test 2

Describe the overall theory of how adaptive pressures cause sex differences according to evolutionary theory.

*theorized sex differences (differences resulted in different evolved psychological mechanisms) M&W with genes that help them: attract sex partners & have children who live to be reproductive age given the conditions of the EEA will pass on those genes to the next generation 1) because M-M competition for sexual access to W and low parental investment: males evolved dispositions favor violence, aggression, competition, risk taking, dominance and promiscuity/positive attitudes towards casual sex 2)because W cared for kids that require resources to survive: evolved dispositions for nurturance and a preference for long term mates who could support a family

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: cognitive development theory, What is the main point of each theory? How does socialization work within each theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory?

*Kohlberg: Children's conceptions about the nature of the world change as they go through various developmental stages: 1)early gender labeling of the self and others (2.5-3 yr) 2)understanding that gender remains stable over time (3-4 yrs) 3)emergence of gender constancy-the idea that changing one's appearance does not change one's gender. (4-6 yrs) =full understanding leads to strong motivation to model same-sex others-->socialization: kids develop awareness of sex categories and then form sexual identity as part of self concept. they then engage in sex role behaviors which get rewarded *SOCIAL LEARNING VS. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT =Social modeling: "I want rewards, i am rewarded for doing girl things, i want to be a girl" =cog. dev: "i am a girl, i want to do girl things, so the chance to do girl things and gain approval is rewarding *examples: Study on young children given novel toys and activities and they were told either "I think that boys like this toy better than girls" or something more subtle about the appropriateness of a toy or activity for a girl or boy, such as "This is a test to see how good you would be at mechanics." The children had better memory for the sex appropriate toys and activities; they also expect to be more successful with them, and they actually were better with them than the toys and activities that were described as more appropriate for the other sex. AKA good evidence that gender-related cognitions influence what young children think.

Describe paternity uncertainty. What are the outcomes of paternity uncertainty?

*M are less certain baby is theirs, F might have sex with other M and get pregnant (no tests) *M don't want to put resources into raising someone else's child (genes) so they try to control women's sexuality (unconscious) *limit W promiscuity and increase M *sexual jealousy: M jealous of sex cheating not emotional *mate guarding: overprotecting W *marriage *female circumcision (limit sexual pleasure) =the genes of these M behavior are passed on

Describe the biopsychosocial approach to the cause of sex differences.

*cycle: people select their environments and biology responds to the environment -innate differences: hormones, size & strength, reproduction-->universal, should be same in all cultures -socialization process vary by culture (local economy, social structure, ecology, technology, religious beliefs) -nature and nurture are intertwined both partly true -lead to division of labor & gender roles which are socialized into sex differences in behaviors

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: learning theory, What is the main point of each theory? How does socialization work within each theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory?

*most learning is contingent upon rewards and punishment that follow behavior *reward: anything that will increase behavior (active/passive) *punishment: anything that will decrease behavior (active/passive) =rewards & punishments shape behaviors, learning about stereotypes is a different process that follows from learning which behaviors are expected for boys & girls socialization:repeat rewarded behavior & avoid punished ones (learn from repeated experiences) -sex-differentiated pattern of rewards and punishments explain sex-differences in verbal & visuospatial ability (girls encouraged to read more & boys encouraged to play with blocks, construction toys, etc more) =kids learn math & spatial activities are more appropriate for boys & reading and other verbal activities are more appropriate for girls -M&F can improve their cognitive performance on any task if they receive proper instruction (feedback or knowledge about their performance) =spatial skills highly malleable

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: social ecology What is the main point of each theory? How does socialization work within each theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory? What are the criticisms of each theory?

*people's lives can only be understood by understanding the context in which they occur *"life review" theory because study lives in terms of social & historical periods in which they lived *each individual is an active agent who contributes to his or her own development *reciprocal ways in which life events change people and people change their environment, this altering the trajectories of subsequent life events *indv. actively make choices that influence their life course, but biology influences choices people make *socialization: emphasize the way the environment unlocks the genetic potential of individuals, intellect unfolds in a particular context, social systems can foster or inhibit the positive development of children *friends, family, own sense of self are important determinants of social, emotional and cognitive development *interplay among the characteristics of indv., the social context, developmental processes and the way these change over time sex differences at each stage of development -infancy: boys treated more roughly & girls spoken to more about emotions (by parents) -childhood: actively construct social structures depending on peers, self-segregate by sex (boys aggression/dominance) -adolescence: disengage from nuclear family, girls kept closer to family if marriage delayed beyond adolescence *it's similar to biopsychosocial model so involves biology, psychology and social aspects *difference: emphasis on historical events & the way one's age & sex determine the effect the event will have on individual, ecology emphasis on indv. as agent *individuals have multiple cognitive abilities & the potential to develop some or all of them in many ways *abilities developed depend on one's biological propensities, the context altered by indv., stage of development (age) and sociohistorical context ex: W in college develop cognitive abilities those in the past didn't, M in war develop physical abilities

what are the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences?

-Psychoanalytic perspective -learning theory -social learning theory -social ecology -cognitive development theory -gender schema theory -the expectancy-value model -bent twigs.

How is the biopsychosocial approach different from the bent twigs model?

-Biopsychosocial continues to incorporate biology throughout the life, it's a cycle, while bent twig only mentions biology at the very beginning of the process, it seems more linear -culture assigns the roles and thus magnifies differences in biopsych., but bent twigs socialization begins due to initial preference as well as innate diff.

