Test 1 Psychology & Culture
Culture & Ethnicity:
*"Ethnos" (Greek for people) *Ethnicity usually denotes individuals with common nationality, geographic origin, language, religion, history, culture, a continuity in time and a future projection - In the US, ethnicity is erroneously or euphemistically used as synonym for race or minority status (US Census classifies as ethnic groups African Americans, Asian and Pacific Islander, Hispanics or Latinos, and Native Americans; A generic "Non-Hispanic White" used as an ethnic group - Difficult to distinguish culture dimensions from ethnic dimensions - M&J argue for a more multidimensional definition of ethnicity: By cultural norms and values. By strength, saliency and meaning of ethnic identity. By experiences and attitudes associated with minority status
Culture and Nationality/Country: (7)
*Countries have their own cultures - They have their own ecology, resources, sociocultural history, language(s), history, etc. *Sub-cultures - Sometimes formally defined, i.e. Switzerland (German, Italian and French cantons) - Sometimes historically defined, i.e. Italy (Lombardy vs Campania region) - Sometimes geographically defined, i.e. Peru (coastal, mountain and jungle regions) *Socioeconomic status also produce sub-cultures within countries
Culture & Language:
*Different language groups tend to have different cultures - In part because language reflects ways to interact among speakers of the language (i.e. polite way to address people or show hierarchical distance) *However, groups with the same language can have different culture values - E.g. US vs. UK speak English but are quite dissimilar in some cultural approaches - There are 20 countries that speak Spanish... and they are very diverse
Culture and Gender: (3)
*Gender refers to behavior or patterns of activites that a society or culture deems appropriate for men and women - Gender role refers to the degree a person adopts the gender specific and appropriate behaviors ascribed by his/her culture - Gender differences are therefore cultural differences
Validity of Research: Construct Validity- (2 with example)
- The operational definition of the construct allows us to measure it - Using questionnaires, observations etc. Produce numbers that assess the amount of the construct. * Questionnaires measuring level of extroversion and motivation.
Parental cultural belief systems are also known as:
- parental ethnotheories
Constructs without culture: Personality (2)
- personality is a unique constellation of traits, attributes, qualities, and characteristics - Culture is stable across individuals, whereas personality is vastly different within a culture
Results of children under authoritative parenting style:
Better school performance, more positive mood, self-reliance, self-confidence, higher social and emotional skills, secure attachment, competent, independents children
Cyberbullying:
Bullying through electronic means
Explain the culture circle pattern: (5)
Culture --> Behaviors that increase social coordination and reduce social chaos --> group life --> social complexity --> need for social coordination --> back to culture
Results of children under authoritarian parenting:
More anxious, withdrawn, lacking intellectual curiousity
In cross-cultural validation studies, we want to...
assess the validity and reliability of our instruments
Chinese parenting style is classified as ____
authoritarian
Cultural values are shared by a:
collectivity
Some biases: (5)
conceptual, method, measurement, response, interpretation
definition of values:
guiding principles defining desirable goals that motivate behavior- define moral, political, social, economic esthetic, spiritual ethics
What is the "tiger mother" model of parenting?
highly demanding to achieve high levels of academic success
What year and by who was Cultural Psychology founded?
in 1990 by Richard Shweder
For M&J, the Universal Psychological Toolkit includes:
language
Enculturation is a ___-___ process
life-long
If bias exists in cross-cultural comparative study, the comparison:
loses its meaning
Culture as "meaning and information system" is an abstraction referring to:
many elements of a way of living
Taxonomy of cultures as a function of:
prevalent value orientations - Hofstede's classification of work related values
To "scare" participants before an experimental task, is an example of...
priming
Culture influences the theories and methods for assessing _________ __________
psychological phenomena
For M&J the ratchet effect refers to:
the human tendency to continuous improve on improvements
Measurement bias: Internal reliability-
Degree to which different items in a questionnaire give consistent responses across cultures
Uninvolved Parent:
Do not respond appropriately to children and is indifferent
The process for acquiring culture from an anthropological perspective:
Enculturation
Authoritarian Parent:
Expects unquestioned obedience and views the child as needing to be controlled
The question "Are our conclusions reproducible?" relates to...
External Validity
Smith et al. (2002) explore how bullying is perceived in different cultures: (6)
- 14 countries study of 8 and 14 years old, using stick figures as stimuli to classify. - In England: bullying is between two individuals on the playground. In Japan: bullying as an entire class excluding one individual. - In Asian countries, social exclusion is the main bullying. - In Korea, girls are more likely than boys to be bullies. - Still, problem in the cultural equivalents of bullying in other cultures. - The phenomenon is even called with its English name
What is the textbook definition of "culture"? by Matsumoto & Juang- (5)
- A "working" definition for the textbook - "Human culture as a (1) unique meaning and information system, (2) shared by a group and transmitted across generations, (3) that allows the group to meet basic needs for survival, (4) pursue happiness and well being, and derive meaning from life" - Meaning and information system includes norms, attitudes, values, symbols, etc. - Culture is not static, it can evolve. - Besides survival, it has as purpose the well being of its members.
