SYD4800 Midterm

Chapter 3

INTRODUCTION: GENDER, CULTURE AND THE MEDIA 3.1: GENDER AND LANGUAGE -By altering the way we speak, we may convey new meaning systems -Language reflects and reinforces the cultural systems in which it is used -Alice Walker: introduced term 'womanist' (opposite of girlish) -Language is contextual -Men talk more than women, men more likely to interrupt, women more likely to be hesitant, men use more assertive language and silence to assert power, men talk more in public, women talk more in private 3.2: POPULAR CULTURE AND THE MEDIA -Popular Culture: Beliefs, practices and the object that are part of everyday traditions - Includes popular music, film, magazines, television, and various social media - Strong influence on social construction of gender - Much of pop culture deeply stereotypes by gender 3.2.1: ANALYZING THE MEDIA -Content Analysis: Research method by which researches analyze the content of documents or other artifacts - Counting and describing in detail particular images or textual parts within media form, researchers can systemize their observations of the media's content 3.2.2: THE BODY CULTURE 3.2.3: PORTRAYALS OF AGING 3.2.4: PRESENTING WOMEN'S SPORTS -Olympics: Men get 75% of coverage, women's success interpreted as luck, men's on physical ability, women's failure - ability common theme, men's - competitors' success 3.2.5: GENDER, CHILDREN AND THE MEDIA -One of the most stereotypical sources of gendered images -Children's attitudes about gender influences by amount of TV watched -Greater TV exposure related to lower self-esteem for black and white girls and black boys. Increased self-esteem for white boys 3.2.6: DIVERSE, BUT CONTROLLING, IMAGES -Controlling Images: Concept referring to the power of media ideals to direct our concepts of ourselves and others -Cultural Narratives: frameworks by which people come to understand themselves and their world 3.2.7: VIOLENCE, SEXUALIZATION AND THE MEDIA -Women shown in highly sexualized, alluring, weak poses. Men shown in hyper-masculine poses, tough not sexual vulnerability 3.2.8: THEORIZING THE MEDIA'S INFLUENCE -Media provides common basis for social interaction in society -Shapes perception of reality, even though reality depicted in media is fake -Reflection Hypothesis: Explanation of the depiction of women in the mass media that assumes the mass media reflect the values of the population - What is seen are the dominant cultural ideals -Role-Learning Theory: Explanation of media images of women and men that assumes that these images encourage role modeling by men and women observing the images - Assumes causal connection between content of media and its social effects ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITY -Reflection hypothesis and role-learning argument alert us to fit between images and reality. -Media content alone cannot explain gendered imagery that appears in media. -Organizational theories explain the gendered content of the media as resulting from the actual gender inequality within media organizations CAPITALISM AND THE MEDIA -Few companies own all and dominate media -Media sells products and values (implicitly) -Media powerful agent of social control -Depiction of women and men in media infiltrates social consciousness and embeds itself in our imagination SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION THEORY AND POSTMODERNISM -Social Construction Theory: Perspective viewing people as constructing gender through their ongoing interaction with others - Gender is a system of meanings that people enact - Gender is a fluid category, constantly changing and evolving through human interaction -Human Agency: Intentional actions that people take in adapting to and sometimes changing the conditions they face in life - Actively creating lives - When people conform to social stereotypes, may do so without internalizing belief in them -Postmodernism: Form of contemporary social theory posting that society is not an objective entity and that all knowledge is situated in specific assumptions stemming from the historical period in which they develop; a theoretical perspective that sees society as not unitary, but instead as composed of socially constituted and highly unstable images and selves - Views society as constructed through social meaning systems, emphasizing that such systems of meaning are highly fluid and changeable - Social actors are creative in constructing their identity, or in the case of gender, what it means to be a man or woman -Theoretical perspectives suggest men and women view these images with an ability to shape the meanings of what they see, without necessarily completely internalizing such cultural ideals 3.3: THE SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE -3 essential sociological points: 1. Knowledge in society is socially constructed 2. Knowledge emerges from conditions of people's lives 3. Knowledge is embedded in ideological systems -Sociology of Knowledge: The study of how what we know is shaped by society - Begins with premise that ideas emerge from particular social and historical settings and that this social structural context shapes, but doesn't determine, human consciousness and interpretations of reality - Relates ideas and consciousness to social structure and human culture 3.3.1: KARL MARX: POWER, PROFIT AND THE PRODUCTION OF IDEAS -Study of human ideas based on premise that activities and material conditions of human beings form basis for human history and ideas generated in history -Consciousness shaped by specific relationships among people within human society -Dominant ideas of any period are ideas of the ruling class -False Consciousness: Beliefs that emerge when a subordinate group accepts and internalizes the worldview of the dominant group -Dorothy Smith: in patriarchal societies, men's ideas also shaped by gender-based division of labor. Men's ideas assume a split (bifurcation) between mind and body and rational thought is accorded the highest value. Bifurcation of mind and body made possible because labor of women provides for men's physical needs, mediates social relations and allows them to ignore bodily and emotional experience as integral dimension of life 3.3.2: KARL MANNHEIM: KNOWLEDGE AND IDEOLOGY -Further developed sociology of knowledge. Relates ides to conditions under which they were produced. Task of sociology of knowledge as discovering how ideas are embedded in social experience of their producers and how ideas are formed within particular social-historical milieu -New ideas most likely generated during periods of rapid social change. -Ideology: System of beliefs that distorts reality at the same time it provides justification for the status quo - Mannheim sees ideology as serving the interests of powerful groups in society who justify their position by distorting social definitions of reality - Ideas that emerge from ideology operate as form of social control -Sexism: Beliefs that see women as inferior and the defend their traditionally subordinated place in the world - Ideology that defends unequal and unjust status of women and men in society

