Technical Writing Chapter 3

An example of a statement of purpose can be

-"The purpose of this report is to recommend whether the company should adopt a health-promotion program." -Although the statement of purpose might not appear in this form in the final document, you want to state it clearly now to help you stay on track as you carry out the remaining steps.

Revising the Draft

-After you finish your draft, look through it to make sure the writing is well organized, well developed, and coherent. The following questions can help you study the draft yourself; they can also be used as a helpful guide for your reviewers. -Does the draft meet readers' expectations? If, for instance, the readers of a report expect a transmittal letter, they might be distracted if they don't see one. Check to make sure that the draft includes the information readers expect and looks the way they expect it to. Be especially careful if the document or site will be used by people from other cultures, who might have different expectations. -Has anything been left out in turning the outline into a draft? Check the original outline to see that all the topics are included in the document itself. Review the outline of the final draft to focus on the headings. Is anything missing? -Is the organization logical? The document is likely to reflect several different organizational patterns. For instance, the overall pattern might be chronological. Within that pattern, sections might be organized from more important to less important. When you look at the headings, are these patterns visible, and do they seem to work well? -Are the arguments well developed? Have claims been presented clearly and emphatically? Has sufficient and appropriate research been done to gather evidence that supports the claims effectively? Is the reasoning valid and persuasive? -Is the emphasis appropriate throughout the draft? If a major point is treated only briefly, mark it for possible expansion. If a minor topic is treated at great length, mark it for possible condensing. -Is the draft honest, and does it adhere to appropriate legal standards? Is the information presented honestly? Is any information misleading? Has any critical information that might counter the argument been omitted? Does the document adhere to appropriate legal standards of intellectual property, such as copyright law? Does it comply with relevant accessibility standards? -Does the document come across as reliable and helpful? Check to see that the writing style is fully professional: modest, understated, and cooperative.

Organizing and Outlining your document

-Although each document has its own requirements, you can use existing organizational patterns or adapt them to your own situation. For instance, the compare-and-contrast pattern might be an effective way to organize a discussion of different health-promotion programs. The cause-and-effect pattern might work well for a discussion of the effects of implementing such a program. -At first, your organization is only tentative. When you start to draft, you might find that the pattern you chose isn't working well or that you need additional information that doesn't fit into the pattern. -Once you have a tentative plan, write an outline to help you stay on track as you draft. To keep your purpose clearly in mind as you work, you may want to write it at the top of your page before you begin your outline -Some writers like to draft within the outline created by their word-processing program. Others prefer to place a paper copy of their outline on the desk next to their keyboard and begin drafting a new document that follows that outline. Whichever method you prefer, you can begin drafting by filling out the sections of your outline. You don't need to work in a particular order, but keep an eye out for sections that are too skimpy and may need more content, and watch for sections that get overloaded and may need further dividing with new headings, paragraphs, or both. Keep in mind, too, that you may choose to reorder or eliminate sections of your outline as you draft. When you do, make sure you make changes deliberately, so that nothing gets moved or left out by mistake.

Examples of Proofreading

-Although your software can help you with some of these chores, it isn't sophisticated enough to do it all. The following sentence contains three errors that you should catch in proofreading: "There are for major reasons we should implementing health-promotion program." Here they are: "For" is the wrong word. The word should be "four." "Implementing" is the wrong verb form. The verb should be "implement." This mistake is probably left over from an earlier version of the sentence. The article "a" is missing before the phrase "health-promotion program." This is probably just a result of carelessness. By the way, a spell-checker and grammar-checker didn't flag any of these errors. -Although some writers can proofread effectively on the screen, others prefer to print a copy of the text. These writers say that because the text looks different on the page than it does on the screen, they are more likely to approach it with fresh eyes, as their eventual readers will, and therefore more likely to see errors. -Proofreading is vital to producing a clear, well-written document that reflects your high standards and underscores your credibility as a professional. Don't insult yourself and your readers by skipping this step. Reread your draft carefully and slowly, perhaps out loud, and get a friend to help. You'll be surprised at how many errors you'll find.

What are 5 questions you should answer to edit a draft?