Beliefs definition and explained (6)
- A belief is a proposition that is regarded as true - Individual beliefs are quite diverse, about different topics, times, and settings. - Cultural beliefs are shared by a group and considered at a high level of abstraction may relate to social behaviors across several contexts. - Leung et al. (2002) coined the term social axioms to describe general beliefs that people endorse and assume to be true. - A classification of these beliefs in terms of dimensions. - Two of them: societal cynicism and dynamic externality.
an overall bias: examples- (2)
- A response in one culture represents a target construct (e.g., conscientiousness), while the same responses in another country are due to other constructs (e.g., social desirability) - what is intelligence and how is assessed in different cultures
Response bias: definition
- A systematic tendency to respond in certain way to items or scales in questionnaires * independent of the items content
Attributions:
- Ability to recognize others as intentional agents while drawing inferences. (People of different cultures make attributions in different ways, although the same psychological process is the same.)
Similar variables can be measure at the individual and cultural level. At the individual level, a collectivistic framework refers to..
- Allocentrism measures
Religion: definition and explained (4 with subpoints)
- An organized system of beliefs that is a defining feature for many cultures. - They tie together many attitudes, values, beliefs, worldviews and norms. (Provide guidelines for living. Help people to manage themselves and provide social coordination.) - Works differently in different cultures. (In the western world there is a clear separation between state and church; In other cultures is a more defining feature; Russian Orthodox Church) - In others, no distinction between religion and state (Iran)
Animals have a basic form of culture: (3)
- Animals have clear social networks and hierarchies - Invent and use tools - Communicate with each other
Validity of Research: External Validity- (2 with example)
- Are our conclusions reproducible? - i.e. can we replicate similar results using similar measures, participants, stimuli, etc.? * Survey more participants using the same extroversion and motivation questionnaires
Cross-Cultural Validation Studies: (4 with subpoints)
- Are our measurements of psychological constructs developed in culture A also applicable, meaningful and psychometrically equivalent in culture B? - Validity: The degree to which a scale, test, or measurement actually measures what is intended to measure. (Are the numerical scores in questionnaire XYZ consistently high for extroverts than for introverts? If yes, it is a valid measure of extroversion.) - Reliability: The degree to which a scale, test or measurement produce a consistent score for the same person. (i.e. are the scores in questionnaire XYZ the same when we ask participants to take it twice?) - These studies usually do not test a specific hypothesis about cultural differences.
Linguistic Bias:
- Are the research protocols (questionnaires, instructions, etc.) semantically equivalent across the languages used in the study? * difficult to math the "connotative" meaning * "Despacito" - "Slowly" - "Lentamente" - "Tout doucement" - "Devagarinho" - "Poc a poc"
Sampling bias: (4)
- Are the samples in the cultures under study really appropriate representatives samples of their culture? * usually we do "cross-university" studies instead of "cross-cultural" studies (e.g., Auburn Psychology students vs. University Catolica (Chile) Psychology students * "cross-churches" instead of "cross-cultural" studies (e.g., Auburn Baptist Church parishioners vs. La Paz Baptist Church) * We usually need multi-sites for each culture. Replications
Hofstede Classification: Masculinity vs. Feminity (5)
- At the societal level, the distribution of values between the genders. - Women's values differ less among societies than men's values. - Men's values range from very different than female values to very similar to female values. - Feminity: minimal role differentiation between genders, balance between family and work, sympathy for the weak, mothers and fathers deal with facts and feelings, matter-of-fact attitudes about sexuality, boy and girls may cry but not fight. - Masculinity: maximum emotional and social role differentiation between genders, work prevails over family, admiration for the strong, fathers deal with facts and mothers with feelings, moralistic attitudes about sexuality, boys fight and do not cry, girls cry.
Exploratory studies: 4 with 2 subpoints
- Attempts to increase our knowledge of the existence of cross- cultural similarities or differences - They use a broad scope for identifying potential similarities and differences - They are useful in the initial stages of a research program. * e.g comparing cultures in many areas. * WVS (World Value Survey) - They have limited capability to find causes of differences
Explain the antecedent "resources" to explain the creation of cultures (3; 2 with 2 subpoints and one with one)
- Availability of natural resources: (water & arable land; available seeds and animal stock) - Money (affluence as human created resource; allows to obtain resources beyond the limits of the group - Time (Life expectancy has increased dramatically in the second half of the XX century
Explain the teaching practices and styles/expectations in Japan & China in the classroom (5)
- Children are in school more days per year, and more hours per day. - Hours are devoted to purely academic subjects - Greater proportion of time working on Math - Teachers work with the whole class. Focus on incorrect answers as motivation for group discussion. - Praise is limited
Beliefs: Societal cynicism- (3)
- Cognitive apprehension or pessimism of the world confronting people. - A negative view of human nature, a biased view against some groups of people, a mistrust of social institutions, and a disregard of ethical means for achieving an end. - Cultures high in societal cynicism believes world produces malignant outcomes. Subjects to powerful others.
Structure-oriented studies: (3 with example)
- Comparison across cultures of psychological constructs, structures, or their interrelationships * i.e. Is the construct "Intelligence " the same across cultures? Example: Westerners tend to equate intelligence to an analytic approach to solve problems. Easterners tend to equate intelligence to a holistic type of reasoning * Allow for qualitative differences as well as quantitative ones.