Chapter 5

INTRODUCTION: GENDER, WORK AND THE ECONOMY 5.1: WOMEN'S WORK - Recognize that understanding historic patterns of gender and work is important in understanding the current work pattern -Falls into 3 basic periods: 1. Family-based economy 2. Family-wage economy 3. Family-consumer economy 5.1.1: THE FAMILY-BASED ECONOMY -Family-Based Economy: Form of economic production wherein the household is the basic unit of the economy and the site for most economic production and distribution - 17th - early 18th cent. - Small farms, large plantations and haciendas - Little distinction between economic and domestic life - Women's work: weaving, cooking, etc. - Work of men and women interdependent - White women's labor dependent on class position and marital status - Blacks labored as slaves - Plantation economy represented transition between ag-based society and industrialized one - Chicana labor influenced by family-based economy ○ Strong gender division of labor, women's work in home, contributing directly to family. Transition to wage-based economy upset patterns - Native American women disrupted by US conquest of land ○ Women respected, even with division of labor 5.1.2: THE FAMILY-WAGE ECONOMY -Family-Wage Economy: Form of economic production in which production moves out of the household into a factory system, where a wage-based system is created - Result of industrialization, England mid-18th cent. France and US followed - Led to development of dual roles for women as paid laborers and unpaid housewives - Women's work in home still socially and economically necessary - Women + children earned less than men, chosen for cheap supply of labor, weakened women's earning power - Women became more financially dependent on men - Black women: domestic workers, Black men: ag and service workers - Chicanas: ag work, migrated for seasonal labor - Asian women: exclusion, Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, merchant wives, domestics, laborers or prostitutes - White immigrant women: factory jobs, low wages, hazardous conditions, domestic work - Clerical labor force, public education, female nurses 5.1.3: THE FAMILY-CONSUMER ECONOMY -Family-Consumer Economy: Form of economic production in which mass production of goods leads to increased consumerism in families and households - Extension of family-wage system, developed 20th cent. And beyond - Paid economic production outside the home - Devaluation of work done within home - Process of production invisible - Women's labor force participation steadily increasing - Work during WWII gave new legitimacy + value to work women did 5.2: WHAT COUNTS AS WORK? THE LINGERING ROLE OF IDEOLOGY - Recount how evolving ideologies defining women and work have justified their standing in the economy and workforce -Ideology: Belief system that purports to explain and justify the status quo - Ideologies evolved that defined women in ways that allegedly justified their positions in economy and work 5.2.1: THE CULT OF TRUE WOMANHOOD -Cult of True Womanhood - Popularized in 19th cent. - Glorified women's ideal place as the home, moral calling to serve family - Lady of leisure - model to emulate - Protestant ethic - stressed individualism, success + competition in workplace - also encouraged White women to submerge wills to piety, purity and submissiveness - Cult only sustained at expense of other women - Cult of domesticity intertwined with dynamics of racism 5.2.2: THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN HOUSEWORK -Today's common household practices evolved around 1920s -Early 20th cent. Children became leading figure in family -Concepts of both housewife and motherhood emphasized new standards for women's services in the home -Housework both necessary and carried ideological significance 5.2.3: WHAT IS WORK? -Child care workers and private household workers among lowest wages -Housework: unpaid and invisible -Social Structure of Work 5.3: RACE, CLASS AND GENDER STRATIFICATION - Review the intersectional theory to link race, class and gender stratification -Gender Stratification: The hierarchal distribution of economic and social resources along lines of gender - All societies, women's work sustains economy, but women's access to societal resources influenced by degree they control means + forms of social + economic production 5.3.1: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CLASS -Class: Social position of group or individuals within the system of class stratification whereby some groups and individuals within these groups have greater access to resources and power than others - Society structured in terms of class relationships - Class involves relationship between class groups and whole social systems - Class - structured system of privilege and inequality - Class indicated by who controls money, labor process and production and distribution of goods and services - Class is part of a structured system involving control, power + differential access to resources -Common indicators to measure class standing: income, education, occupation + place of residence 5.3.2: RACE MATTERS -Class insects both with gender + race in determining group standing in society -Intersectional Theory: analysis of race, class + gender 5.3.3: ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING AND THE ECONOMIC DOWNTURN -Economic Restructuring: Multidimensional process of change in the nation's economy, including the transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based economy, increasing globalization, technological change, and the increasing concentration of capital in the hands of a few - Fundamentally changed system of gender, call and racial stratification - Altering work people do, who does it, how it's done and what it's worth - Decline in US manufacturing jobs - Deleterious for women and people of color - Growth of low-income jobs - Downsizing and outsourcing -Global Assembly Line: International division of labor -Service Sector: jobs involved provision of services or processing information - Majority of workers -Contingent Workers: Temporary employees, contract workers + part-time workers - Growth of contingent workers, 1/3 of US labor force - Women more likely than men 5.4: GENDER IN THE WORKPLACE - Analyze the glass ceiling to highlight the changing status of women in the workplace -Glass Ceiling: subtle but nonetheless present obstacles on women's ability to move up at work 5.4.1: WHO IS IN THE WORK FORCE? -53% of all women, 2012 -Increasing 5.4.2: WHO WORKS WHERE? GENDER SEGREGATION -Gender Segregation: Pattern whereby women and men are located in different categories of jobs throughout the labor force - Form of Occupational Distribution: placement of workers in different occupations - Occurs within occupational categories - Internal Gender Segregation ○ Elementary teachers / university professors - The larger proportion of women in an occupation, the lower the pay - Women + people of color work in different occupations that White men WOMEN IN THE PROFESSIONS -Growth of women in professions + top jobs account for much of growth in women's income -Women still tend to be concentrated in gender-segregated occupations -Women and people of color lack connections and support White men have in professions WOMEN AS CLERICAL WORKERS -Women 75% of admin support workers WOMEN IN BLUE-COLLAR WORK -Women small percentage of skilled trades -Experience gender segregation -Majority employed in assembly work -Women almost as likely to be in union as men -Sweatshop: workplace where an employer violates more than one law regarding safety and health, workers' compensation, or industry regulation WOMEN AND SERVICE WORK -Among lowest paid of employed women -Most rapidly expanding area of work -Emotional Labor: Work people do to manage the emotions of others and that is part of one's work evaluation 5.4.3: WHAT IS THE PAY GAP? -Discrimination: Act or practice of systematically disadvantaging one or more groups - Overt or covert -Institutionalized Discrimination: occurs when there are structural patterns that result in women's exclusion from certain jobs - Harder to see HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY: Explanation of wage differentials as the result of different characteristics of workers - Assumes that in competitive economic system, wage differences reflect differences in human capital -Motherhood Wage Penalty: well-documented pattern whereby employed mothers have lower incomes than employed women with no children DUAL LABOR MARKET THEORY: Explanation of gender inequality as the result of labor market organized into 2 segments: primary and secondary markets where jobs in primary labor market are more valued and more valuable than those in the secondary labor market - Persistent patterns of discrimination - Where people work, not individual characteristics, better predictor of income - Points to Gender Segregation as major cause of wage inequality 5.4.4: HITTING THE GLASS CEILING -Glass Ceiling: Popular phrase referring to the invisible mechanism that discourages women's advancement in organizations - Built into social structure of organizations - Also: Sticky Floor -Job Ladders: some jobs more likely to be those that lead to mobility than others -Glass Escalator: Pattern whereby men in jobs traditionally predominated by women are promoted more readily than women 5.4.5: GENDER AND IMMIGRATION -Immigrant women niched in certain sectors of labor market -30% of foreign-born workers in the US work as managers and professors -Just as likely to have a degree 5.4.5: THE CLIMATE IN THE WORKPLACE -Rosabeth Moss Kanter - effects of being a token in workplace - Tokens stand out in contrast to other members of the group - Presence heightens perceived boundaries between different groups - Perceptual tendencies - visibility, contrast, assimilation - Respond by overachieving or socially invisible -Sexual Harassment: Unwanted imposition of sexual requirements in the context of a relationship of unequal power - Quid pro quo Harassment: Demand for sexual services in exchange for some benefit, such as promotion, grade, raise, etc. - Hostile Environment Harassment: More subtle, but common, form of sexual harassment - Misuse of power, deeply linked to gender attitudes -Title VII of the Civil Rights Bill of 1964: Federal law prohibiting discrimination on basis of race, color, national origin, religion or sex, in any terms, conditions or privileges of employment HOMOPHOBIA IN THE WORKPLACE DISABILITY: ENABLING WORKERS -ADA: Federal Law requiring protecting people with disabilities from discrimination and requiring employers, schools + other institutions to provide reasonable accommodations -Women with disabilities have higher rate of poverty -Pregnancy Discrimination Act: Law that prohibits employers from discrimination against women because of pregnancy - Pregnancy defined as temporary disability 5.5: POVERTY AND THE DECLINING SAFETY NET - Analyze the concept of the feminization of poverty -Poverty Line: Index developed by US Social Security Admin that defines the official rate of poverty 5.5.1: POVERTY: A WOMAN'S ISSUE -Feminization of Poverty: Trend by which a growing proportion of the poor are women and their children -Women more likely to be financially responsible for their children 5.5.2: WELFARE: IS IT WORKING? -Personal Responsibility and Work Reconciliation Act: Federal law that eliminated former welfare programs (AFDC) and placed lifetime limits on the receipt of welfare while also imposing work requirements - Lifetime limit of 5 years - Find work within 2 years (workfare) -Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF): State-based program providing limited economic support to poor families -Working Poor: Those that are employed and are nonetheless poor 5.5.3: RETIREMENT AND SOCIAL SECURITY -Older women more likely to live in poverty than other Western countries -Gap between men and women's Social Security income is 77% - same as wages -Women's disadvantage during working years spills over into retirement 5.6: WHO CARES: THE INTERSECTION OF FAMILY AND WORK - Examine how work and family are strongly linked to evolving roles and expectations -Care Work: Forms of labor (often unpaid) needed to nurture, reproduce and sustain people - Critical to maintenance of social life - Child care, housework - Reflects + reproduces connects between race, class and gender inequality 5.6.1: HOUSEWORK: CHANGING WITH THE TIMES -Housework evolved alongside transformation in gender relations that have changed over time -Less time doing housework, more time raising children 5.6.2: THE SECOND SHIRT.. AND, NOW, A THIRD: CARE WORK -Second Shift: Work women do at home, in addition to paid labor -Third Shift: time women spend providing care for immediate family members and friends and relatives -Men's employment had no effect on their involvement in care work 5.7: POLICIES FOR GENDER EQUITY - Report some of the laws that were enacted to ensure gender equality -Equal Pay Act: First federal legislation requiring equal pay for equal work -Title IX of the Educational Amendments: Federal law prohibiting sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities, part of the educational amendments of 1972 -Comparable Worth: Principle of paying women and men equivalent wages for performing jobs involving comparable levels of skill -Affirmative Action: Policy by which women and minorities are given extra consideration as a remedy against past discrimination