Define the confirmation bias. What role does the confirmation bias play in people's thinking about sex differences and their causes?

-The tendency to look for and use information that confirms what we believe to be true is a powerful and pervasive effect. -confirmation bias is the prediction to seek and utilize info. that supports or confirms one's hypotheses or premises while ignoring or discounting disconfirming evidence -when building conclusions about cognitive sex differences people should use reason, using rationalization leads to confirmation bias -scientists rewards on hypothesis confirmation motivates them to disregard negative findings -confirmation bias affects everyone -ex: study effect of testosterone on human bargaining: double-blind placebo controlled experiment: participants who believed they got testosterone were less fair in $ split (regardless of T or placebo) -thought T would make them more aggressive and behave in a confirming way to that belief

What do the cross-cultural data say about subsistence (food)? what theories are supported/not?

-W produce an avg. of 40% of food within societies -varies by region: --if gathering is important: W are main providers (contradict EVO.) --if hunting & fishing men are main providers (support EVO) -meat often shared among tribes & personal alliances, not just family --meat relatively rare & unreliable ex: agate woman hunter (Philippines) takes baby in the back and go in group with dogs and bow and arrow to hunt= overcome innate difference in strength & bring kid= support BIO & contradict EVO *negates evolutionary theory because sharing= no need to fight between males, also females choose mates for other reasons since they can provide food for themselves

cognitive theories

-a general class of theories that are based on the primary importance of children's and adults' knowledge of sex-differentiated behaviors -focus on children's active participation in learning gender roles & the way children construct knowledge about gender= self-socialization (what does my gender mean to me?) 1. cognitive development theory 2.gender schema theory

Why is gender such an important category for children?

-adults make it salient: teachers say "girls & boys" instead of "kids", separate the genders -one of 1st identities learned -only 2 groups: enforces the idea of opposite sexes "anti" of each other -many different processes are involved in socialization

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: Psychoanalytic perspective What is the main point of the theory? How does socialization work within the theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory? What are the criticisms of each theory?

-built upon biological differences, biology is destiny -boys & girls develop in psychologically sex-differentiated ways -childhood experiences have life-long effects *psychosexual stages of development (because differences in their sexual nature were viewed as primary determinants of psychological development):Girls and boys proceed sequentially through a series of developmental stages each important in shaping sex-differentiated behaviors and feelings. -The core concept is that children come to identify with their same-sex parent, and through identification they imitate the appropriate sex role behaviors of their mothers or fathers. -stages: Oral (sucking), anal (pee/poop), phallic (most important in understanding sex-differences in behavior=genital focus)[ develop oedipus & Electra complex, castration anxiety & penis envy, kids start with love for other-sex and jealousy of same-sex ends with identification of same-sex and imitate sex roles] and latency (sexuality is dormant). socialization: when the complexes are resolved and kids identify with same-sex parents, they follow those gender roles and become socialized into behaving in congruence with their gender role criticisms: 1) no research to support studies, little relevance in modern psychology 2)research has shown that a large proportion of children in this age range do not have a conscious understanding about the anatomical differences between women and men 3) theory has an anti-female (penis-centered) orientation-especially for its assumption that children of both sexes immediately perceive the superiority of male genitals over female genitals 4)theory implies that children who are raised in homes without a same-sex parent will fail to develop sex role appropriate behaviors and single-parent research has shown this prediction is false. Research with children raised by lesbian and gay parents also shows that these children develop sex role appropriate behaviors.

socialization through self-socialization (cognitive theory)

-children seek out information about gender and apply to their own life -critique: sex-type behavior occurs at a very young age, could socialization have happened so early in life? -gender schema and internal regulation

Describe achievement motivation and fear of success. Is there a sex difference in fear of success? When do men and women fear success?

-cognitive sex differences might be indicators of motivational differences -ex: M & W are equally able to learn a task (math) but M are more motivated to put in hard work needed to learn the concepts and/or more motivated to demonstrate their knowledge -study: Asked to complete story of Anne (John) finding themselves at top of medical school class =Anne: more negative consequences (unhappy, unfeminine, everyone hates and envies her), unsexed by success hypothesis: In addition to motivational differences, W have a fear of success or a motive to avoid success because success often has negative consequences for W -no replications of study -most research: fear of success exists equally in M & W -W want to be more than a sex object -M want to be come than just a success object Women fear success when: it is in an area they find to be unfeminine becuase they might still feel like they will be judged, negative consequences of being unsexed Men fear success when: they fear negative consequences of being seen as just a successfull {blank} and not a person

socialization process at ages 2-3

-correctly identify own sex (boy vs. girl) -gender identity: feel like they look -gender categories for others: family, friends -identify with and prefer own sex: all good is my sex, all bad is other sex -define gender by surface features (clothes,hair, play: can change gender if clothes are changed) -dont understand gender is stable -stereotypes center around activities, clothing, jobs, toys

How is the universality of cross-cultural data useful for testing evolutionary theory and biopsychosocial theories?