Ecological (cultural) level studies (4; with 3 subpoints)
- Countries or cultures are the units of analysis - Data may be: * collected from individuals in each culture and aggregated (i.e., the country average individualistic-collectivism scores; we lost the variability inside country) * or country data from other sources (i.e., country GDP (Gross Domestic Product) - Allows researchers to examine relationships between (aggregated) psychological and ecological-level variables - A well-known ecological-level studyL Hofstede's value taxonomy * Data for 72 countries, total of 117,000 individuals
Worldviews: definition and explained
- Cultural specific belief systems about the world. * They contain attitudes, beliefs, opinions and values about the world. * Assumptions people have about their physical and social realities... attributions (In the US: a worldview centered in personal control; one is in control of his/her own life, destiny, and happiness; Others: one's life may be in the hands of God, fate, or the supernatural)
Interpreting Findings: (6)
- Culture creates bias in the way findings are interpreted * researchers interpret the results through their own cultural filters - ex: For many years they consider Japanese suppress their emotion.... when it was the US sample that overstate their emotions - Data from hypothesis-testing using cultures as "factors" are basically correlational * Thus, "casual" interpretation of the results are not justified **correlation is NOT causation
Hofstede Classification: Uncertainty Avoidance (4)
- Degree in which a culture programs its member to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. - Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. - Weak uncertainty avoidance: Each day is taken as it comes, tolerance of deviant persons and ideas, comfortable with ambiguity and chaos, dislike for rules, lower stress, high well-being. - Strong uncertainty avoidance: Uncertainty as threat that must be fought, intolerance: different is dangerous, need for clarity and structure, emotional need for rules, high stress, low well-being.
Hofstede's Classification: Individualism vs. collectivism- definition and separate definitions for individualism and collectivism (3)
- Degree in which in a society people value to look after themselves and their immediate family versus belonging to strong cohesive groups (e.g. extended families) that will look after them in exchange for loyalty - Individualism: privacy as a right, speaking one's mind is healthy, the "others" are individuals, personal opinions are expected, transgression leads to guilt feelings, purpose of education is learning how to learn, task over relationships, languages in which "I" is indispensable. - Collectivism: stress on belonging, harmony should always be maintained, "others" classified as in-group or out-group, opinions predetermined by group, transgression leads to shame feelings, purpose of education is learning how to do, relationships over tasks, languages in which "I" is avoided.
Interpretational bias:
- Degree in which statistical data analysis may bias the interpretation of the data * misuse inferential statistics to compare differences observed between groups - Too much emphasis in "statistically significant" results * Small p-values can be obtained due to large samples * Statistical differences between means does not given indication of meaningfulness * Emphasize cultural effect size statistics - Researchers assume that groups differ in ways corresponding to the mean values * sometimes disregarding the variability
Hofstede Classification: Long vs. Short-term orientation (3)
- Degree to which cultures encourage delay gratification of material, social, and emotional needs. - Short-term orientation: Important events occurred in the past or the present, universal guidelines for good and evil, spending and consumption, students attribute success/failure to luck, service to others is an important goal. - Long-term orientation: Important events will occurs in the future, Good and evil depends on circumstances, saving for future investments, students attribute success/failure to effort, thrift and perseverance are important goals.
Subjective Elements of culture: (6)
- Directly observable (behaviors) and indirectly observable (values, attitudes, norms, worldviews), elements of a culture that do not survive the people - Values: guiding principles that refer to desirable goals that motivate behavior - Beliefs: propositions that are regarded as true - Norms: generally accepted standards of behavior - Attitudes: evaluations of things or events occurring concurrently, or stored in memory - Worldviews: cultural specific belief systems about the world
Procedural bias: (2)
- Do the procedures by which data are collected mean the same in all cultures tested? - Administration conditions: How the researcher recruits participants & Instructions and interaction researcher-respondents
Rate of bullying varies across cultures:
- Elementary school samples: Italy (41%), England(27%), Portugal (20%), Spain (18%), Japan (11%), Norway (9%) - But different cultures may define bullying differently.
Level oriented studies: (4)
- Examine the size of cross-cultural differences - Quantitative comparisons, i.e. * The numerous studies comparing the average individualism-collectivism across countries * Comparison of mean school performance across countries (i.e. PISA, TIMMS)
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory: Chronosystem: (3)
- The influence of time and history on the other systems - Over the lifespan of the individual - changes in socio-historical circumstances
Hypothesis-testing studies:
- Examines why cultural differences exist in the observed responses - attempt to build theories or models about the relationship between psychological and cultural phenomena * they assess rival explanations * they look for aspects of culture that produce the differences * compare models across cultures - More vulnerable to cross-cultural biases and inequivalences
Priming Studies: (2 with example)
- Experimentally manipulating mindsets of participants and measuring the resulting changes in behavior * Experimenter "primes" the participants by expose them to select stimuli before the actual presentation of the experimental task - Ex: e.g. Stapel & Koomen (2001) prime individualism-collectivism in participants by asking to write a paragraph with specific pronouns (I, me, myself, and mine or we, our, ourselves, and ours) and words (unique, special, and unusual or together, integrate, and harmony). later the participants rate a students vitae
Extended Families: (4)
- Extended families include members other than parents and children, and they can be also multigenerational * Grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, "adopted" siblings. * Common institutions in many countries. Usually living in same house. Provide buffer for stress and a network of resources. Is not necessarily related to economic limitations * Increasing in the US...but in part due to economic crisis or teenage pregnancy. (Role in child-rearing process. Grandmother cancels the negative outcomes in teen mothering. Share resources, emotional support, and caregiving)
Hofstede's classification: power distance (3)
- Extent to which the less powerful members of organizations or institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally - Smaller power distance: egalitarian, hierarchies established for convenience, pluralist government, even income distribution, corruption is rare. - Larger power distance: inequality, hierarchies per se, autocratic governments, subordinates expect to be ordered, uneven income distribution, corruption is frequent.