Chapter 4

INTRODUCTION: SEXUALITY AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS 4.1: THE SOCIAL CONSTUCTUON OF SEXUALITY - EXPRESS HOW SOCIETAL NORMS DICTATE SEXUAL PREFERENCES -Heteronormativity: Norms and institutional structures that resume and enforce heterosexuality as the only acceptable form of sexual expression and identity - Also referred to as heterosexism - Presumes people are either straight or gay -Gender and sexuality exist in dialectical relationship - each influences the other -By enforcing norms of heterosexuality, institutionalized patterns enforce binary system of gender relations 4.2: THE HISTORY OF SEXUALITY IN THE US - RECOUNT HOW SEXUALITY IS CONSTANTLY EVOLVING -Thought that over time, sexual behavior + attitudes have become less restrained and more uninhibited -Sexuality constantly reshaped through cultural, economic, familial and political relations -Meaning and practice of sexuality changed from primary association with reproduction to current association with relationships of emotional intimacy and physical pleasure -3 patterns recur in history of sexuality: 1. Political movements that attempt to change sexual ideas and practices thrive when older system undergoes rapid change and disintegration. 2. Sexual politics are tired to politics of race, class and gender. 3. Politics of sexuality linked to other social concerns, esp. social movements and moral campaigns. -Sexual regulation highly correlated with other forms of social regulation 4.3: CONTEMPORARY SEXUAL ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR - RELATE HOW THE SEXUAL REVOLUTION IS ASSOCIATED WITH SEXUAL FREEDOM -Sexual Revolution: The change to allow greater sexual freedom, incl. both behavior and attitudes 4.3.1: WOMEN AND MEN: STILL A DOUBLE STANDARD? -Changes in women's sexual behavior, but gender continues to influence sexuality -Phallocentric Thinking: assumes that women need men for sexual arousal and satisfaction - Freud -Compulsory Heterosexuality: Institutionalized practices that presume women are innately sexually oriented toward men and that support privileges associated with heterosexuality -Contemporary sexual attitudes represent some loosening of rigid judgments about sexual behavior -Ariel Levy: "Ranch Culture" - 1970s: feminist movement and sexual liberation movement fused. Each pursuing loosening former restrictions on women's sexuality and social freedoms 4.3.2: THE HOOKING UP CULTURE -Within hookup culture, there remains a sexual double standard -Hooking up associated with sexual freedom, but men still maintain power in relationship 4.3.3: EQUAL RIGHTS FOR ALL? CHANGING PUBLIC OPINION ABOUT LESBIANS AND GAYS -Women more accepting that men, whites more accepting that Blacks and Latinos 4.4: SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFE CYCLE - 4.4A: REVIEW HOW SEXUALITY IS ACTUALLY A SEXUAL CONSTRUCTION - 4.4B: REVIEW MENTRATION AND MENOPAUSE -Sexuality not fixed, biological phenomenon -Sexuality, like gender, is a social construction -Menstruation: girl becomes a women -Menopause: socially defined when women become old and asexual - Both ideas rooted in sexist assumptions that women's childbearing capacity defines sexual and gender identities 4.4.1: MENSTRUATION -Takes different meanings in various cultures: - Historical Western: disabling women - Contemporary Western: secretive and invisible - Many cultures: symbolic strength, elaborate rituals + rites of passage - Other cultures: defilement, practices to isolate menstruating women -Sociological POV: menstruation not just physical process, is laden with social and cultural meaning 4.4.2: MENOPAUSE -Experiences vary significantly across cultures: - Women in some cultures experience far fewer symptoms than women in cultures where aging of women is devalued -Problems with menopause stem just as much from social devaluation of aging women as from the physiological process of again itself -Suggests again process for women would less likely involve emotional and social difficulties were society structured more equally 4.5: RACE, SEXUALITY AND POWER - 4.5A: DEFINE SEXUAL POLITICS - 4.5B DESCRIBE SEXUAL POLITICS -Sexual Politics: Link between sexuality and power 4.5.1: RACE AND SEXUAL POLITICS -Sexuality and power linked through intersections of race, class and gender oppression -Sexual violence against women of color, controlling and exploiting African American women -Stereotypes for all other women minorities + exploits their sexuality -Men not free from stereotypical racialized sexual images 4.5.2: SEX WORK AND SEX TRAFFICKING -Sex Work: Employment within the sex industry, can incl. work done by either women or men -Can view sex work 2 ways: 1. Form of victimization and oppression of women 2. Form of commerce studied like any other form of work a. Division of labor -Sex Trafficking: Transporting (involuntary) of women and girls for purposes of commercial sex 4.6: LOVE AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS - EVALUATE HOW FRIENDSHIP, LOVE AND OTHER INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS ARE SOCIALLY STRUCTURED -Within intimate relationships, gender identity continually reproduced -Contemporary society emphasizes significance of intimate bonds even when capitalist economy compelled people to work more -Women defined as "other oriented" -Men defined as isolated and individualistic -Intimate Relationships: sexual or emotional (friendship) -Power: Individual or group ability to influence others - Institutionalized by society -Patriarchy: Institutionalized power relationships that give men power over women -Heterosexism: Institutionalized set of behaviors and beliefs that presume heterosexuality to be the only acceptable form of sexual expression -Homophobia: Fear and hatred of homosexuals - Can discourage intimacy between same-sex friends -Much of men's interaction is in homosocial settings - Interaction based on emotional detachment, competitiveness and sexual objectification of women - Social concepts of masculinity re-created and reinforced 4.6.1: INTERRACIAL RELATIONSHIPS -Class and race shape what relationships are formed 4.6.2: Friendship -Friendship among men more common when men resist narrow ideas about gender roles -Women's friendships tend to be more intimate 4.7: LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL AND TRANSGENDER EXPERIENCES - EVALUATE HOW OUR IDEAS ON LGBT EXPERIENCES ARE BASED ON SOCIALLY STRUCTURED PREMISES -Transgender: People living in a gender that is not the gender they were assigned at birth; people who deviate from the binary system of gender as either male or female -Bisexual: Term used to describe those who have sexual attraction to members of both sexes -Havelock Ellis: invented term homosexuality in 19th cent. -Early 20th cent. Terms homosexuality and heterosexuality widely publicized -Queer Theory: An argument that interprets sexuality as socially constructed through institutional practices -Sexuality fluid, historically grouped into binary system, contemporary shift to encompass multitude of sexual relations -Workplace discrimination -"Costs" more to be gay. Don't receive same benefits as homosexual married couples, costs half a million dollars over a lifetime -Face homophobia in society, greatest difficulty

Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER -Gender is a social construction -Social Construction of Gender: Different processes by which expectations associated with being male or female are passed on through society -The idea of the social construction of gender is that society, not biological sex differences, is the basis for gender and identity 2.1: BIOLOGY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY -The link between biology and human life is highly mediated by social and cultural influences 2.1.1: SEX AND GENDER: WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE -Sex: Biological identity of a person - Assignment designated at birth -Gender: Socially learned behaviors and expectations associated with men and women - Constructed through social, political, economic + cultural experiences - Creates whole system of social practices that creates categories of people (men + women) who are defined in relationship to each other on unequal terms 2.1.2: CREATING SEX: THE BIOLOGICAL PROCESS -Sex Chromosomes: Chromosomal pairs that determine the biological sex of an offspring - One of 23 pairs - X from mother and X or Y from father -Fetal Sex Differentiation: During 6th week of development, Y chromosome stimulates production of proteins that assist in development of fetal gonads 2.1.3: ASSIGNING SEX IDENTITIES -Chromosomal abnormalities result in biologically mixed or incomplete sex characteristics. Intersexed Persons: Persons born with mixed sex characteristics - Chromosomal patterns where some cells carry XX pattern and some carry XY pattern - Physical conditions where person carries physical characteristics associated with both females and males -Intersex: Term used to refer to different kinds of anatomical conditions that do not fit the usual way of identifying females and males - Sometimes do not appear until puberty, sometimes never fully apparent -Transgender: People living in a gender that is not the gender they were assigned at birth; people who deviate from the binary system of gender as either male or female 2.1.4: BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM -Biological Reductionism: Faulty argument that reduces a complex phenomenon to a singular cause -Biological Determinism: Faulty reasoning assuming that a single condition inevitably determines a given outcome - Ex. Presence of a penis determines male aggression -Hormonal Differences - Men and women both have 3 major sex hormones - estrogen, progestin + testosterone - Hormonal sex differences caused by differences in levels of production + concentration - Before puberty, few or no sex differences in quantity of hormones - No link between aggression and hormonal levels -Biologically reductionist arguments have assumption that differences between sexes are natural. 2.1.5: WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES DIFFERENCE MAKE: NATURE? NURTURE? -Sexually Dimorphic Traits: Differences appearing between males and females - Physical, social and cultural differences - Traits that occur in different frequencies among male and female populations - Color blindness: Found more in men than in women -Variability within gender is usually larger than the mean differences between genders - Found when comparing averages among populations, not individuals 2.1.6: THE DIFFERENCE CULTURE MAKES -Culture: Patterns of expectations, beliefs, values, ideas, and material objects that define the taken-for-granted way of life for a society or group - Includes norms that shape everyday life and establishes the values and beliefs of a society -Western cultures think of "men" and "women" as dichotomous categories (separate and opposite) - Other cultures have 3 genders, or even more - Berdaches - intersexed Navajo Indian men - Manly hearted women - African or American Indian women rich enough to buy wives - Hijras - Indian men born male, come to think as neither men nor women. Dress as women, may marry other men. As male adolescents, have their penises cut off in elaborate + prolonged cultural ritual. -Gender-Bending: Cross-dressers, transvestites + transsexual illustrate how fluid gender can be. 2.1.7: THE INSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF GENDER -Social Institutions: Established patterns of behavior with a particular and recognized purpose; institutions include specific participants who share expectations and act in specific roles, with rights and duties attached to them. -Gender is not just an attribute of individuals; instead, gender is systematically structured in social institutions -Gendered Institution: Total pattern of gender relations embedded in societal institutions - Concept first introduces by Joan Acker, a feminist sociologist - Used the concept to explain not just that gender expectations passed to men + women within institutions, but that the institutions themselves are structured along gendered lines -Social Roles: Culturally prescribed expectations, duties, and rights that define the relationship between a person in a particular position and the other people with whom she or he interacts -Gender Roles: Patterns of behavior in which women and men behave, based on the cultural expectations associated with their gender -Class, race + gender relations are systemically structured in social institutions 2.2: SOCIALIZATION AND GENDER IDENTITY -Gender is a social phenomenon means that is must be learned -Socialization: Process by which social roles are learned - Different behaviors + attitudes encouraged + discouraged in men and women -Gender Identity: An individual's specific definition of self, based on that person's understanding of what it means to be a man or a woman 2.2.1: SANCTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS -Peter Berger - describes socialization as something like a series of concentric circles - Center: the individual - Surrounded by different levels of influence, ranging from subtle (peer pressure) to overt social control (violence, imprisonment) - Socialization acts as a powerful system of social control -Homophobia: Fear and hatred of homosexuals -Simone de Beauvoir: One of the earliest + influential feminists when 2nd wave of the women's movement emerged in the late 1960s - The Second Sex: Book, argues women have been considered to be 'others,' subordinate to men who are constructed as full subjects, and women perceived as only incidental 2.2.2: RACE AND GENDER IDENTITY -Gender manifested differently among different groups -Gender identities intersect with racial identities -Hill and Sprague: Gender is not a monolithic influence because gender patterns in socialization are so strongly shaped by race and class as well 2.2.3: SOCIALIZATION ACROSS THE LIFE COURSE -INFANCY -Early as 18 months, toddlers learn to play with appropriate gendered toys -Mothers interact with and talk more to daughters and give instructions more to sons -Pink and blue emerged as gender markers in the 1950s -CHILDHOOD PLAY AND GAMES -Play - children learn skills of social interaction, develop cognitive + analytical abilities + are taught values + attitudes of culture -Games - significance for intellectual, moral, personal + social development and gender identity -George Herbert Mead: social psychologist + sociological theorist - 3 stages of socialization 1. Imitation stage - Infant copies behavior of significant persons in environment 2. Play stage - Child begins "taking the role of the other" - seeing themselves from perspective of another person - Cognitive process that permits child to develop self-concept 3. Game stage - Play games requiring understanding how several other people view them simultaneously - Learn to orient themselves to significant others and to "generalized others" -SCHOOL, SPORTS, AND SOCIALIZATION -Patterns of thinking become arrayed along gender lines - Gendered subjects in school -Michael Kimmel - Scholar in men's studies - Guyland - age 16 - late-20s - stuck between adolescence and adulthood - Unique stage of life - Way to express manhood in world when being a man is no longer a certain thing -Michael Messner - Gender still constructed through sport - Gender ever-present in Social Interaction of those participating in sports, the Structure of Sport Institutions, and the Symbols and Images that shape how we think about sports -ADULT SOCIALIZATION AND AGING -Different consequences of aging for men and women - Older men distinguished, older women less desirable -Aging less stressful for women in societies with: - Strong tie to family and kin, not just husband - Extended (not nuclear) family systems - Positive role for mother-in-laws - Strong mother-child relationships throughout life 2.3: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE FORMATION OF GENDER 2.3.1: IDENTIFICATION THEORY -Identification Theory: Perspective that young children feel an affinity for the parent of their same sex - Learn gender-appropriate behaviors by identifying with same-sex parent - Unconsciously model their identities on behavior of parents - Shaky empirical evidence -Object Relations Theory: Theory of psychological development that sees children as identifying with their same-sex parent but forming their own identities through detaching from the parents - Chodorow's Theory of Gender Identity anchored in Identification Theory - Modern nuclear families characterized by "asymmetrical structure of parenting" - Girls: Personality focused on attachment behaviors and orientation to others - Boys: Personality characterized by repression of emotional needs and commitments to others 2.3.2: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY -Social Learning Theory: Theory of socialization emphasizing the significance of environment in explaining the socialization process - Ongoing process of reinforcement from other people - Also modeled after same-sex parents - Gender identity not fixed or permanent except when social environment continues to reinforce it - Wider array of people (incl. images + expectations in culture) reinforce gender identity 2.3.3: COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY -Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Theory, based on work of Jean Piaget, that explains children's development of the mental categories formed through interaction with others - Children create schemata - mental categories that emerge through interactions with the social world - Used in subsequent encounters with environment, accommodating and assimilating new into existing stock -Process of social development - Child interacts with the social world through the mediation and active involvement of their cognitive abilities -Also based on work of Lawrence Kohlberg - Used Piaget's perspective to explain emergence of children's gender identities - Discover people divided into 2 sexes at early age - Use to model own behavior off of the same sex 2.3.4: SYMBOLIC INTERACTION AND "DOING GENDER" -Symbolic Interaction Theory: Theoretical perspective in sociology that interprets social behavior as stemming from the meanings people attribute to things, incl. how they act - Socialization process develops as people (young children) take on the roles of others around them -Doing Gender: Sociological perspective that sees gender as an activity accomplished through routine social interaction - Gender routinely reproduced in everyday interaction - Not an individual trait, rather, it's created through social interaction - Emphasized fluid character of gender identity -Gender Displays: Demonstrations of behavior that communicates gendered identity 2.3.5: COMPARING THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES -Identification theorists assume that imitation of same-sex persons is motivated by fear -Cognitive-Developmental theorists assume active positive motivational basis of learning -Social learning and identification theories assume more passive view of child's development -Social learning and cognitive-developmental perspectives emphasize role of culture in shaping gender identity 2.4: IS SOCIALIZATION ENOUGH? SUMMARY: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER -Although biological causes of gender differences are commonly believed, culture is more significant in shaping who we become as men and women -Gender is a social construction, meaning that gender is created through social learning and the structure of social institutions -Gender is embedded in social institutions, social institutions can also take on the characteristics associated with gender -The process of gender socialization shapes various aspects of our lives, including gender identity, attitudes, and self-concepts -Gender does not exist in isolation from other social factors; as a result, one's identity is shaped by the interactive influence of race and gender, along with other social factors -Different theoretical perspectives on the social construction of gender emphasize different dimensions to this process