-cross-cultural surveys conducted with archived data --ethnographic research from anthropology --nonindustrial societies --standard cross-cultural sample of 186 societies selected to be representative of the distribution of societies around the world -used to test whether or not these theories are supported by the data

can and will sex differences change (decrease or increase) over time? according to biosocial theory

-culture constantly changes and affects division of labor and gender roles which change sex differences -this is still a slow process because sex differences affect our cultural beliefs and our gender roles (loop cycle), hard to break the cycle -faster then evolution

socialization through direct tutelage

-direct training and experience -verbal skills: talk more to girls especially about emotions so they get more practice whereas they play more actively with boys -math skills: even same classes might give different experiences i.e. teacher pays more attention to boys --math cultural differences: americans (gender diff. ) attribute mistake to ability so people hide their errors vs. asians (no gender diff.) mistakes attributed to lack of effort, kids ask for help get better -spatial skills: sports, toys (video games, trucks, airplanes, blocks) more boys, M&W benefit from direct training especially girls because their skills start lower -non-academic skills (chores): girls given laundry, cooking house cleaning and boys mowing the lawn, taking out trash and washing car -gender roles and norms: boys don't cry, girls let it out -example studies: 1)boys are more interested in scientific thinking: video cameras in children's museum to detect explanations from parents: more given to boys (especially fathers)->get more interested in science->think they should be interested 2)10 hr video game training for spatial abilities (intense visual monitoring shooting game vs. non-action maze game: both M&W improved w/action game. W more than M, no diff. in ability after training (undergraduate students) -->cycle: being better at skills makes you like them more and do more of them and that makes you better

what are the different processes involved in socialization?

-direct tutelage -reinforcement & punishment (operant conditioning) -modeling (social learning theory) -cognitive theories (gender schema & internal regulation) -expectancy-value model

what are gender roles and how are they created according to biopsychosocial theory. how are they related to sex differences?

-division of labor between sexes creates gender roles -gender roles are broad conceptualizations of what men and women do and should do (apply to all men and women) ex: toys, occupations -women and men learn (are socialized) to do the tasks and skills necessary for the activities they are assigned -stereotypes perpetuate ideas about gender (force people to act in line) -other biological processes (hormones) influence behavior e.g. learning tasks changes your brain -->socialization of gender roles, stereotypes and the influence of hormones combine to create sex differences in behavior

socialization through reinforcement & punishment (learning theory)- operant conditioning

-engage in behavior & others respond (reward & punishment) --about behavior but stereotypes would follow (generalize to other behaviors) -active (praise, join in, criticism, ridicule) or passive (affection, imitation, smiling, ignoring, withdrawing) reinforcement or punishment -might be involuntary but gets kids get the message -example: children told to play with cooking toys (girls) or trucks (boys), parents brought in to watch= pleased when daughters played with girl toys and tolerant when they played with boy toys, mothers accepted sons' play regardless of toy but fathers criticized sons who played with girls' toys, fathers police more than mother, all police boys more than girls *fathers more worried about feminine boys

how does the environment play a role in evolutionary theory?

-environmental input affects how the mechanisms (genes passed on through evolution) develop and how they are expressed in behavior -activated given current environment & developmental experiences -malleable and open to cultural and social influences (we can choose when to mate or not, we can control our aggressive urges) -predicts general similarities across cultures -->global generalizability, universality (because we all evolved from same people) *stronger sex differences at societies where characteristics remain similar to EEA

can and will sex differences change (decrease or increase) over time? according to evolutionary theory

-evolution takes a very long time, despite changes in culture and technology -changes will happen but very slowly (millions of years)

compare the evolutionary and biopsychosocial theories

-evolutionary theory uses differences in the EEA to suppose differences in the current world -whereas biopsychosocial theory would use the same viewpoint to suggest differences in the EEA and current world In essence biosocial explains how innate differences interact with contemporary culture to influence gender roles of the sexes at that moment in time without relying on past differences (EEA)

what are the predictions about the universality of sex differences?

-evolutionary theory: mostly universal (biology of F & M same everywhere), especially in simpler societies more like the EEA, but differences in the environment would change the expression of genes -biopsycosocial theory: universal to the extent that cultures treat M &W the same (similar gender roles across cultures), differences to the extent that cultures treat M &W differently (different gender roles across cultures)

socialization process at ages 4-6

-gender constancy: sex is constant and linked to genital differences -develop personality trait stereotypes (general hostility): my sex is better than yours -continue to develop more elaborate but nuanced (subtle) stereotypes

Overall biopsychological theory, when do differences matter more or less?

-genetic and biological differences as one cause of contemporary sex differences -but culture/socialization also matters *genetic and bio. differences would matter more or less in different cultures because gender roles would change --matter more: warfare is common and/or W have many babies --matter less: physical strength not required for most occupations and/or reproduction is controlled and/or breast feeding is less common and/or shared childcare

What type of evidence does evolutionary psychology rely on?

1)cross-cultural consistencies: universal especially clear in simpler societies (not developed) 2)cross-species comparisons (animals-given similarity & dissimilarity to humans)[but how similar are we really?] 3)sex difference in contemporary humans match those predicted based on evolutionary processes and the EEA: evolution is slow and social change is relatively fast

socialization through internal regulation (social cognitive theory)

-if i want to feel good about myself I do sex typical behavior -external sanctions: outcomes of behavior (directly experienced, modeled by others, taught) -internal sanctions: self-sanctions & self direction grounded in personal standards (feeling good or bad about yourself) -social cognitive theory: initially learn gender roles through external rewards & punishments, but as mature regulate own actions through internal rewards & punishments -between 3 & 4 children develop internal gender standards example: kids rated how good or bad they would feel about playing with toys & measuring their amount of play time *no significant difference when young, would not feel strongly about other sex toy, no self regulation *significant difference for older kids engaging in internal regulations, stronger for boys: feel better playing with same-sex toy *feelings correlated with actual behavior *higher self-esteem when engaging in sex typical behavior

what could universality stem from?