-Are all paragraphs well developed? Does each paragraph begin with a clear topic sentence that previews or summarizes the main point? Are all claims validated with appropriate and sufficient support? -Are all sentences clear and correct? Make sure each sentence is easy to understand, is grammatically correct, and is structured to emphasize the appropriate information. -Are all the elements presented consistently? Check to see that parallel items are presented consistently. For example, are all headings on the same level structured the same way (perhaps as noun phrases or as gerunds, ending in -ing)? And check for grammatical parallelism, particularly in lists, but also in traditional sentences. -Is the design effective? Does the document or site look professional and attractive, and is it easy to navigate? Do readers find it easy to locate the information they want? -Are graphics used appropriately? Are there opportunities to translate verbal information into graphics to make the communication easier to understand and more emphatic? Are the graphic types appropriate and effective? Are the graphics linked to the text? (The resources devoted to editing will vary depending on the importance of the document. An annual report, which is perhaps the single most important document that people will read about your organization, will be edited rigorously because the company wants it to look perfect. A biweekly employee newsletter also will be edited, but not as rigorously as an annual report. What about the routine emails you write every day? Edit them, too. It's rude not to.)

What does collaboration mean?

-Are you expected to collaborate with others when producing your document? If so, be sure to allow enough time for others to review your work and for you to review theirs

What are some techniques for generating ideas about your topic?

-Ask the 6 Journalistic questions (Who, what, when, where, why, and how) can help you figure out how much more research you need to do. Note that you can generate several questions from each of these 6 words. EX: Who would be able to participate? Who would administer it? What would the program consist of? -Brainstorming: Spending 15 minutes listing short phrases and questions about your subject helps you think of related ideas. Later, when you construct an outline, you will rearrange your list, add new ideas, and toss out some old ones. EX: Why we need a program? Lower Insurance rates, On-site or at a club? Who pays for it? What is our liability? increase our productivity. -Free-writing:Writing without plans or restrictions, without stopping, can help you determine what you do and do not understand. And one phrase or sentence might spark an important idea. -Talking with someone:Discussing your topic can help you find out what you already know about it and generate new ideas. Simply have someone ask you questions as you speak. Soon you will find yourself in a conversation that will help you make new connections from one idea to another. -Clustering and Branching:One way to expand on your topic is to write your main idea or main question in the middle of the page and then write second-level and third-level ideas around it, branching out with connecting lines.

What are the 3 large topics you want to focus on revising?

-Audience. Has your understanding of your audience changed? Will you be addressing people you hadn't considered before? If so, how will that change what you should say and how you should say it? -Purpose. Has your understanding of your purpose changed? If so, what changes should you make to the document? -Subject. Has your understanding of the subject changed? Should you change the scope — that is, should you address more or fewer topics? Should you change the organization of the document? Should you present more evidence or different types of evidence? (On the basis of a new look at your audience, purpose, and subject, you might decide that you need to make minor changes, such as adding one or two minor topics. Or you might decide that you need to completely rethink the document. There are two major ways to revise: by yourself and with the assistance of others. If possible, use both ways.)

What does Time mean?

-Be sure to consider the amount of time you have available to plan, research, and create your document. In some cases, you may need to allow time for additional steps, including collaboration and testing, both of which are discussed below.

What does Tools mean?

-Before you begin a big project, consider which type of writing tool will best meet your project's needs. You probably do most of your writing with commercial software such as Microsoft Office or open-source software such as Google Docs, and you will likely continue to do much of your writing with these tools. Because of the rapid increase in the number of sophisticated tools such as Adobe InDesign and free web-based tools such as Wordpress, however, keeping up with all your options and being sure to choose the one that best meets your needs can help you create a more effective document. Specialized tools built for professional writers can be particularly useful for long, complicated projects that require extensive research. -Scrivener, for example, lets you gather your research data in a single location and easily reorganize your document at the section or chapter level. -Composition programs optimized for tablets, such as WritePad, convert handwriting into text, translate text into a number of languages, and allow cloud-based storage.

Analyze your audience

-Can help you learn what your readers already know, what they want to know, and how they would like the information presented.