Human Sexuality is Complicated... (YouTube)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXAoG8vAyzI

Chapter 1

Introduction: Studying Women -Gender: socially learned behaviors and expectations associated with men and women, creating different experiences in society -Gender relations are complex, variable + deeply entrenched in society -Gender shapes all facets of experiences (think, interact, opportunities, walk + talk) 1.1 A Focus on Women -Women earn 77% of what men earn, hold 4% of CEO position in Fortune 500 companies, 34% of families headed by women are poor, 1/4 million women raped of sexually assaulted annually, women of color are least-paid, lowest-status jobs. -Gender differences in society status + interpersonal interaction - Men more likely to hold management positions + less restricted in demeanor than women + use more personal space 1.1.1 Studying Women: Women's Studies + Feminist Scholarship -Women's Studies: Field of study that examines women's lives from a feminist perspective - Emerged in late 60s and early 70s to correct exclusion of women in most academic fields -Gender influences who we are, what we think + what opportunities are available. - Women's studies illuminates these patterns + transform thinking. It helps to see realities of women's experiences -Feminist scholars have criticized "women worthies" approach for recognizing only women who meet male standards for eminence in history -Renaissance - for women, time of increased domestication of bourgeois wives + intensified persecution of witches - From a women's perspective - period marked by increased restriction of the power of women -Psychology - Carol Gilligan (1982) work showed how theories of moral development took men's experiences as the norm + then measured the women's experiences against that - Gilligan showed how women's moral development follows different plan from that of men - Women are more contextual in judgement, men more likely to make judgements of competing rights + abstract principles -Since inception, women's studies has developed more inclusive view of women, diversity of experiences (race, sexual orientation, nationality, age, social class) - Women are a definable social category, but differentiated b/c of their location in multiple social statues -Women's studies scholarship - objective to see all groups in relationship to one another + to include multiple human groups in concepts, theories + content of human knowledge -Inclusive thinking - women's + men's experiences are seen in relationship to the other and i/w multiple human groups are included in concepts, theories + content of human knowledge 1.1.2 Feminism: What's in a Label? -Feminism + women's studies emerged together as women sought to understand experiences + create framework to guide social change -Feminism based on philosophy of change - Can build equal society of we consciously understand + seek to transform social behaviors + institutions t/ are the basis of women's experiences -Feminism: Belief + action supporting social justice for women 1. Feminism begins w/ premise t/ women's + men's positions in society are result of social, not natural or biological, factors. 2. B/c there are structured inequalities b/t women + men, feminists believe in transforming society on behalf of women 3. Believe women's experiences, concerns + ideas are as valuable as those of men + should be treated w/ equal respect -Feminist stigma reflects deep + continuing devaluation of women throughout US society 1.2 Connecting the Personal and the Political -Adrienne Rich (1976) - classic feminist thinker + poet - suggested 40 years ago t/ asking "What is life like for women?" creates new awareness of status of women in society + history -Sociological Imagination: Ability to conceptualize relationship b/t individuals + the society in which they live - First described by C Wright Mills - Sociological understanding must be used in reconstruction of more just social institutions. -Central task of sociology - to understand personal biography + social structure + the relations b/t the two -Personal Troubles: Problematic events in the immediate experience of an individual -Public Issues: Social phenomena t/ produce personal troubles b/ have their origins in social structures of society -Social Structure: Term used to describe the abstract, yet still real, social forces t/ shape society + social situations - Emphasizes the collective + social basis for behavior, not individual motivations and actions - Shape how individuals behave, b/ it's the collective + persistent results of t/ behavior t/ make social structures - Shape individual + group choices, opportunities + experiences -Oppression + social structure are not same thing. - Some social structures are beneficial to some groups 1.3 What about Men? -Men's Studies - as views on women are revised, likewise reconsidered on lives of men - Challenged patriarchal bias in traditional scholarship, which tended to take men as given universal standard against which others are judged - Also explicitly feminist, emerged from women's movement - Challenges existing sexist norms + takes active stance -Men's studies takes gender as central feature of social life, how gender shapes men's ideas + opportunities - Sees diversity among men as important to understanding men's lives - Understanding t/ as a group men benefit from gender privilege 1.4 Gender Matters. And So Do Race, Class, and Sexuality -Faulty Generalization: Mistakenly assuming t/ something is true for an entire group when it is not - Takes knowledge from one experience + incorrectly extends t/ knowledge to another -Women's studies shows how to not generalize from experience of men to experience of women -Inclusive thinking includes race, class, age, sexual orientation + other social factors - Recognizing + understanding diversity of those experiences equally important in construction of descriptions + theories about women's lives -Gender, race, class + sexuality are overlapping categories of experience t/ shape experiences of all people in US -Additive Model: Perspective on the simultaneity of gender, race, sexuality and class -Double Jeopardy: Disadvantage t/ women of color experience b/c of their race and their gender -Matrix of Domination: complex system of inequality involving intersection of race, class + gender 1.5 A Framework for Thinking about Women -Empirical: Facts (or data) t/ are based on careful observation Summary: Studying Women -Gender refers to cultural expectations + societal arrangements by which women + men have different experiences in society - Gender influences all aspects of life - thinking, interaction + life chances for men and women -Despite changes t/ have been made, women have hardly achieved equality w/ men - Numerous indicators, women are disadvantaged relative to men, earnings, poverty likelihood, violence risk, advancement opportunities. - These patterns are exacerbated for women of color -Evidence of women's status in society can be found by looking critically at everyday life - Gender is so pervasive t/ it can be seen. Thinking critically about gender + observing influence in society is basis of women's studies -Sociological imagination links experiences of individuals in society to more abstract social structures of which they are a part - Insight fundamental to feminist thought developed by C Wright Mills, especially distinction b/t personal troubles + social issues. Troubles affect a given individual, b/ social issues are found in the structure of society. Seeing this connection requires understanding the concept of social structure -There is no single definition of feminism, b/ it is premised on the belief in social justice for women - Although majority of women support feminist values, there is a stigma t/ many attach to label feminist. Despite misunderstandings associated w/ feminism, it is premised on belief + actions t/ promote respect, equality + value of women's lives Scholarship produced by women's studies has transformed knowledge - Women's studies is a field originating in the feminist movement + committed to the growth of knowledge about + for women. As women's studies has developed, it has also spawned new work in men's studies - scholarship t/ takes a feminist perspective to interpret how gender influences men -B/c feminism is about the lives of all women, it is important to understand the interrelationships among gender, race + class - Generalizing from experiences of any one group of women leads to false + incomplete conclusions. Developing inclusive perspective on race, class + gender helps you see both commonalities + differences among women + corrects misleading claims t/ all women are oppressed relative to men -A sociological + feminist framework for thinking about women is marked by a focus on empirical observation, a/w/a understanding of the significance of social structures Sociology is an empirical discipline, meaning it is based on careful + systematic observation. Connected to feminist thought, a sociological perspective helps you see gender as a socially structured phenomenon

Can the U.S. Ever Fix Its Messed-Up Maternity Leave System? (Bloomberg)

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2015-01-28/maternity-leave-u-s-policies-still-fail-workers