Educational system: (3)
- Formalized mechanism of instruction in many societies and cultures * Teaches and reinforces cultural values * Big differences across cultures/countries
Norms: definition and explained (3 with examples)
- Generally accepted standards of appropriate behavior for a cultural or subcultural group. (Expression of emotions, physical distances, etc.) - Social rituals: 1. Culturally prescribed conduct or any kind of established procedure or routine. (Religious rituals, weeding rituals, processions, sport rituals, etc) 2. Rituals related to politeness define the appropriate "etiquette" of the culture. examples: - "One kiss vs two kisses when greeting someone" - "Usted" vs. "Tu", or "Vous" vs. "Tu" - "Looking at your interlocutor or not"
Whiting and Whitings' Six Cultures Study of parenting: explain (3 with 5 subpoints)
- Goal: To examine child rearing and children's pro-social behavior in varied cultural contexts - Children from Mexico and Philippines acted more prosaically that those from Japan, India, and USA * Most prosocial were from Kenya, less prosocial were from USA - Child's behavior and personality is connected to characteristics of the broader ecology * In poorer or less modern countries, people tended to live in extended families * Women delegated more responsibility to their kids * The kids develop more prosocial behaviors * Thus, women's work roles contribute to children's social behaviors
Procedural bias: Instructions and interaction researcher-respondents: (4)
- Halo effect (Foreign researcher vs. local researcher) - Collection mode (paper-and-pencil, computer based, etc.) - Instructions (general vs. local=specific) - Debriefing and compensation
Procedural bias: How the researcher recruits participants (2)
- In the US, mostly students enrolled in Intro to Psychology, participating as partial fulfillment of the requirements of the course.. (sort of a chore) - In other countries, professor asks whole class to participate
Explain the antecedent "the need of a group life" to explain the creation of cultures (3)
- Increase chances for survival - Division of labor - Minimization of social conflict
Individual-level studies: (2 with 2 subpoints each)
- Individual participants provide data and they are also the unit of analysis * Each individual produces a single data point * The most common research type in psychology - Conclusions refer to: * the difference between the "averages" of individuals * the correlation between the scores of individuals
Where do we get context variables from unpackaging studies? (2, one with 2 subpoints)
- Individual-level measures of culture * We assess variables on the individual level that are thought to be a product of culture * measures of individualism and collectivism-Individualism (Triandis) - Other possible measures
What is the unit of analysis in research?
- Individual-level studies
Cultural attribution fallacies: (4)
- Inferring that culture had a role in producing the differences found in the study - When there is no empirical justification to do it * Only because the groups come from two different cultures/countries - We hope that linkage studies addresses this problem
Olweus (1993) criteria for defining bullying: (3)
- Intentional physical or psychological harm - Based on a power imbalance between the bully and victim - Repeated over time
Globalization as the free movement of goods, capital, services, people, technology, and information: (3 subpoints of this definition)
- International integration of countries arising from the convergence of worldviews, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. - Facilitated by advances in transportation and telecommunications - Generating interdependence of economic and cultural activities.
Multi-level studies: (5)
- Involve data collection at multiple levels of analysis - Individuals and Country (or cultural) level - Usually Level 1 (L1) is the individual, and Level 2 (L2) is country or culture - Allow for interactions between L1 variables with L2 variables (e.g., How individual moral development (L1) relates to their personality (L1_ and private vs. public schools (L2) in western and eastern countries (L3) - These studies use Multi-level Statistical Models (Linear Mixed Models, HLM models, etc.)
Etics approach: (from Phonetics) Emics approach: (from Phonemics)
- The group observed behavior is categorized in terms of the categories of the scientist or observer - The group observed behavior is categorized in terms of the observed group categories
Ecological Fallacy: (5)
- It is a logical fallacy in the interpretation of statistical data where inferences about the nature of individuals are deduced from inference for the group to which those individuals belong - "Is Joe more individualistic than Giuseppe?" Not necessarily - "Is the average American more individualistic than the average Italian?" YES as a general trend - "The more immigrants the lower the illiteracy rate?" NO; Immigrants went to state with higher literacy rate - "The immigrants were slightly more illiterate than native born"
Increae of theoretical models and research articles and books referring culture variables: (2)
- Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Cross-Cultural Research, Culture and Psychology - Journal of personality and Social Psychology, Psychological Science, etc
Behavioral studies: (2)
- Manipulations of environments and observation of changes in behavior as a function of those environments * Yamagishi et al (1988) compare high vs low "trusters" (Factor 1) in a cooperating task under sanctioning vs non- sanctioning system (Factor 2). In Japan and the US. In Japan there was an interaction between type of "truster" and sanctioning system. No difference between Japanese and USA when sanctioning was in effect.