-innate sex differences, universal socialization pressure/gender roles *girls have more pressure to be nurturant and boys have more pressure to be self-reliant and achieve

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: , gender schema theory, What is the main point of each theory? How does socialization work within each theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory? What are the criticisms of each theory?

-knowledge about sex differences forms a "schema" or an organizing framework in which we process, interpret and organize info. -we store info in memory and utilize it later -organizes and guides perception on a topic of which we have a general knowledge framework on -gender schema: set of ideas that define as appropriate for men and women particular skills, preferences, personalities and self-concepts and act as filters shaping our perceptions and interpretations of events -allow kids to organize and interpret info. about sex roles: can distort info to fit their schemas -high ability to use gender roles increases gender-typical play with toys -children remain fairly constant in their sex-typed behavior, most increasing it with age, especially girls

What do the cross-cultural data say about child care? what theories are supported/not?

-mothers as principal caretakers --infants 80-90% of societies (lactation) --young children < 25% of societies -other caretakers: children (siblings), older maternal relative, father, community as a whole -mothers generally share child care, especially past infancy ex: efe (forest dwelling foragers): community helps watch kids, hang around camp and people can hear if anything is wrong ex: 19th century european wet nurse paid to lactate others' babies *negates evolutionary theory: women don't have to stay close to home all the time and be the ones nurturing the kids, *supports biospychosocial theory: women can do traditionally male roles if innate sex difference is removed by having others help with child care

What are the evolutionary psychology theories about sex differences in the different types of verbal abilities?

-no specific relations

Describe sexual selection. How does sexual selection work to create sex differences?

-not just survival of the fittest but survival of your genes to the next generation -reproductive advantage: those who have more children pass on their genes how do you pass on genes?(not conscious thought process) -survive to reproductive age, have sex/children, have kids that survive to reproductive age and have kids, etc. -M &W with genes that help them do these things will pass on those genes to the next generation -sex differences are created because the process of sexual selection leads to the survival of specific and distinct attributes needed by M & W. (based on parental investment differences & parental uncertainty)

What do the cross-cultural data say about warfare ? what theories are supported/not?

-performed most exclusively by men in nonindustrial societies -women participate in only 12% of nonindustrial societies --even then men did most of the fighting -warfare not as prevalent in simple societies (more egalitarian) ex: dahomean Amazon corps (west africa): women warriors trained since infancy to be fierce, not allowed to have sex (so they won't get pregnant) *negates evolutionary theory because not all women are agreeable and nurturing, and not only M participate in wars, these W would have fought and travel far and develop dominant traits, [however could support theory because no genes are passed on (no sex=no kids)] *supports biospychosocial because these W are given new gender role by removing innate differences in strength & reproduction : warriors and develop the skills required to fit this role but the result is a decrease in sex differences

socialization through expectancy-value model

-predict what you would like -outcome of a task will depend on expectation of success or failure and the value placed on the task (multiply to predict whether you will engage in the behavior)=results in motivation to achieve or not e.g. women may expect success in STEM fields but do not value does occupations -links back to schemas and reinforcement *expectancy linked to: 1. self efficacy: self-confidence, belief that we can achieve a goal, may not be related to actual ability 2.may also be related to whether people think they are talented (ability, us focus) vs. hard working (effort, asia) 3.attributions affect peoples motivation to continue a task, give up or try harder *attributions of ability are internal, uncontrollable,stable -you either have it or you don't, born with it, US parents *attributions of effort are internal, controllable, unstable -can turn on and off depending on activity or day examples: 1)parents: daughter's good math grades attributed to hard work rather than ability, assume their sons will be good at math (natural ability) 2)teachers: boys praised for ability and criticized for effort, misbehavior, bad handwriting (smart but lazy) girls praised most for effort, ability, compliance, tidiness and criticized for lack of ability (hard workers but not that smart) *should praise and criticize based on effort so kids feel like they are agents and have control 4)teachers trained to treat students like boys or girl: all kids 'failed' task -treated like a boy: attributed their failure to lack of effort -treated like a girl: thought they were not smart enough

socialization through gender schema theory (cognitive theory)

-schemas: knowledge structures that guide how people perceive and organize the world; stereotypes -misinterpret behavior to fit schema -remember more things that fit your schema and reinforce the schemas -cognitive associations of skills, preferences, behaviors & objects associated with M & F (instantly classify) -process information in terms of these schemas, attach meaning to M & F, start as idiosyncratic (individual) but become cultural= similar to peers -create prejudice: negative attitudes toward outgroup (comes before stereotypic attributes) when kids are very young -labels impact behavior: children perform better, work longer and harder and evaluate the appeal of the same task as greater when it is labeled appropriate to their own gender examples: 1)"hot potato" effects: given attractive & unattractive toys labeled as F & M: toys labeled as other sex are seen as unattractive 2)Baby X studies: give parents same newborn baby & dress up as boy/girl to see if parents treated differently -mothers agreed boys & girls were alike at this age and should be treated the same but: put boy on floor=more active, given hammer & girl:doll, hold her close, talk more to her -24 hours after childbirth, parents already view infants differently: no objective difference in health & size, but boys seen as firmer, stronger, better coordinated, more alert & girls seen as softer, finer featured, more delicate -after viewing a baby video of a baby who stared and then cried to a jack-in-the-box: told it was a boy (angry), girl (scared) 3)meta-analysis of differential parental reinforcement: -relative lack of differential treatment (amount of interaction, discipline, warmth) but encouragement of sex-typed play, chores, sports (biggest sex difference) 4)peers become more important when school starts -peers are the mediators and interpreters of cultural news of gender -children quickly learn what their peers do, so even if they come from an atypical home they may censure the atypical behaviors they learn at home -boys police other boys especially (sissy)

