is aspartame?
aspartic acid + phenylalanine
How is honey made?
bees gather nectar and secrete sucrase
What is saccharin composed of?
benzoic sulfinide
What are the two reactions involving sugars that result in browning?
caramelization and Maillard reaction
How does fat/milk proteins affect sugar crystallization?
coats crystals, increases viscosity, adds flavor, causes browning
Basic candy-making steps
concentrate sugar syrup, cool sugar syrup (beat and add interfering agents), ripen
What is the purpose of cooling for candy?
control arrangement of crystals
What is the purpose of concentrating sugar syrup?
control proportion of sugar to water, dissolve sugar crystals in water
What is high fructose corn syrup and what are the effects of how it's made?
corn syrup + enzymes --> more fructose (caramelizing at lower temps)
What are examples of glucose?
corn syrup, maple syrup
What is the source of corn syrup?
cornstarch + enzymes/acid
What are characteristics of a crystalline candy?
creamy, velvety, can cut through and still maintain its shape
What are the two general categories of candy based on?
crystal presence, size, & configuration; texture; preparation method
What are the temperatures at which crystalline and non-crystalline candies are heated?
crystalline = 112 C/234 F non-crystalline = 118 C/233 F
What does sugar contribute structurally and texturally? (6 things)
crystallization, viscosity, moisture, tenderness, crumb, volume
What forms when sugar molecules align?
crystals
Unique crystalline candies
jelly candies, marshmallows
Which sugars range from least sweet to sweetest?
lactose --> galactose --> maltose --> glucose --> sucrose --> fructose
Why are sugar substitutes better for your teeth?
less like sugar so bacteria don't eat it --> less tooth decay
Does Maillard reaction need lower or higher temperature compared to caramelization?
lower
What are the pigments that cause brown/reddish colors?
melanoidin
What are the health claims of agave?
minimal spike in blood glucose and aids in digestion because it helps with GI flora
What is candy?
mixture of sugar and water
What are simple sugars?
monosaccharides, disaccharides
How is the functionality of a sugar substitute determined?
more OH groups = more similar to natural sugar
How does sugar contribute to volume?
more heat needed --> more time for air to expand also protein coagulation interference and hygroscopic properties of sugar
How is boiling point an indicator of sugar concentration?
more sugar = higher BP because sugar decreases VP so need more heat to boil
Source of glycogen
muscle, liver
Can sugar alcohols cause browning?
no
Are intensive sweeteners a perfect replacement?
no, there are variations in sweetness onset and duration, sometimes strange flavors, usually do not provide other functions besides sweetness
How are different textures of candy achieved?
proportion of sugar and water, physical arrangement of sugar molecules
How are sugar alcohols digested in the body?
only 50-75% digestible, remainder goes to large intestine and produces gas/GI issues
Source of cellulose
plants, wood, paper, cotton
What are complex carbohydrates & examples?
polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, cellulose, gums, pectin