What does "who is your reader mean"?

-Consider such factors as education, job experience and responsibilities, skill in reading English, cultural characteristics, and personal preferences.

What does "What are your reader's attitudes and expectations" mean?

-Consider the reader's attitudes toward the topic and your message, as well as the reader's expectations about the kind of document you will be presenting.

What does Mundane v. Socially or Politically mean?

-Depending on your field or subject matter, you may be writing about a topic that some readers will find sensitive. For example, you may be writing about replacing fossil-fuel technology with renewable energy in a region where many people have jobs in coal mining or oil refining.

Devising a Schedule and a Budget

-During the planning stage, you also must decide when you will need to provide the information and how much you can spend on the project. For instance, for the project on health-promotion programs, your readers might need a report to help them decide what to do before the new fiscal year begins in two months. In addition, your readers might want a progress report submitted halfway through the project. Making a schedule is often a collaborative process: you meet with your main readers, who tell you when they need the information, and you estimate how long the different tasks will take. -You also need to create a budget. In addition to the time you will need to do the project, you need to think about expenses you might incur. For example, you might need to travel to visit companies with different kinds of health-promotion programs. You might need to conduct specialized database searches, create and distribute questionnaires to employees, or conduct interviews at remote locations. Some projects call for usability testing — evaluating the experiences of prospective users as they try out a system or a document. The cost of this testing needs to be included in your budget.

What are the key factors to Analyzing the Writing Process?

-Existing Process -Time -Budget -Tools -Collaboration -Document testing -Ongoing Maintenance

What does High stakes v. Low stakes mean?

-For example, will your document determine the budget for a large project, or will it be used in a more routine manner, such as to help users understand a software update?

Seeking Help from others

-For technical documents, it is best to turn to two kinds of people for help. Subject-matter experts (SMEs) can help you determine whether your facts and explanations are accurate and appropriate. If, for instance, you are writing about fuel-cell automobiles, you could ask an automotive expert to review your document. Important documents are routinely reviewed by technical experts before being released to the public. -The second category of reviewers includes both actual users of your existing document and prospective users of the next version of the document. These people can help you see problems you or other knowledgeable readers don't notice. For instance, a prospective user of a document on fuel-cell technologies might point out that she doesn't understand what a fuel cell is because you haven't defined the term.

Using Templates

-For your draft, you might consider using an existing template or modifying one to meet your needs. Templates are preformatted designs for different types of documents, such as letters, memos, newsletters, and reports. Templates incorporate the design specifications for the document, including typeface, type size, margins, and spacing. Once you have selected a template, you just type in the information.

How to draft effectively?

-Get comfortable: Choose a good chair, set at the right height for the keyboard, and adjust the light so that it doesn't reflect off the screen -Start with the easiest topics. Instead of starting at the beginning of the document, begin with the section you most want to write. -Draft quickly. Try to make your fingers keep up with your brain. Turn the phrases from your outline into paragraphs. You'll revise later. -Don't stop to get more information or to revise. Set a timer, and draft for an hour or two without stopping. When you come to an item that requires more research, skip to the next item. Don't worry about sentence structure or spelling. -Try invisible writing. Darken the screen or turn off the monitor so that you can look only at your hard-copy outline or the keyboard. That way, you won't be tempted to stop typing to revise what you have just written. -Stop in the middle of a section. When you stop, do so in the middle of a paragraph or even in the middle of a sentence. You will find it easy to conclude the idea you were working on when you begin writing again. This technique will help you avoid writer's block, the mental paralysis that can set in when you stare at a blank screen.

How to select your document application, design, and delivery method?

-Has the application already been chosen for me? -What will the/my readers expect? -What delivery method will work best? (Its very important to think about these questions because your answers will largely determine the scope, organization, style, and design of the information you will prepare. You need to imagine your readers using your information)

Editing

-Having revised your draft and made changes to its content and organization, it's time for you to edit. Editing is the process of checking the draft to improve its grammar, punctuation, style, usage, diction (word choice), and mechanics (such as use of numbers and abbreviations). You will do most of the editing by yourself, but you might also ask others for assistance, especially writers and editors in your organization. One technology that enables people at different locations to work together is a wiki, a website that lets authorized readers edit a document (also referred to as a wiki) and archives all the previous versions of the document.

