Test 3: Chapter 7-9 Contemporary Human Geography

8.8 Distinguish among the three types of national government regimes.

- A democracy is a country in which citizens elects leaders and can run for office - An autocracy is a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people - An anocracy is a country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic, but rather displays a mix of the two types

9.6 Describe the five most common agricultural practices, including forms of subsistence agriculture, in developing countries.

- A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers expand a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from the land is known as intensive subsistence. - A form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals is known as pastoral nomadism. - In the form of subsistence agriculture known as shifting cultivation, people frequently shift farming from one field to another. - A plantation is a large commercial farm in a developing country that specializes in one or two crops.

8.6 Explain what boundaries and frontiers are and provide examples.

- A frontier, is a zone where no state exercises complete political control - A state is separated from its neighbors by a boundary, an invisible line that marks the extent of a states territory.

8.4 Define and then identify examples of nations, nation-states, and multinational state.

- A nation is a large group of people who are united by common cultural characteristics such as language, ethnicity, or by shared history (Hong Kong, Bermuda, Greenland, and Puerto Rico - A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular nation (France, Egypt, Germany, and Japan) - A multinational state is a state that contains more than one nation (Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Belgium) The gov. of Russia officially designates 39 ethnic groups as nationalities.

8.6 Differentiate among physical, cultural, and geometric boundaries, and list the various types of each.

- A physical boundary coincides with significant features of the natural landscape. Three types of physical elements that serve as boundaries between states: deserts, mountains, and water. - Some boundaries between countries have been placed to separate speakers of different languages, followers of different religions, or members of different ethnicities - Part of the northern U.S. boundary with Canada is a 2,100 km line along the parallel of 49 degrees latitude

8.1 Where are states distributed? A World Of States

- A state is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established. The term country is a synonym for state. - As recently as the 1940s, the world contained only about 50 countries, compared to approximately 200 today. - The term state, as used in political geography, does not refer to the 50 local governments inside the United States. The 50 states of the US are subdivisions within a single state - the USA. - A state has sovereignty, which means independence from control of its internal affairs by other states

7.3 Where are ethnicities distributed? Ethnic Enclaves

- An Ethnic Enclave is a place with a high concentration of an ethnic group is distinct from those in the surrounding areas - As immigrants arrive in a new country, many follow the process of chain migration where they often locate in places where people of the same ethnicity have already clustered - By the late 20th century, most of the children and grandchildren of European immigrants had moved out of the inner-city to suburbs and in some cases ethnoburbs - The cartograms reveal that in 1910 most residents of the city were descendants of immigrants from Europe, but by 1910, descendants of immigrants from Latin American and Asia were comparable in number

9.1 Explain how humankind survived before the invention of agriculture.

- Before the invention of agriculture, all humans probably obtained the food they needed for survival through hunting for animals, fishing, or gathering plants

7.10 Why does ethnic cleansing and genocide occur? Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide in Africa

- Civil war from 1983-2005 resulted in 2 million deaths and 4 million forcibly relocated. Led to creation of new state of south Sudan. - South Sudan continued ethnic conflict between Christian Dinka and folk religionist Nuer. - Darfur resenting discrimination and neglect by the Arab-dominated national government, Darfur black African ethnicities launched a rebellion in 2003. Marauding Arab nomads, known as Janjaweed, with the support of Sudan's government, crushed Darfur's black population.

8.9 Compare two forms of gerrymandering: cracking and packing.

- Cracking: Like-minded voters are spread across several districts to prevent them from reaching a majority in any of them - Packing: Like-minded voters are clustered in one district to prevent them from affecting elections in other districts.

9.3 Compare and contrast developed and developing countries in terms of ability to meet dietary needs.

- Dietary energy consumption is the amount of food that an individual consumes. Most humans derive most of their kilocalories through consumption of cereal grans, which is a grass that yields grain for food, such as wheat, rice, and maize.

9.1 Determine whether environmental or cultural factors were the most important determinant of the first agricultural revolution.

- Environmental factors include climate change and receding ice, and cultural factors include the preference to stay in one place as they learned how to farm

7.9 Why does ethnic cleansing and genocide occur? Ethnic Cleansing in Europe

- Ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia is part of a complex pattern of ethnic diversity in the region of southeastern Europe known as the Balkans. - At the time of the breakup of Yugoslavia, the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina was 48% Bosniaks, 37% Serbs, and 14% Croats. - Rather than live in an independent multiethnic state with a Muslim plurality, Bosnia and Herzegovina's, Serbs, and Croats fought to unite the portions of the republic that they inhabited with Serbia and Croatia, respectively. - After the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia remained and ethically diverse country. But Kosovo was troubling because Albanians represented 90% of the population. - Serbia has a historical claim to Kosovo. With the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia took control of Kosovo and launched a campaign of ethnic cleansing of the Albanian majority.