Chapter 6

INTRODUCTION: GENDER AND FAMILIES -Today's families one of most rapid changing social institutions -Social ideal of family persists 6.1: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON MODERN FAMILIES - RECOUNT THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE MODERN FAMILY WITH RESPECT TO ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, RELIGIIOUS AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS -Patriarchal Households: where men rule over women - Early Roman family origins 6.1.1: ORIGINS OF THE WESTERN FAMILY -Philip Aries: origin of modern Western family series of gradual transformations that began in 14th cent. + culminated in 17th + 18th cent. - 14th Cent: wife's position in household deteriorated, lost right to replace husband in management of household affairs upon his death, incapacitation or insanity - 16th Cent: wife placed totally under authority of husband. Family became object of common piety - 17th Cent: marriage ceremony form like christening - 16th+17th Cent: new importance placed on family, attitude toward children changed. Greater intimacy, new moral climate - 18th Cent: family began to hold society at distance, idea of family as enclave of private life. Physical households became less open, organized around domestic work - (Only true for European noble + well-off classes) - Poor lives like medieval family - 19th Cent - Present: concept of family as private + emotional sphere 6.1.2: IDEALIZED WOMANHOOD -Cult of Domesticity: Victorian ideal that made women responsible for the moral and everyday affairs of the home - Late 18th and early 19th centuries - Limited idealized experiences to the private world of the family - Definition of womanhood as idealized femininity -Before 17th Cent. The work role of women not marginal to the economy or household. Household and economy were one, basic unit of production. Domestic life not splintered from public life, households included family through marriage, servants and apprentices. Women's + children's labor economically necessary and publicly visible 6.1.3: SHAPING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SPHERES -Emergence of capitalism, industrialization, cash-based economy eroded position of women. Center of production moved to public workplace. Separation devalued women's labor at home + made women more economically dependent -Family became vehicle for physical + social reproduction of workers + consumption of goods -Social value in terms of earned wages, women, esp. unpaid, was diminished -Patriarchal family became cornerstone - basic social unit - for emergence of modern patriarchal state -Shift from private to public patriarchy centered in industry and govt. Male dominated state ensured all women subject to patriarchal order -Protestant ethic blessed family as unit of material labor. Family viewed as sacred and place for spiritual life -Split between work and home (est. by capitalism) related to schism between personal + public life. Capitalism encourages individualism. -Modern families still regulated by patriarchal authority of state + agencies. Esp. poor and working-class families, even middle class to extent -Specific family structures vary depending on historical experiences of given groups in society. Transformations in White, middle class households set ideals by which other groups have been judged -Social experiences (and specific family histories) nested within class, race, and gender relations of any given historical period -History of families show that family is an institution that is interconnected with economic + political institutions of society 6.2: FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES ON FAMILIES - INSPECT THE STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY MODEL TO ELABORATE ON THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE MODEL OF FAMILIES -All society organized around form of kinship system. Definition of family changes in different cultural and historical contexts - Common Characteristics: economic cooperation, common residence, socially approved sexual relations, reproduction, child rearing - In most kinship systems, marriage exists as socially recognized, durable, not necessarily life-long relationship, between men and women - Most societies, men have higher status + authority than women - Many contemporary families are not blood ties, do not meet criteria of common residence, socially approved sexual relations, reproduction, child rearing or marriage -Structural Diversity Model: Framework for understandings families that focuses on the changing dynamics of race, class, and gender as they influence family forms - Family forms are socially constructed and historically changing - Family diversity is produced by the same structures that organize society as a whole - that is, the intersecting hierarchies of class, race and gender - Family diversity is constructed through social structure as well as by the actions of family members - Understandings families means challenging monolithic ideas that conceive of the family in idealistic ways 6.2.1: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF FAMILIES -Joint Family System: Common in India, also patriarchy, major family bond not between married couples. Between generations (parents and sons, as well as male siblings). Women highly subordinate, lose all autonomy after marriage. Family status only improves with birth of sons. Women whose husbands died were social outcasts -Family systems changed dramatically along with modernization, urbanization + globalization - Not always progressive. (Afghanistan, Taliban) - Completely restricts women to family and restricts domestic life to private world of the home -Gender Apartheid: Extreme segregation and exclusion of women from public life -Family forms develop in context of broader social and economic structures -Families often develop kin networks that work as systems of social and economic exchange - Kin recognized as those who share and meet socioeconomic obligations regardless of blood ties -Compadrazgo: family system whereby those defined as kin have very strong connections to the family. Kin includes blood relatives and godparents -Nuclear Family: Families in which married couples live together with children - Seems natural about Western families, but only dominant groups have defined this as ideal 6.2.2: DIVERSITY IN FAMILIES: THE INTERSECTIONS OF CLASS, RACE, AND GENDER -Families shaped by class, race and gender, same for resources family has -Beyond resources, class, race and gender shape experiences within families -Within families, gender differently shapes experiences of women and men. Some common experiences across race 6.2.3: LINKING SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND HOMAN ACTION -Human Agency: Intentional actions that people take in adapting to and sometimes changing the conditions they face in life -Families shaped by social forces and change because people make decisions that can transform families - Economic struggles -Human agency and adaptation evident in forms families taking recently 6.2.4: THE FAMILY IDEAL -Source of love, care, support, trouble, conflict, sorrow -Jessie Bernard: Women and men experience families differently and hold different expectations for marital roles. Women more likely to want egalitarian roles -Family ideal is an ideology - belief system that supports only a specific social construct. Word family implies there is one dominant form of family life 6.3: A PORTRAIT OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILIES - REVIEW THE STRUCTURE OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILIES WHERE THE FOCUS IS ON DIVERSITY -Diversity describes contemporary family life - Step families, same-sex marriage (with children), female headed