What are the 5 setting related issues called?

-High stakes v. Low stakes -Physical v. Digital -Formal v. Informal -Mundane v. Socially or Politically charged -Established v. Undefined norms of Ethical Behavior

What does Established v. Undefined norms of Ethical Behavior mean?

-If norms of ethical behavior have been established for your subject area, by all means follow them. If you are unsure about the ethical norms for a particular setting, look for those of an appropriate professional organization, such as the Council of Biology Editors (CBE) or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

What does "has the application already been chose for me" mean?

-If you are writing a proposal to submit to the U.S. Department of the Interior, for example, you must follow the department's specifications for what the proposal is to look like and how it is to be delivered. For most kinds of communication, however, you will likely have to select the appropriate application yourself, such as a set of instructions or a manual. Sometimes, you will deliver an oral presentation or participate in a phone conference or a video conference.

What does "what will my readers expect" mean?

-If your readers expect a written set of instructions, you should present a set of instructions unless some other application, such as a report or a manual, is more appropriate. If they expect to see the instructions in a simple black-and-white booklet — and there is no good reason to design something more elaborate than that — your choice is obvious. For instance, instructions for installing and operating a ceiling fan in a house are generally presented in a small, inexpensive booklet with the pages stapled together or on a large, folded sheet of paper. However, for an expensive home-theater system, readers might expect a glossy, full-color manual.

What does Existing Process mean?

-In some cases, just as with the choice of applications, an existing process will be available for you to follow as you produce your document. In other cases, you may need to create your own process. As explained in this chapter, every writing process should include time for planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading.

What does Physical v. Digital mean?

-In what type of environment will your audience use your document, and how will that environment affect the way you write it?

Consider your writing situation

-Includes factors that will affect your communication: your audience, purpose, setting, document type, and process. Considering the opportunities and challenges presented by these factors is an important part of the planning process.

Generating Ideas about your Subject

-Is a way to start mapping out the information you will need to include in the document, deciding where to put it, and identifying additional information that may be required.

Researching Additional Information

-Once you have a good idea of what you already know about your topic, you must obtain the rest of the information you will need. You can find and evaluate what other people have already written by reading reference books, scholarly books, articles, websites, and reputable blogs and discussion forums. In addition, you might compile new information by interviewing experts, distributing surveys and questionnaires, making observations, sending inquiries, and conducting experiments. Don't forget to ask questions and gather opinions from your own network of associates, both inside and outside your organization.

What does document testing mean?

-Part of your writing process may involve testing the document before, during, or after creating it to be sure it fulfills its purpose for users.

Proofreading

-Proofreading is the process of checking to make sure you have typed what you meant to type. You are looking for minor problems caused by carelessness or haste. For instance, have you written filename on one page and file name on another? Have you been consistent in expressing quantities in numerals or in words? Have you been consistent in punctuating citations in your list of works cited?

What does "what delivery method will work best" mean?

-Related to the question of reader expectations is the question of how you will deliver the document to your readers. For instance, you would likely mail an annual report to your readers, in addition to posting it on your company website. You might present industry forecasts on a personal blog or on one sponsored by your employer. You might deliver a user's manual for a new type of photo-editing program online rather than in print because the program — and therefore the manual — will change.

What is Revising?

-Revising is the process of looking again at your draft to see whether it works. After you revise, you will carry out two more steps — editing and proofreading

Using Styles

-Styles are like small templates that apply to the design of smaller elements, such as headings. Like templates, styles save you time. For example, as you draft your document, you don't need to add all the formatting each time you want to designate an item as a first-level heading. You simply highlight the text you want to be a first-level heading and use a pull-down menu or ribbon at the top of your screen to select that style. The text automatically incorporates all the specifications of that style. (If you decide to modify a style — by italicizing a heading, for instance — you need to change it only once; the software automatically changes every instance of that style in the document. In collaborative documents, styles make it easier for collaborators to achieve a consistent look.)