Objective elements of culture: (4 with subpoints)
- Observable manifestations of the culture - "Culture with a capital C" (literature, Art (painting, sculpture), music, architecture, even clothes) - Food and drink (national and regional cuisines; beer vs. wine worlds) - The "new" mass media products (television, cinema, advertising, social media, Internet, etc.)
Home environment (HOME Inventory): (2, with 4 subpoints)
- Observational cross-cultural studies home dynamics uncover differences in warmth, discipline, and stimulation/teaching. * Ways that warmth and responsiveness are expressed. * In the US through physical affection. In western industrialized nations by engaging in spontaneous talk. * In Nigeria through praising and the tone of voice. In India children keep silent until being asked. - Similarities across cultures. * As children grow, more emphasis on manners, school- related skills, emotional adjustment, make them fell loved.
Beliefs: Dynamic Externality (3)
- Outward-oriented dealing with external forces that include fate and a supreme being. - Actually Leung et al. (2002) mentions dimensions of "Reward for application" and "Spirituality" - Cultures high in dynamic externality tend to be more collectivistic, conservative, hierarchical, less freedom. They aspire security, material resources, and a longer life. Strong sense of spirituality.
Parental ethno-theories: (3; with 3 subpoints)
- Parental cultural belief systems about their roles and children roles * i.e. in Turkey parents believe that children "grow up" instead of "brought up" - Motivate and shape what parents think is the right way to parent their child * i.e. American parents believe in "special or quality time" for individual child vs. Dutch parents believe in "family time" for all children * Beliefs in formal education as social mobility - Parenting styles are also conditioned by cultural dimensions
Skills learnt from siblings: (2)
- Perspective-taking (i.e. about gender roles), social understanding, and conflict negotiation. - Repeated and prolonged interaction makes older siblings influential role models to younger siblings
LeVine (1977, 1997) theorized that the caregiving environment in a child's development reflects a set of goals. Which of the following is the first goal in the order of importance?
- Physical health and survival
Explain the growth of cultural psychology in the last decade: (3)
- Popularization of some psychological theories around the worldwide (attachment theory, big-five, organizational behavior) - Increasing awareness of the importance of culture on behavior and about intercultural conflicts - Increase of theoretical models and research articles and books referring to culture variables
Attitude: (2; both with subpoints)
- Predisposition to respond positively or negatively towards things, events or individuals. (Usually involve affective (like/do not like), cognitive (belief/opinion), conative (inclination to action), and evaluative (positive/negative) dimensions.) - Cultures influence attitudes about actions and behaviors. (Which in turn "cultural filters")
Enculturation: (2)
- Process by which individuals learn and adopt ways and manners of their specific culture. (some authors refer to a process that may be deliberate or not) - It emphasizes products of the socialization process
Socialization: (2)
- Process by which individuals learn and internalize rules and patterns of behaviors of the society in which they live (Usually a deliberate process) - It emphasizes the process or mechanisms for establish the society rules
In cross-cultural research: emics- (5)
- Processes that are different across cultures, i.e. culture-specific processes - The particular linguistic community shape the sounds that are relevant. - The particular culture teaches us what to feel emotional about and how to express it. - Cultures teach us what is considered right vs wrong. - But it is doing in different ways in different cultures.
Parenting goals: (2; with 2 subpoints)
- Provide motivation, framework and targets for raising children - Lead to variations in parenting behaviors across cultures * Or within sub-cultures in the same culture * e.g. autonomous kids in Germany and autonomous & interdependent kids in India
Indigenous Cultural Studies: (2; one with 1 subpoint, other with 3)
- Rich descriptions of complex theoretical models of a single culture that predict and explain cultural differences. * Assume that psychological processes can only be understood within the cultural milieu in which it occurs. - It usually requires in depth analysis of the cultural systems * They are not cross-cultural studies per se. * The comparison to other cultures is by analogy, i.e. on the comparison and interpretations of the researcher, and not directly in the comparison of the responses of the participants to a common instrumentation] * This type of studies come from Anthropology: Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict.
Cross-Cultural Comparisons: 2 with 2 subpoints each
- Studies that involve participants from two or more cultures and that measure those participants responses on a psychological variable of interest * The most common type in Psychology * Direct comparisons between data of the samples of two or more cultures. - Comparing across cultures * Descriptive (correlational) studies * Experimental studies.
Enculturation: definition and explained (3)
- The process that individuals follow to learn about their culture (rule, norms, values, etc.) - This process gradually shapes individuals' psychological characteristics. (How they perceive their worlds, the motivation of their and others actions, how to express emotions, appropriate behaviors, etc.) - This process is influence by individual factors (Personality, biological factors, etc.)
Equivalence: (2)
- The state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures - Allows comparisons to be meaningful
Contextual factors: (3)
- They are any variable (social or personal) that could explain or influence the observed cross-cultural differences * Participants background: SES, education, personality, age, etc. * Society/cultural background: country's economic development, institutions, religions, etc.