How do sexual selection, intersexual competition, intrasexual competition, male-male competition for mates, and women as the choosier sex relate to each other? How do these factors influences sex differences

-sexual selection leads to sex differences because differences in parental investment lead to: 1.intersexual competition: W are the choosier sex, desiring certain qualities (fit, provider, high status) placing pressure on men to be good mates 2.intrasexual competition: M-M competition for fertile (young, healthy) mates, aggressiveness/dominance -who survives: W who were nurturing & choosier & M who were better hunters, competitive/dominant, promiscuous because they were better mates (sexual selection) and more likely to have children and pass on the genes with these characteristics (sex differences)

play preferences

-show same-sex play preference at 2 years -by 6-7 years: 70% unsupervised play is with same sex (especially at school) -->rough and tumble play: <10% physically active, hierarchical, assertive, competitive, larger groups (boys) -->(girls) cooperative, share, negotiate, take turns, downplay hierarchical, social aggression -easier for a girl to play with boys (tomboy) than boy to play with girls (sissy) -but girls are the ones who initially stay away from boys

What are the evolutionary psychology theories about sex differences in the different types of math abilities?

-spatial abilities linked to some areas of math -no other theories

what do kids learn through socialization?

-stereotypes -sex-typed activities and interests -attributions for behavior

How does pronoun usage impact perceptions of gender?

-taught grammatically correct pronoun for unknown gender is "he" (he is used to mean he or she) -called 'generic he' use is much like the use of generic labels for supermarket canned goods -argument against changing is that the issue is trivial and of no real significance -truly people think of a male when they hear the word he, so its not neutral

Taken together, the cross-national data on gender equity show that as gender equity increases:

-the male advantage in mathematics virtually disappears -the female advantage in reading grows larger -the male advantage in visuospatial tasks grows larger -countries with larger implicit attitudes that math is a male domain have larger differences favoring males for eighth graders on international math and science tests -no simple theory can explain this pattern of results -does not conform to predictions from stereotype threat or theory on sex role learning or socialization (differences would decrease to 0 if stereotypes & inequality is eliminated) -cant explain with any biologically based theory

gender socialization

-the process by which girls and boys learn feminine and masculine identities -produces men and women specialized for their sex-typical roles -ability differences are less dramatic than outcomes in the real world, so something else must be going (socialization)

Why does Halpern suggest that same-sex schooling is harmful to both boys and girls? What does the research suggest about same-sex schooling and the "boy crisis"? Describe the limitations or negative consequences of same-sex schooling.

-the research supporting same-sex schooling is flawed there are actually no gains attributed to single-sex education. -single-sex schools that are top-notch are such due to preexisting differences unrelated to single-sex feature -no evidence that boys & girls learn in different ways -argument for single-sex: there is a "boy crisis",boys attend college at lower rates than girls & boys drop out of HS at higher rates than girls= but M go to military and M are increasing college rate but higher for W bc started lower, boys are improving in absolute terms =debate doesn't benefit boys or girls & distracts attention from serious education programs -sex differences are not due to coeducational failure, each sex is showing superior performance on diff. types of measures of learning limitations/negative consequences of same-sex schooling: *Girls and boys increase sex role stereotyping when they are educated separately. *gender is made salient and so children see roles of boys and girls more rigid in same sex school and less likely to play with other sex kids * CA study: comparisons pitted boys and girls against one another and reinforced gender stereotypes, girls received unwanted harassing comments and were touched when they came together in coeducational spaces =sex role stereotypes were enhanced when contact was reduced Girls and boys increase sex role stereotyping when they are educated separately due to saliency of gender coming from sex segregation

cultural differences in biopsychological theory

-the tasks vary by societal organization, economy, technology, local ecology (fish, farm), cultural beliefs, etc

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: bent twigs. What is the main point of each theory? How does socialization work within each theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory?

-theory used to explain female superiority in language memory & usage (as the twig is bent, so the tree shall grow" -girls talk at an earlier age than boys (reasons not important) consequences: -bc of the advantage, girls rely more on verbally & socially mediated approaches in their interactions with people & objects -boys rely on their better developed musculature to interact with people & objects moving more contributing to development of spatial skills -each sex develops fixed patterns or preferences for interacting: early developmental differences guide later actions -small initial sex difference in abilities grows larger over time (cause of initial differences not determined-could be reinforcement or biology or interaction of both) socialization: predispositions interact with social influences (parental encouragement) to create large sex differences in cognitive abilities), differential experiences magnify biological differences ex: looked at left-handed girls (biological association with math ability) those with mothers who encouraged non-sex-typed behaviors = more likely to achieve highest levels of math due to combination of biological & environmental factors ex:Visuospatial ability & self-confidence are both involved in determining SAT-Math scores it's a biopsychosocial theory so it involves biology, psychology and social processes

Describe the "environment of evolutionary adaptedness" (EEA). What was it theoretically like for men and women?