What does ongoing maintenance mean?

-The audience for most digital documents and some print documents will expect updates and revisions. For example, periodic updates are necessary on the Consumer Product Safety Commission's website to inform the public of product recalls and other safety hazards

Studying the Draft by yourself

-The first step in revising is to read and reread your document, looking for different things each time. For instance, you might read it once just to see whether the information you have presented is appropriate for the various audiences you have identified. You might read it another time to see whether each of your claims is supported by appropriate and sufficient evidence. -Start with the largest, most important issues first; then work on the smaller, less important ones. That way, you don't waste time on awkward paragraphs you might eventually decide to delete. Begin by reviewing the document as a whole (for organization, development, and content), saving the sentence-level concerns (such as grammar, punctuation, and spelling) for later. -One effective way to review your whole document for coherence is to study its outline. If you have used Word's style tools to insert heading levels, you can view the outline of your document on screen

What does Formal v. Informal mean?

-The setting's level of formality — which differs significantly, for example, from a blog post to a proposal — will dictate the style and tone you will use in your writing. It will also affect the length of and detail provided in your document.

Analyze your setting which includes

-The situation surrounding the problem you are trying to solve and the context in which your audience will use your document

What are the 3 problems that using templates can cause?

-They do not always reflect the best design principles: For instance, most letter and memo templates default to 10 point type, even though 12 point type is easier to read. -They bore readers: Readers get tired of seeing the same design -They cannot help you answer the important questions about your document: Although templates can help you format information, they cannot help you figure out how to organize and write a document. Sometimes, templates can even send the wrong message for your particular audience and purpose. For example, résumé templates in word processors present a set of headings that might work better for some job applicants than for others. (In addition, the more you rely on existing templates the less likely you are to learn how to use the software to make your documents look professional)

What does "why and how will the reader use your document" mean?

-Think about what readers will do with the document. This includes the physical environment in which they will use it, the techniques they will use in reading it, and the tasks they will carry out after they finish reading it.

Acknowledge Reviewers Responsibly

-When you write on the job, take advantage of the expertise of others. It is completely ethical to ask subject-matter experts and people who are similar to the intended audience of your document to critique a draft of it. If your reviewer offers detailed comments and suggestions on the draft or sends you a multipage review — and you use some or many of the ideas — you are ethically bound to acknowledge that person's contributions. This acknowledgment can take the form of a one- or two-sentence statement of appreciation in the introduction of the document or in a transmittal letter. Or you could write a letter or memo of appreciation to the reviewer; he or she can then file it and use it for a future performance evaluation.

For each of your most important reader answer these questions

-Who is your reader? -What are your reader's attitudes and expectations? -Why and how will the reader use your document?

What is Drafting?

-You can begin drafting your document at any point in the planning process. You might jot down some key information for an executive summary as you are thinking about your audience and purpose. Very likely, you will come up with some compelling evidence you want to include in your document during the research phase. But at some point, you need to organize your information into a complete draft of the document. Working with organizational patterns and outlines is a good place to start.

Analyze your purpose

-You cannot write until you can state the purpose(s) of your document(s) so ask yourself: -After your readers have read your document, what do you want them to know or do? -What beliefs or attitudes do you want them to hold?

What does Budget mean?

-Your budget will influence almost every aspect of your document: the amount of time you spend on it, the number of people you can enlist to help you, the size and shape of the document, the design of the document, and the production quality

How do you learn from SMEs and from users and prospective users?

-surveying, interviewing, or observing readers as they use the existing document -interviewing SMEs about a draft of the document -conducting focus groups to learn users' or prospective users' opinions about an existing or proposed document -uploading the document to an online writing space, such as Microsoft SharePoint or Google Drive, and authorizing people to revise it (It is important to revise all drafts, but it is especially important to revise drafts of documents that will be read and used by people from other cultures. If your readers come from another culture, try to have your draft reviewed by someone from that culture. That reviewer can help you see whether you have made correct assumptions about how readers will react to your ideas and whether you have chosen appropriate kinds of evidence and design elements)