Unpackaging studies:
- They include variables (context variables) that assesses a culture factor thought to produce differences on the target variable * Context variables: Operationalize aspects of the culture that produces differences in psychological variables
Construct without Culture: Race (4)
- This is more of a social construction than a biological essential - The culture provides race its meaning *Regardless phenotypical features, the definition of race has a substantial within-group variability (Category boundaries are ambiguous and varies across different cultures)- race as a continuum that may vary as a function of income and education *M&J argues that racial differences are not useful for scientific or practical purposes without a clear understanding of the underlying causes of the similarities and differences observed
In cross-cultural research: ethics- (5)
- Those processes that are consistent across different cultures, i.e. universal psychological processes - All of us can make sounds and have a predisposition to language. - All of us have emotions. - All of us have a sense of morality - People try to accomplish the same things
Validity of Research: Statistical Conclusion Validity- (2 with example)
- We use statistics to asses if our measures of the constructs covariate - i.e. if they are correlated, or if they have average differences * The correlation between the scores in the extroversion and motivation questionnaires
Validity of Research: Internal Validity- (2 with example)
- We want to find a causal connection between two constructs - A construct is proposed attribute of a person that cannot be observed directly, but can be assessed using a number of indicators or measures * For example, extroversion and motivation are used to explain phenomena in psychology, but neither is directly observable.
Measurement bias: Psychometric equivalence- (2)
- Whether the scores of an instrument produce similar interrelation among the items across language versions * measurement equivalence on a statistical level
In cross-cultural studies contextual factors are: (3)
- any variable that can explain the observed cross-cultural difference - participants background variables - Society/cultural background variables
In ecological level studies:
- countries of cultures are the unit of analysis
Examples of countries that are decentralized (2) and centralized (5):
- decentralized: USA & Germany - centralized: Singapore, Japan, Hong-Kong, Taiwan, England
Measurement bias: (6)
- degree ti which measures used to collect data in different cultures are equally valid and reliable * if they are measuring the same construct with the same reliability - different cultures conceptually define a construct differently or measure it differently * "Education" vs. "Educación" (manners) - Linguistic equivalence alone does not guarantee measurement equivalence * "I am willing to compromise to avoid hurting the team" vs. "Estoy dispuesto a transigir pare evitar danar al equipo"
The main concern of any cross cultural study is to keep:
- equivalence across cultures
The ecological fallacy refers to: (3)
- errors in the interpretation of statistical data - deducing individuals' features from group's features -misinterpretation of group differences or correlations
Domain-Specific Parenting- (3 and 3 subpoints)
- focuses on parenting behaviors rather than general styles - emphasizes the complexity of socialization process by distinguishing between the domains of parent-childr socialization * protection and control * reciprocity * guided learning and group participation - Parenting practices must be appropriate for the domain in which the child is functioning
We use the word "culture" to describe or explain a broad range of features of a group of individuals: (6)
- general characteristics of a society (food, clothing, housing, technology, economy, government, etc.) - heritage or tradition - rules or norms - ways of learning or problem solving - the organization of a group - the origins of a group
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory: Microsystem (3)
- immediate child's surroundings - they can interact with them - family, school, church, peer-groups
Unpacking studies are cross-cultural studies that...
- include culture measures that are considered to affect the target variable
Globalization: (2)
- it has increased awareness of differences and similarities in the ways that individuals across the world cope with basic life challenges - The free movement of goods, capital, services, people, technology, and information
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory: Exosystem: (2)
- linkage between social settings where children do not interact, but that affect their microsystem - e.g., parents' work
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory: Mesosystem: (2)
- linkages between microsystems - e.g., parents-teachers interactions, mothers of peers, etc.
Siblings: (2 and 3 subpoints)
- play a vital role in the socialization of children * What is a sibling may differ across cultures: biologically and/or non-biologically siblings; extended-family sibling and/or step-siblings - they play many roles, besides playmates * tutors, caretakers, actually head of families * an educational "investment" for the family
Most of the psychological research findings proposed as applicable to all humans are derived from the study of a rather limited population: (5)
- primarily white - middle class - college students - from the US, Canada, and Western Europe - tested or researched in a relatively recent past
Linguistic bias and measurement bias:
- refer to translation of instruments and validity of instruments, respectively
Part of the worldview is our: answer and explain (3)
- self-concept - In the US: we think that we are responsible for our choices, that we are independent individuals. - Others: perceived as fundamentally connected with others, do not consider themselves as unique, separate individuals. Fate makes choice inevitable, etc.
Compare and contrast Cultural Psychology to Cross-Cultural Psychology: (1 difference and 1 similarity)
- similarity: both share similar methods - difference: cross-cultural psychology focus more on testing universality of psychological process across cultures
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory: Marosystem: (2)
- the culture in which the child lives (develop of the country, SES, ethnicity) - Evolves through time
Culture defines: (2)
- the importance of research area - the samples of individuals and behaviors collected for psychological research
In Baumrind's parenting style typology, authoritative and authoritarian styles differ in....