-these are assumptions (we can't time travel) -polygyny: M had many mates to maximize success -hunter (M) & gatherer (F) society -men involved in warfare -women took care of kids (lactation) -results in different adaptive skills for M & W based on different evolutionary needs based on sex roles

what is the evolutionary psychology theory of sex differences?

-to the extent that males and females faced different adaptive problems as they evolved, the sexes developed sex-differentiated (innate) psychological evolved dispositions -adaptations to conditions of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA)=pleistocene era 1.5-2.5 million years ago to 12000 years ago -evolution is a slow process, not much more evolution since then even though adaptation might not be relevant today -broader theory -dont place value on evolution of each sex -dont argue differences are permanent, can change, adapt -only genetic predispositions, most likely but not inevitable

what happens when cultural and biological differences interact? according to biopsychosocial theory

-together they create a division of labor which in turn could lead to patriarchy when men are given jobs that have higher status and provide them with wealth and power

What does "nonconscious ideology" about gender mean?

-we underestimate sex-differentiated experiences, messages and expectations such that these differences are so prevalent and so ingrained in American life that we are often blinded by them -hard to imagine a society in which they did not exist -unaware of the pervasiveness of sex-differentaited practices -dont notice the messages bombarded to us about sex-appropriate interests and behaviors -unstated assumption that the male is norm and departures from male pattern of results are deviant

What are the general explanations given by biosocial theory for sex differences

-what are the gender roles in that society CURRENTLY? -these gender roles are there due to the interaction of innate sex differences and culture -the gender roles teach/socialize our skills/abilities/personalities which influence our brains and hormones and show sex differences in behavior

What are the general explanations given by evolutionary theory for sex differences

-who made the best mates in the EEA? -what skills/abillities/personalities did they have? --these were passed on their genes and created the sex differences we see today (same genes)

Describe how differences in parental investment lead to sex differences.

-women invest more in reproduction: gestation, birth (nursing), limited reproductive capacities because utero occupied 9 months when pregnant and menopause -men only need sperm and can reproduce until very old age *sperm is cheap, eggs are not =so W are choosier & pick best mate (M-M competition) who is aggressive & dominant= these sex-differentiated genes passed on

socialization through modeling (social learning theory)- observational learning & modeling

1) not simple imitation, but learning sex role behaviors: imitate adults from same sex: selective modeling, might imitate without reward but stronger with reward, don't have to do the behavior themselves to learn it (not in operant conditioning), importance of perceived consequences of behavior (see others punished/rewarded), attend to same-sex models (and average behaviors they see, take exceptions as such i.e. mom doctor, father chef) -examples: 1) mothers nontraditional attitudes & occupations: children less likely to show preferences for gender typical play and more likely to have nontraditional occupational aspirations -children still often learn sex-typed behavior from peers, media, other adults 2)fathers traditional: more knowledge of gender role (kids) 3)Negative role models: math anxious female teachers treat F&M differently (mostly non verbal behavior or could be explicit), passed on math anxiety to F students, teachers' math anxiety predicted girls' stereotypes about math/reading, which lowered scores on math test -no effect on boys, not same sex-model, teachers were not bad at teaching because boys succeeded in math

What are the critiques of these types of evidence and evolutionary theory hypotheses?

1)difficult to test: can't time travel, a lot of assumptions about EEA behavior and mate preferences 2)"just-so", post hoc stories (after the fact): find current sex difference, hypothesize what would be different in EEA that would have created it -should look at EEA and hypothesize a sex difference and then see if it exists today 3)present vs. past: current sex differences assumed to be linked to past behavior (not necessarily true) 4)functional adaptations vs. random vs. co-opted features: -assume evolution was due to function it performs -could be random or co-opt: used to do something but not anymore ex: kidney has no use anymore 5)evolution vs. cultural change: hard to distinguish whether changes were purely evolutionary or if they arose due to cultural influences 6)some female competition and male choice: more F-F competition over M due to shortage from war in some cultures 7)assumptions of the EEA: are they really true? they are the basis of evolutionary theory

How would biopsychosocial theory explain sex differences In current society?

1)innate differences: M have high speed, strength and T, W bear children and nurse them +1)culture: contraception, technology, nannies, supermarkets, many different jobs, less pronounced sex differences =2)division of labor: M given priority in construction, athletics, CEO, high status & W priority in childcare, jobs not requiring long time travel or time away= low status =3)gender role: M given blocks, trucks, video games, in high power positions, W play house, play memory games, accept low power jobs, stay at home moms =4)sex differences: M assertive, independent, dominant, controlling, spatial skills & W nurturant, interpersonal skills, subordinate behavior (compliant), cooperative, language skills

How would biopsychosocial theory explain sex differences in the EEA/a hunter-gatherer society?

1)innate differences: M have high speed, strength and T, W bear children and nurse them +1)culture: hunter & gatherer society, ecology (what animals, how far) & technology (spears, arrow) =2)division of labor: M given priority to hunt and fight & W priority to gather, weave, care for child =3)patriarchy sometimes: better & highest status tasks given to M +=3)gender role: M go out and get food and fight while women stay close to home to care for kids =4)sex differences: M are dominant controlling, assertive, directive, spatial skills, W are nurturing, cautious and submissive *same conclusions as evolutionary theory drawn through different mechanisms

What are evolutionary theorists' assumptions of the EEA and are these valid assumptions?