households, single people -Household: Economic unit of those residing together with a common economic base -Householder: Term used by US Census Bureau to refer to the person in whose name a household unit is owned or rented -Family Household: US CB term for a household maintained with a family or unrelated persons residing together - Related by blood, marriage or adoption -Nonfamily Household: A person living alone or one where a householder shares the unit with nonrelatives - Roommates or boarders 6.3.1: MARRIAGE -50% of population over 15 is married -31% single -10% divorced -2% separated -6% widowed -Marriage - complex set of social dynamics, incl. cooperation and conflict, economic ties, shared division of labor 6.3.2: DIVORCE -Marriage more stable than assumed, but US still has high divorce rate, on the rise over time, but recently declined -Mothers carry major share burden of parenting following divorce - More likely to obtain custody, 83% - Less likely to work full time than men -Many women report it as positive option 6.3.3: COHABITATION -Steady growth in number of single persons living together out of marriage -Majority of people will experience lifestyle at some point in lives -Slightly more that half of couples who cohabitate marry -Premarital cohabitation related to greater likelihood of divorce 6.3.4: GAY AND LESBIAN FAMILIES -Resistance comparted to historical resistance to interracial marriage -Lesbians form extended networks of support that operate at local and national levels - Function like large family, except tend to be nonauthoritarian and nonhierarchal unlike patriarchal families - More children than gay families - More gender equality within household than heterosexual couples so long as both employed 6.3.5: MOTHERHOOD -Motherhood - social institution, controlled by systems of patriarchy + economic relations. Complex set of social relations organized around specific functions -Mothers construct understanding of themselves and children in relationship to society around them -Rosanna Hertz: traditional patterns of sequencing education, then marriage, then motherhood disrupted by social changes that affect women's lives (fem movement, gay movement, new tech) -Nancy Chodorow: asks why psychological characteristics of motherhood reproduced so that women, not men, want to be mothers and develop capacity to nurture others. Result of gender division of labor. Boys and girls must separate psychologically from part (Individualism) - Gendered personalities reflect and re-create gender division of labor in household - Both family and workplace need transformation to eliminate gender inequality 6.3.6: FATHERHOOD -Traditionally instrumental roles (breadwinners and authority) -Experiences vary significantly in different social classes - Lower-income: difficulty filling provider role -Single fathers use outside help (typically women) and use daughters as mother substitutes - Spend more time with children, demonstrate more mothering behaviors - Result of divorce or widowhood - Unmarried fathers, more income, more time with children -Sociological perspective: fathering as role, kinship nor household membership necessary for many to perform functions 6.3.7: BALANCING FAMILY AND WORK -Changes in family structure reflected in beliefs and practices of people who try to balance work and family life -Most women combine work and family responsibilities -Most common form of coping with dual demands is for women to scale back working time or limiting careers, esp. following birth of child. Ability to do so depends on social class. -Commuter couples -Shift work: strong effect on likelihood of divorce 6.4: FAMILIES IN TROUBLE - RECOUND SOME OF THE FACTORS THAT PLAGUE A LOT OF CONTEMPORARY FAMILIES 6.4.1: PARTNER VIOLENCE -Victim of violence most likely to know assailant -Partner violence strongest predictor of female homicide -Violence against women in families form of social control - Emerges from patriarchal structure + ideology of family - Wifebeating once legal - Rule of thumb -Power imbalances - most dependent most at risk -Unemployment of abuser increases risk of violence 4x - Threats to provider role undermine construction of masculine identity -Pattern of isolation: batterer work to isolate partner from support networks - Emotionally abusive or controlling behavior -Being battered puts one at risk for injury, death, depression and anxiety -Cycle of violence - Most victims leave, but only temporarily - Once pattern est. women believe they have no options - Rationalize violence if they stay - Dependent financially -Prosecuting batterers, often return home even angrier -Unmarried, cohabitating couples higher risk of partner violence than married couples - Lesbian women most likely to be victims of violence, but assailants are men - Women relationships least likely to form violence -Violence is a weapon men use to control women 6.4.2: MARITAL RAPE -Marital Rape: Forced sexual activity demanded of a wife by her husband - Many states, not considered a crime - 10% of marriages, higher than any type of rape - Often associated with other forms of violence - Vulnerabilities influence women's power within marriage - Power, control, dominance, humiliation common patterns 6.4.3: INCEST AND SEXUAL ABUSE -Girls more likely to be abused, experience greater harm -Men abuse position of dominance in relationship to take sexual advantage of children -Linked to social problems -Violence logical result for both women's powerlessness in family + male culture that emphasizes aggression, domination + violence 6.4.4: TEEN PREGNANCY -Teen birthrate declining since 1990 -Rate of unmarried White women giving birth increasing since 1990 -Teens poor before pregnancy most likely to be poor -Teen parents face chronic unemployment, low earnings + low-status jobs -Face less pressure to marry today -Teens initiating sex at later age than 10 years ago -77% have first experience with steady partner -2/3 use contraceptives -Abstinence programs have no effect on delaying sexual activity -Condom most common contraceptive, followed by withdrawal, and the pill -22% have sex without birth control, 90% chance of pregnancy in a year 6.5: FAMILIES AND SOCIAL POLICY - RECOGNIZE THE GAP IN CURRENT SOCIAL POLICIES AND CONTEMPORARY FAMILY REALITIES AND THE NEED TO BRIDGE THE TWO -Social policies have not kept pace with changes in families in recent years -US behind other countries for social supports to care for children, older parents + themselves 6.5.1: CHILD CARE -US: system of private care -Parent-child unit allegedly self-sufficient + responsibility of care falls heavily on individual women -Experience of mothers based on assumption that children best cared for by their mother -Privatized + exclusive child care inappropriate for increased employment of mothers -Women's access to child care influences employment prospects (cost of child care as deterrent) -Employed parents use multiple forms of care -Can consume large portion of family budget -In 35 states, child care costs more than average 4 year college tuition 6.5.2: FAMILY-FRIENDLY POLICIES AT WORK -Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA): Federal law enacted in 1993 that requires employers to grant 12 weeks of unpaid leave to a parent to care for newborn or adopted children or to care for a sick child, spouse or parent - Only for employers with 50+ workers at company - Employees must first exhaust vacation and sick leave - Only form married, heterosexual couples -Depression and War major impetus for establishing public child care facilities in the US -Public Child Care first originated in Works Progress Admin (WPA) of the New Deal -1941 Lanham Act - child care needs during wartime employment -Post-WWII, federally funded day care for the poor - Project Head Start