8.5 Explain the notion of a colony and describe reasons for European colonialism.

- European states came to control much of the world through colonialism, which is an effort by one country to establish settlements in a territory and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on that territory. - European states established colonies for 3 basic reasons: to promote Christianity, to extract resources and create captive markets for their own products; and to gain prestige

8.9 Explain the process of gerrymandering and its effect on legislative boundaries.

- Gerrymandering: Redrawing legislative boundaries to benefit the party in power

7.2 Where are ethnicities distributed? U.S Ethnicities

- Hispanics are clustered in the Southwest - African Americans are clustered in the Southeast - Asian Americans are clustered in the West

8.2 Citing examples from the section, explain the challenges geographers face in defining states.

- Korean peninsula is divided between the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North) and the Republic of Korea (South). After the defeat of Japan in WWII, the USSR and US divided Korea, into two occupation zones. USSR: installed a pro-communist North USA: installed a pro-U.S. gov. in the South. - North Korea invaded the South in 1950, sparking a 3-year war that ended in cease-fire. Both govs want to reunite the country into one sovereign state. Both maintain that they are the one that should exercise sovereignty over the entire Korean peninsula.

9.3 Explain why consumption of food varies around the world.

- Level of Development: People in developed countries tend to consume more food and from different sources - Physical Conditions: Climate is important in influencing what can be most easily grown and therefore consumed developing countries - Cultural Preferences: Some food preferences and avoidances are expressed without regard for physical and economic factors

7.4 Why do ethnicities have distinctive distributions? Migration of African Americans

- Most African Americans are descended from Africans forced to migrate to the Western Hemisphere as slaves during the 18th century - A number of European countries adopted a trading pattern called the triangular slave trade - Freed as slaves, most African Americans remained in the rural South during the late 19th century, working as sharecroppers. - When African Americans reached big cities, they clustered in neighborhoods where the small number who had arrived in the 19th century were already living. These areas became known as ghettos - White flight was encouraged by unscrupulous real estate practices, especially blockbusting, where real estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices, preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline.

7.6 Why might ethnicities face conflicts? Ethnicities and Nationalities

- Nationality identifies citizenship and ethnicity identifies groups with distinct ancestry and cultural traditions - Quebecois are clearly distinct from other Canadians in cultural traditions, especially language - The British Isles are divided between two countries - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland - Most Irish, Scots, and Welsh voted in 2016 to stay in the EU, whereas most English voted to leave

7.10 Part 2

- Rwanda and Burundi have suffered from especially severe genocide. Long-standing conflicts between the two countries' two ethnic groups, the Hutus and Tutsis, lie at the heart of the ethnic cleansing and genocide in Central Africa. - When Rwanda became an independent country in 1962, Hutus gained power and undertook ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Tutsis. - Descendants of the ethnically cleansed Tutsis invaded Rwanda in 1990, launching a three-year civil war. - Meanwhile in Burundi, where the Tutsis remained in power, a civil war resulting in genocide committed by and against both Hutus and Tutsis. - An agreement to share power in Rwanda was signed in 1993, but genocide resumed after an airplane carrying the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi (both Hutus) was shot down in 1994. - Hutus then launched a genocide campaign, but the Tutsis prevailed and launched reprisals against the Hutus, and reprisals by Tutsis added to the total fatalities. - Rwanda continues to be governed by Tutsis, but Burundi has been led since 2005 by Hutus.

8.2 Part 2

- Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Western Sahara), is considered by most African countries as a sovereign state. Morocco claims the territory and to prove it has built a 2,700 km (1,700 mile) wall around the territory to keep out rebels - Spain controlled the territory between Morocco and Mauritania until withdrawing in 1976. Three years later Mauritania withdrew, and Morocco claimed the entire territory. - The Law of the Sea, signed by 167 countries, has standardized the territorial limits for most countries at 12 nautical miles (about 22 km, or 14 land miles). Under the Law of the Sea, states also have exclusive rights to the fish and other marine life within 200 nautical miles (320 km). Disputes such as the location of boundaries between Australia and Timor-Leste can be taken to a tribunal for the Law of the Sea or the International Court of Justice.

9.1 Trace the origins of agriculture referring to where, when, and how it began.

- Scientists agree that agriculture originated in multiple hearths around the world: Southwest Asia, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America.