1)men hunted & women gathered: -may be true in some societies but not all -if M did hunt, might not have to go far, small animals, group hunting (what makes someone a good hunter?) -if W gathered might have been far distances 2)meat was scarce/valued more than other sources of food and so hunting designated good mates since W needed them to get meat -but some cultures W provided the most food for the family and don't want a mate for food -no fridge so extra food was shared with the community 3)men traveled further away from home -nomadic tribes: W had to travel & navigate as well 4)men involved in warfare -usually but unclear how much travel this meant & rarely did war occur 5)women cared for own children with little help from others: probably more communal with people helping care for each others' kids 6)promiscuous men (cads) had more children grow to reproductive age than pair-bonded men (dads) -why are cads better than dads? why would this be an advantageous quality?- cads leave baby with mom and do not help raise kid with food/shelter, teaching them skills, harder for them to survive to reproductive age

what are the main sources of socialization?

1)parents: primary & early source, but later not so important as long as they are within normal range of parenting, engage in few sex differentiated socialization practices 2)peers: foster sex-typed behaviors consistent with sex role stereotypes, same-sex groups enforce rigid standards on appropriate gender behavior, kids feel pressure to assimilate into group by conforming to the norms 3) television and other media: W: warm vs. M authorities 4) teachers and schools: =all encourage sex-differentiated cognitive development

What are the evolutionary psychology theories about sex differences in the different types of spatial abilities?

1)spatial rotation, perception, visualization & spatiotemporal tasks M>W -hunting/warefare: M who were better at these were better mates & more likely to survive= passed on genes w/spatial ability needed to succeed -men had to travel further for hunting: need ability to move around and catch moving targets vs. women gather close to home and targets don't move. 2)spatial location memory: W>M -gathering: W who were better at this were better mates-need location memory to remember where the fertile land is with the vegetation, better at helping kids survive to reproductive age by providing food 3)navigation: -M need more sense of N,S,W,E because they travel far and to unpredictable locations when hunting -W can easily retrace steps because they travel short distances to gather and want to remember locations based on where objects like trees are located.

critiques of the socialization perspective

1. attribute sex differences to family differences but these could be genetic or socialization, confounded 2.correlational studies: no random assignment or causation 3.the chicken or the egg? which came first genes (preference) or socialization (parent's treatment) -boys and girls have a preference for certain activities -parents act differently toward children when they play different activities, regardless of sex of the child ( if P loves a certain sport or activity) -so children get treated differently 4.some differential treatment probably reflects intrinsic sex differences in children (can be magnified by parents) -activity level (higher for boys), speed of cognitive development (higher for girls), compliance with mother (higher for girls)

How is the biopsychosocial approach similar to the bent twigs model?

1. consequences of early sex differences snowball overtime -children prefer certain tasks -others respond to those preferences (i.e. Parents take you to soccer practice if you like kicking a ball) -creating strong abilities through practice and further preferences 2. small initial differences grows larger over time 3.the cause of the original sex difference not discussed (could be biology)

How is the biopsychosocial approach similar to the social ecology model?

1. each individual is an active agent who contributes to his or her own development 2.reciprocal: life events change people and people change their environment thus altering life events 3. environment encourages or discourages biological potential

biological differences in biopsychological theory

1. men's greater size, upper body strength, speed, testosterone gives them priority in tasks demanding certain types of strenuous activity, intensive bursts of energy, speed, upper body strength, spatial ability 2. women's child bearing and nursing of infants, estrogen gives them priority in tasks involving the care of very young children and causes conflict with tasks requiring extended absence from home, exposure to danger and uninterrupted activity

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: social learning theory What is the main point of each theory? How does socialization work within each theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory? What are the criticisms of each theory?

Children learn sex role behaviors by modeling or simply watching people of the same sex (average the behaviors of all females for example) and seeing how others react towards them (reward & punishment). how does socialization work to explain sex differences: same as learning theory, but children do not even have to engage in the behavior, they can simply watch others being reinforced or punished by their behaviors. Example of nontraditional parents: If mothers have nontraditional attitudes and occupations then the children are less likely to show preferences for gender typical play and are more likely to have nontraditional occupational aspirations.If fathers are traditional then the children end up with more knowledge of gender roles. BUT children still often learn sex-typed behavior from peers, media, and other adults. Example of Role Models and Anxious Female Math teacher (Beilock et. al. 2010): The female teacher passed on their math anxiety to their female students (by either nonverbal or explicit comments) and teachers math anxiety predicted girls stereotypes about math/reading, which lowered scores on math test, but this did not occur for boys (cuz wasn't a same-sex model for them) criticisms role model study: teachers could have just been bad at teaching math

When do children start to categorize by sex? Race? Prefer sex-typed toys? Stereotype others? Why is gender such an important category for children?

Children start to categorize by sex by the end of the first year of life. Other group categorizations such as race do not occur for several more years. The preference for sex-typed toys appears around 18 months to 2 years. They begin to stereotype others in early childhood. Gender is such an important category for children because they want to maintain sex-typed behaviors for assimilation into their sex-segregated peer groups.

why do men have more positive attitudes toward casual sex than women d=.81? according to biosychosocial theory

M: cool to be a player (role), can conceal it because they don't get pregnant (biology) and have a lot of sperm so they are socialized to be casual about sex and that leads to sex differences W: stigmatized for promiscuity, show when they are pregnant out of wedlock (biology), labeled slut (role), socialized to consider sex and to find good partner (limited egg count) *contraception can lower the stigma because girls can conceal pregnancy and be more casual about sex

Describe the overall theory of how adaptive pressures cause sex differences according to evolutionary theory.