Miss Representation

http://therepresentationproject.org/film/miss-representation/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Representation http://feministing.com/2011/02/14/miss-representation-a-film-review/ http://www.collegemoviereview.com/article/miss-representation http://blogs.indiewire.com/theplaylist/review_miss_representation_exposes_an_ugly_truth_that_needs_to_be_seen

Paycheck to Paycheck

http://www.hbo.com/documentaries/paycheck-to-paycheck-the-life-and-times-of-katrina-gilbert/synopsis.html http://variety.com/2014/tv/reviews/tv-review-paycheck-to-paycheck-the-life-times-of-katrina-gilbert-hbo-documentary-1201128855/ http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/17/arts/television/hbos-paycheck-to-paycheck-a-single-mothers-struggle.html http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2014/03/17/paycheck_to_paycheck_maria_shriver_finds_the_poster_child_for_poverty_for.html

Labor Pains (New Republic)

http://www.newrepublic.com/article/120939/maternity-leave-policies-america-hurt-working-moms

The Quest for Transgender Equality (NYT)

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/04/opinion/the-quest-for-transgender-equality.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=c-column-top-span-region&region=c-column-top-span-region&WT.nav=c-column-top-span-region&_r=2

What Makes a Woman? (NYT)

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/07/opinion/sunday/what-makes-a-woman.html

Before Stonewall

http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9E0DE7DE1E39F934A15755C0A963948260 http://www.gaelick.com/2009/12/before-stonewall-the-making-of-a-gay-and-lesbian-community/5532/

Tough Guise: Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity (YouTube)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3exzMPT4nGI&app=desktop

The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (YouTube)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MIeAnU7_7TA

Disney cartoons Gender representations 1 (YouTube)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rW0CXsHWHeM&app=desktop

The social paradox of gender (YouTube)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xBoKJrygPVQ&app=desktop