8.4 Explain the challenges faced by multiethnic and multinational states in maintaining unity.

- Some multinational states face complex challenges in maintaining unity and preventing discontented cultural groups from trying to break away and form their own nation-states. In Europe, the breakup of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia in the late 20th century demonstrated both success and failure in creating new nation-states.

9.2 Compare and contrast subsistence and commercial agriculture with regards to farm size, percentage of farmers in society, and use of machinery, scientific information, and electronic technology.

- Subsistence agriculture, found in developing countries, is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer's family - Commercial agriculture, found in developed countries, is the production of food primarily for sale off the farm. - Distinguishable features of these two types of farming: Commercial farming utilizes about 3% of workers engaged in direct farming, compared to the 42% in developing countries. -Developed countries use machinery to perform work, while the work is done by and or animal in developing countries. - Farms average 178 hectares in developed countries and only about 1 hectare in developing countries

9.10 Explain why, despite rapidly growing populations in developing countries, food supplies continue to increase.

- The Green Revolution: Uses higher-yield seeds and the expanded use of fertilizers

8.5 Identify the remaining colonial possessions in the world.

- The UN lists 17 places in the world that it calls "non-self-governing territories" - All but Western Sahara are islands

9.8 Define the concept of agribusiness.

- The system of commercial farming found in developed countries is called agribusiness because farming is integrated into a large food-production industry.

7.5 Why do ethnicities have distinctive distributions? Segregation by Race

- Throughout the country, not just in the South, house deeds contained restrictive covenants that prevented the owners from selling to blacks, as well as to Roman Catholics and Jews - To ensure geographic isolation of these groups, the South African government designated 10 so-called homelands for blacks. The white minority government expected every black to become a citizen of one of the homelands and to move there. More than 99% of the population in the 10 homelands was black. The apartheid laws determined where different races could live, attend school, work, shop, travel, and own land. Blacks were restricted to certain occupations and were paid far lower wages than were whites for similar work. They could not vote or run for political office in national elections. - Though South Africa's apartheid laws have been dismantled and the country is governed by its black majority, the legacy of apartheid will linger for many years. South Africa's blacks have achieved political equality, but they are much poorer than white South Africans.

8.8 Compare and contrast unitary and federal states as forms of local government and provide examples of both.

- Unitary State: most power is placed in the hands of central government officials. A unitary gov. works best in a relatively compact nation-state characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity. France is an example of a unitary state - Federal State: Strong power is allocated to units of local gov. The federal system is more suitable for very large states because the national capital may be too remote to provide effective control over isolated regions. Russia, Canada, The US, Brazil, and India t

9.8 Identify the six main types of commercial agriculture and describe their distinguishing features.

1. Mixed Crop and Livestock: The form of commercial farming called mixed crop and livestock is characterized by the integration of crops and livestock 2. Grain Farming: Commercial grain farms tend to be located in regions that are too dry for mixed crops and livestock, such as North America's Great Plains 3. Livestock Ranching: The commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area is called ranching. 4. Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming (TRUCK FARMING): Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming are the predominant types of agriculture in the US southeast. The region has a long growing season and humid climate and is accessible to the large markets in the big cities along the East Coast 5: Mediterranean Agriculture: Mediterranean agriculture exists primarily on lands that border the Mediterranean Sea and other places with a similar physical geography, such as California and central Chile.

How many animals per year are harvested in the U.S. for human consumption?

8 billion

What is a contract farmer?

A farmer who raises animals, owned by national corporations for mass consumption

8.7 Identify the five basic shapes of states and provide an example of each.

Compact states: the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda) Perforated State (South Africa): A state that completely surrounds another is a perforated state. Prorupted States: An otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension Elongated State: A handful of elongated states have a long and narrow shape Fragmented States: A fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territories Landlocked states: lacks a direct outlet to a sea because it is completely surrounded by other countries

7.1 Where are ethnicities distributed? Ethnicity & Race

Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth. Race is identity with a group of people who are perceived to share a physiological trait. Nationality is identity with a group of people who share legal attachment to a particular country.

What are examples of humane treatment of hogs?

No antibiotics, growth hormones, or steroids. All natural feeds, little confinement. Keep them on the ground and not on cement. No hogshockers, kicking, or abuse.

What are examples of externalities from industrial agriculture?

Pollution of water/air, general contamination, and soil degradation

Why are animals an important part of sustainable agriculture?

Recycling plant materials, providing fertility back to the soil through waste, and giving a proper use for lands