Evolutionary theory: males and females faced different adaptive pressures due to their roles as hunter or gatherer and the ones that possessed the skills needed to survive pass these skills along to offspring in their genes and these cause sex differences.

Why are men better at mental rotation (d=.56) and women are better at spatial location memory (d=.-27)? according to biopsychosocial theory

M: high activity and hormones, toys given (gameboy, trucks,blocks), construction, architecture, engeneer socialize to these abilities because they are required (trained through gender roles) W: play house (stationary), low activity, given role of housewife, get used to findings things, clean up toys, memory game (inactive), low status jobs given= socialize memory skills

why are men more dominant and assertive (d = .19) and women more agreeable (d=-.59)? according to biopsychosocial theory

M: high status jobs like CEO (gender role) socialized to be dominant & assertive (used to be that roles required T and strength but now M get all high status jobs regardless of strength needed) W: get lower status jobs that require agreeableness: secretary, teacher, housewife= socialized to be more docile

Why are men better at mental rotation (d=.56) and women are better at spatial location memory (d=.-27)? according to evolutionary theory

M: hunting and war requires these skills (move catch moving targets), good mate chosen by women, survive, pass on genes with these skills W: gathering requires skills (remember where trees were), good nurturant, kids will grow to reproductive age and pass on genes with skills

why do men have more positive attitudes toward casual sex than women d=.81? according to evolutionary theory

M: low parental investment & high uncertainty leads to promiscuity and have more kids that will receive genes w/ that casual attitude W: choosier because they want to get right mate, they get good mate an reproduce and pass on genes to kids - no change with contraception

why are men more dominant and assertive (d = .19) and women more agreeable (d=-.59)? according to evolutionary theory

M: more dominant & assertive M beat other M in fight to get F mate, survive war, better hunter, control women and have more babies that survive and get those genes W: gather & take care of kids in groups sharing responsibility, have to be nice and nurturing so kids will survive and pass on these genes

explain cross-cultural studies, do they support/not any theories? why?

The cross-cultural studies provide a way to test Evolutionary Theory and Biopsychosocial Theory. Evolutionary Theory would suggest that the roles of simpler societies (non-industrial, hunter-gatherer) should be like the EEA and that they should be similar across cultures - that men should hunt and do warfare and women should gather and take care of children. To the extent this is not the case, this contradicts Evolutionary Theory - so, for example, it's true that most societies men are the warriors (support for Evolutionary predictions), but there are a couple of societies where this is not the case (evidence against Evolutionary predictions). Biopsychosocial Theory would predict that the cultures need not be universal to the extent that the biological differences between men and women matter less and because of cultural differences. So, the example of the female warriors makes sense using a Biopsychosocial lens because these women warriors were not allowed to have children (getting rid of the reproduction difference) and were trained (getting rid of the strength difference). So the idea is that normally in most cultures it is true that men are stronger and women bear children, and this would lead many cultures to assign men to high-strength tasks (hunting, warfare) and women to child care and interruptible tasks, but this would not be the case in all cultures to the extent that these tasks can be efficiently accomplished by either sex given tools, technology, and cultural adaptations. So generally, research on these different cultures is more supportive of Biopsychosocial Theory than Evolutionary Theory because cultures do not show a universal division of labor in what tasks are assigned to men and women, and they vary in ways that can be predicted by Biopsychosocial Theory.

Describe each of the theories that explain how socialization could influence sex differences: the expectancy-value model,. What is the main point of each theory? How does socialization work within each theory to explain sex differences? What research evidence is used to back up each theory? What are the criticisms of each theory?

The outcome of a task will depend on two things a) their expectation of success or failure and b) the virtue placed on the task and results in the motivation to achieve or not. AKA links to SCHEMAS and REINFORCEMENT. Expectancy is linked to self-efficacy which is self-confidence, belief that we can achieve a goal and it may not be related to an actual ability. Expectancy may also be related to whether people think they are talented (ability) vs hardworking (effort). Attributions of ability are internal, uncontrollable and stable while attributions of effort are internal, controllable and unstable. how does socialization work to explain sex differences: girls and boys can do the same things but simply the way their are given attributions for their successes or failures will affect their sex perception of themselves Gender differentiated attributions for success: Example Parents: Parents attribute daughter's good math grades to hard work rather than ability and assume their sons will be good at math (Eccles, 1993). Example Teachers: Teachers praise boys more for ability (high intelligence) and criticise boys more for lack of effort, misbehavior and bad handwriting (some irrelevant things) and teachers praise girls more for effort, ability, compliance, tidiness (irrelevant as well) and criticise girls more for lack of ability/intelligence. Teachers are trained to treat students like girls or boys (Dweck et al., 1978). When all students "failed" a task: if they were treated like a boy they thought they failed because they didn't put in enough effort (but it's unstable and can change) however if they were treated like a girl they thought they failed because they are not smart (something stable they cannot change) and that's usually how girls react to failure. -criticisms?

If a sex difference is universal, what can we say (and not say) about the cause of the sex difference? What do the data show about socialization pressures across cultures?

if it is universal we can say the cause of the sex difference is most likely: biological innate sex differences BUT ALSO universal socialization pressures and universal gender role but we cannot say the cause cannot possibly be something else (socialization for ex) or how much is from biology and how much is socialization data about socialization pressure across cultures shows: girls are pressured to be more nurturing and responsible boys are pressured to achieve more and be self-reliant however girls are equal to boys on obedience