- the warmth in the relation parent-child
In the context of teaching practices and school environment, during class, American teachers tend to:
- use praise to reward correct responses
Human culture differs from those animals in: (3)
1. Complexity- animals make tools, humans make tools to make tools. - Animals communicate, humans have language 2. Differentiation- humans may be a part of different social networks 3. Institutionalization- Humans "automatize" group processes, i.e. schools
Van De Vijver (2009) classifies the type of comparative studies in cross-cultural Psychology along 3 dimensions:
1. Exploratory vs. hypothesis testing studies 2. Studies with or without contextual factors 3. Studies oriented towards structure versus level ** the three dimensions can be combined to produce 8 possible types of studies
Challenges faces by researchers when designing a cross-cultural comparative research experiment? (2)
1. Isolating the source of cultural differences (are they active cultural (vs. non-cultural) sources; are they individual-level sources for the differences?) 2. The validity of theoretical models (researchers must adopt design strategies that match their beliefs and models)
Explain the antecedent "the evolving human mind" to explain the creation of cultures (The Universal Psychological Toolkit) (5: all with subpoints)
1. Language - Distinctively human - Symbolize physical and internal worlds - Eventually provide a lasting record 2. Cognitive Abilities - Social cognition (see others as agents with intentions, Shared intentionality. Memory, hypothetical reasoning, problem solving, planning) 3. Continuous improvement - A good creation is transmitted and improved by the next generation. Ratchet effect 4. Emotions - Ability to have and perceived emotions - Emotions that cue to react in answer to events 5. Personality traits - Individual variability in patterns of behavior - Described in personality dimensions: extraversion, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness
How do people come to acquire their cultures? (2 different studies)
1. M&J argues that Shared intentionality (recognize others' intentions and to be aware the others recognize our intentions) allows cultural learning - Learning not only from others but through others - From or through parents, peer-groups, institutions, etc. 2. Tomasello's study (Children vs. two types of primates) - Children understand intentionality, social learning, and communication on a complex level - Provides the functions for sophisticated cooperation with other humans along with social learning and communication
Socialization/enculturation agents: (3)
1. People (i.e. parents, siblings, extended family, peer-groups) 2. Instituions (political, legal system) 3. Organizations (school, church, voluntary organizations, etc.)
How to deal with non-equivalence? (4)
1. Preclude comparisons: Do not make the comparison in the first place 2. Reduce the non-equivalence in the data: Identify equivalent and non-equivalent parts of the methods and refocus the comparisons solely on the equivalent parts 3. Interpret the non-equivalences: interpret the non-equivalence as an important piece of cultural information 4. Ignore the non-equivalence: cling to the beliefs about the scale, although they are wrong
Where do we get context variables from unpackaging studies? Other possible measures: (3, all with one subpoint)
1. Self-construal scales- measures independence and interdependence on individual level 2. Personality measures- Cultural differences can be explained based on different levels of personality traits in each culture 3. Cultural practices measures- variables that assess child-rearing practices, nature of interpersonal relationships, or cultural worldviews
Response bias: 4 Types-
1. Socially desirable responding - Give answers that make oneself to "look good" for the culture 2. Acquiescence bias - Tendency to agree rather than disagree with items 3. Extreme response bias - Tendency to use the ends of a scale (Found in masculinity cultures) 4. Reference group effect - Given answers comparing in terms of a reference group, instead of the individual
3 cross-cultural studies that do not include contextual factors:
1. TIMMS project (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) 2. PISA project (Program for International Student Assessment) 3. WVS (World Value Survey)
What are the 4 different antecedents that lead to create a given culture?
1. The need of a group life 2. The environment 3. Resources 4. The evolving human mind
3 goals of psychology:
1. To build a body of knowledge about people 2. To apply the body of knowledge into people's lives to improve their lives 3. Actually, Psychology as discipline is a western culture product
Whiting and Whitings' Six Cultures Study of parenting: What are the 6 cultures?
6 cultures: Nyansongo: a Gusil community in *Kenya* ; the Rajputs of Khalapur *India* ; Taira: an *Okinawan* village ; the Mixtecans of Juxtlahuaca *Mexico* ; Tarong: an Ilocos barrio in the *Phillippines* ; and the New Englanders of Orchard Town *USA*
Explain the antecedent "the environment" to explain the creation of cultures (6)
Accommodate to the ecology of the space: - Climate (deviation from temperate climate. 72F or 22C- changes in climate) - Geographical location (coastal vs. inland, sea-level vs. altitude) - Population density (people per available land, and more important, arable land) - Disease prone environments - Previous cultures and contact with other cultures
Measurement bias: structural equivalence-
Achieved when a factor analysis of the scores produced similar groups of items or factors in both languages versions of the instrument
Permissive Parent:
Allows children to regulate own lives with few firm guidelines
Culture and Socio-Economic Status (3)
Anthropologist and sociologists recognize that affluence produces different cultures - In societies with large inequality of income the difference is quite noticeable - It is not so common in US Psychology...yet (On the Psychology of Poverty)
How well our instruments tap the psychological construct we want to measure is related to..
Construct validity
Postfigurative cultures:
Cultural change is slow, socialization occurs primarily by elders transferring their knowledge to their children. Elders hold the knowledge necessary for becoming a successful and competent adult
Cofigurative cultures:
Cultural change occurs more rapidly, adults continue to socialize their children, but peers play a greater role in socializing each other, Young people may have to turn to one another for advice and information
What is the definition of "culture" to Shirae & Levy?
Culture is a set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next
Prefigurative cultures:
Culture is changing so rapidly that young people may be the ones to teach adults. The knowledge that adults held may not be sufficient for the next generation, and adults may need to look to younger people for advice and information
What is the definition of "culture" according to Hofstede?
Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another
What is the definition of "culture" according to Matsumoto?
Culture is the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of pole, but different for each individual, communicated from one generation to the next.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory: definition/use
For classifying agents of socialization
Norms: Tightness vs. Looseness cultures-
How strict the enforcement of social norms
Idiocentrism: Allocentrism:
I: Individualism scores at the individual level A: collectivism scores at the individual level
Results of children under permissive parenting:
Immature, difficult in controlling impulses and acting independently
Culture and Sexual Orientation: (2)
Individuals with alternative sexual orientations may share a psychological outlook unique to their orientation - There is a LGBT culture
Parental beliefs about education: Cultural differences in parenting beliefs about education impact children's educational experiences- Japanese & Chinese parents vs. US parents (4 each)
Japanese & Chinese parents: - Consider all children as equal in capabilities. Effort is more important for school success. - Demand more effort and higher competence. - Any child can reach higher standards. - Chinese mothers of pre-schoolers value highly education, feel the need to engage time and effort to help the child to succeed. Feel they play an important role in the child success. US parents: - Consider children as unique, and that innate ability is more important than effort. - More easily satisfied at lower levels of competence - Thus, each child is limited to his/her own capability - US mothers also valued education, however believe in a less directive approach, and show more concern for children self-esteem and social skills. Afraid of "burnout"
Results of children under uninvolved parenting:
Noncompliant, demanding
In experiments, researchers create conditions to establish cause-effect relationships: what are two types of these studies?
Priming studies & Behavioral studies
Authoritative Parent:
Promotes a firm, fair, reasonable and affectionate parenting style
Bias:
Refer to differences, effects, ideas, etc. that do not have the same meaning within and across cultures
Linguistic bias: committee approach- (2)
Several bilingual informants collectively translate the protocols * of course, it can combine with back translation
Society vs culture- (4)
Society is a system of interrelationships among people - Human societies are complex (same individual has multiple relations with multiple groups) Culture refers to the meanings and information associated with those social networks - Human cultures assign different meanings to family (nuclear or extensive family, friends as family, family as unit of production)
Culture and Disability: (2)
Some researcher has found common socio-psychological characteristic shared by people with disabilities - And the perception of a disable individual may be affected by the culture
Linkage studies: definition and 2 types of:
Studies that empirically link that measured aspect of culture with the dependent variable of interest - Unpackaging studies & Experiments
Linguistic bias: Back translation- (3)
Translate from L1 to L2, and the back from L2 to L1 * we check if the L1 and back-L1 versions are equivalent * the original L1 is decentered through this process
Constructs without culture: popular culture (3)
Trends in music, art, and other expressions that is popular among people - It does not involve sharing a wide range of psychological attributes across various domains - Values come and go as fads or trends unlike culture, which is stable over time
T or F: In the context of cultural differences in parenting beliefs about education, American parents tend to be more easily satisfied at lower levels of competence than either the Japanese or the Chinese.
True
Method Bias: definition and 6 types of-
a generic term for potential nuisance factors that derive from problems of limitations in 1. sampling 2. procedural implementation 3. linguistic or translations 4. measurement equivalence 5. response styles 6. interpretation
Sleeping arrangements in the US vs most other cultures:
US: baby should sleep through the night in separate room- it will develop independence and autonomy Most other cultures: do not share notion in fostering independence by sleeping alone- In Japan, all family sleeps next to each other on futons and children sleep in the same room as parents for a long time
Explain the antecedent "the evolving human mind" to explain the creation of cultures (basic human needs and motives) (2; with 2 subpoints and 4 subpoints)
Universal needs: - Physical needs (eat, drink, sleep, reproduce) - Safety and security needs (hygiene, shelter, warmth) Social motives - Forming social and work groups - Negotiating status hierarchy - Battling nature, fighting for food - Attracting mates, raise children
Most of the samples in psychological research are WEIRDOS. What does this stand for?
Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic cultures
_____ is the study that seeks to compare psychological phenomena in different cultures
cross-cultural psychology
The critical study of how culture affects human psychology is called:
cultural psychology
The term _________ refers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, values, worldviews, behaviors, and symbols shared by a group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next.
culture
Conceptual bias:
degree to which a theory or set of hypotheses are equivalent across cultures * meaning and relevance should be the same * if not equivalent, the comparisons are meaningless
Parent's beliefs about their ____ as caregivers influences their behaviors
duties
____ is the most important microsystem to child's development
family
Culture influences psychological processes through ______ _____
situational contexts - physical and social settings to interact with
Cross-cultural studies of parenting behavior: most salient difference being?
sleeping arrangement
The process for acquiring culture from a sociology perspective:
socialization
Cross-Cultural research:
tests the cultural parameters of psychological knowledge by comparing psychological processes between two or more cultures
Sacred values:
those considered as non-negotiable in a culture - moral beliefs that drive actions regardless prospects for success - "patria", family, honor
What is the definition of "culture" to Kroeber, A.L. & Kluckhohn, C?
ulture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, and on the other as conditioning elements of further action.
Studies with contextual factors enhances the study's ____
validity
A major finding of Whiting and Whiting's Six Cultures Study of parenting was that the work roles of _____ contributed to children's social behaviors.
women
