test and measurements
The sum of the deviation scores from the mean will always be zero. a. true b. false
true
What area of the normal curve lies between a z score of .48 and a T score of 42? a. 0.00 b. 10.00 c. 18.44 d. 31.56 e. 50.00
0.00
consider the following data: 8, 10, 12, 14, 7, 5, 9, 10. What is the mode? a. 9.0 b. 9.4 c. 9.5 d. 10.0
10.0
After administering a test, your instructor decided to develop norms for it. Year1:N=60;ΣX=560;ΣX2 =7880;SD=1;M=14. Year 2: N = 40; ΣX = 450; ΣX2 = 4905; SD = 3; M = 10. What is the mean of the combined classes? Round to the nearest tenth. a. 10.1 b. 11.1 c. 12.0 d. 13.0
10.1
The best estimate of the median of the measurements 5, 10, 7, 11,8,18,13,and12is a. 11 b. 11.5 c. 10 d. 10.5
10.5
The average number of points scored by NBA teams last year was 100 per game. The standard deviation was 30 points. Ninety-five percent of the games had NBA teams scoring fewer than how many points? Round to the closest whole number.
150
Approximately what percentile is associated with a raw score located 1 standard deviation below the mean in a normal distribution? a. 40 b. 35 c. 22 d. 16
16
If a normal distribution of scores has a mean of 70 and a standard deviation of 10, approximately what percentage of students scored below 60? a. 2.5 b. 16.0 c. 50.0 d. 84.0 e. 97.5
16.0
Normal weight
18.5 - 24.9 BMI
Consider the following scores: X = 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5; and f = 4, 5, 5, 4, 3, 3, 1. What is P50? a. 7 b. 8 c. 8.5 d. 9 e. 9.5
9
Consider the following data: 8, 10, 12, 14, 7, 5, 9, 10. What is the range? a. 2.8 b. 8.0 c. 9.0 d. 10.0
9.0
Consider the following data: 8, 10, 12, 14, 7, 5, 9, 10. What is the mean? a. 9.0 b. 9.4 c. 9.5 d. 10.0
9.4
Consider the following data: 8, 10, 12, 14, 7, 5, 9, 10. What is the median? a. 9.0 b. 9.4 c. 9.5 d. 10.0
9.5
If a normal distribution of scores has a mean of 70 and a standard deviation of 10, what score does it take to be 2 standard deviations above the mean? a. 50 b. 60 c. 80 d. 90
90
The z score of 1.56 is what percentile? a. 44.06 b. 94.06 c. 45.71 d. 92.71
94.06
What percent of observations lies between -1.96 and +1.96 standard deviations?
95%
What percentage of the normal curve lies between -2.0 and +2.0 standard deviation units from the mean? a. 47.72 b. 68.26 c. 86.64 d. 95.44
95.44
Given that variance = 100 and P16 = 985, which of the following is probably the mean? a. 965 b. 975 c. 995 d. need more information
995
Trunk Flexion (sit and reach test) Trunk Extension
Field Methods for measuring flexibility
-Pacer -Skinfold -Curl-up -Trunk lift -90 degree push ups
Fitnessgram Test Items
Muscular Strength
Force that can be generated by contracting muscles
A distribution that has many more high scores than low scores is
negatively skewed
z-scores have a mean of ___ and SD of____
mean=0 SD=1
Cross sectional
# of different subjects of different ages and compare results
What is the mean of a z score distribution? a. 0 b. 1 c. 10 d. 50
0
Equation for coefficient variation
(SD/mean) x 100
threats to external validity
-reactive or interactive effects of testing -multiple-treatment interference -interaction of selection bias and the experimental treatment -reactive effects of experimental arrangements
Obesity
-refers to overfatness, not overweight -risk factor for meany diseases
The z score at the 70th percentile is
0.52
Kelly's T score was 60. What is her z score?
1.0
act of assessing;
measurement
if a normal distribution of scores has a mean of 47 and a standard deviation of 11, what range of values would contain 99.74% of the scores? a. 14 to 80 b. 25 to 69 c. 30 to 64 d. 36 to 58
14-80
What score from a distribution having a mean of 30 and a standard deviation of 5 corresponds to a z score of -1.5? a. 22.50 b. 25.00 c. 30.00 d. 37.50
22.50
The z score of -.50 represents what percentile? a. 30.85 b. 19.15 c. 38.30 d. 50.00
30.85
What is the standard deviation of a distribution having the following statistics: N = 25; ΣX = 125; ΣX2 = 1025? a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d.5
4
Put score limits on 95 percent of the scores when the 84th percentile is a score of 60 and the 16th percentile is a score of 50. a. 50 to 60 b. 45 to 65 c. 40 to 70 d. 35 to 75
45 to 65
What is the mean of a T score?
50
M ± 1s M ± 2s M ± 3s
68.26% 95.44% 99.74%
What is the T score associated with the 97.5th percentile
70
Coefficient variation gives...
A percent of variability
-light weight, noninvasive -low cost -easy to administer -can be used in variety of settings -provides feedback for the participant
Advantages of Pedometers
Motor fitness/Athletic fitness
Describes physical fitness related to sport performance
Paired t-test
Before and after, ppl grouped based on some criteria
Inverse
Cardiovascular endurance and death rates have an _________ relationship
1. Mechanical and electrical motors 2. surveys 3. calorimetry 4. physiologic markers 5. Observation
Categories of PA measurement
Specificity (As a Key Issue in Research)
Clearly defining the values of an experiment
Norm-Referenced
Compares personal performance to a larger subjective population
R-value
Correlation coefficient
-distance runs -step tests -Rockport 1-mile walk test -predicting VO2 Max without exercise
Field Methods
Disadvantage of naturalistic observation
Hard to control the variables
Periodization
Having diff cycles when you work diff things over the corse of a year
Accuracy
How close measurements are the the "gold standard"
This is most useful with CATEGORICAL data
Mode
Correlation
Relationship
What are the two types of bias?
Researcher and Participant
Degrees of freedom for paired t-test? For unpaired?
Sample size - 1, sample size - 2
Hydro-static Weighing
The gold standard for measuring body composition is ____________.
what happens to the mean and the standard deviation of a set of scores if each score is increased by 10?
The mean changes and the standard deviation stays the same.
A t-test shows...?
The probability of something happening by chance
Unpaired t-test
Two separate sets of data
Reversibility
Use it or lose it (balance recovery and training)
What are the 4 Key Issues in Research
Validity, Accuracy, Reliability, Specificity
act of assessing; -objectivity -reliability -relevance -validity
measurement
The best reason for using T scores with three skill items on a basketball test is to
add scores together
psychological or emotional attributes; How something affects them physiologically
affective
Physical Activity
any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure
if there is a ______________, that means the Independent variable does not predict the dependent variable
lack of fit
john scored at the 45th percentile on the course midterm. Which interpretation of his score is the best? a. 45% of the people tested exceeded his score b. John got 45% of the items correct. c. John had a better score than 45% of the people tested. d. More than one of these statements is an appropriate interpretation.
c. John had a better score than 45% of the people tested.
in a bell curve where are the mean, median and mode?
centered on the curve
sum of random numbers becomes normally distributed as more and more of the random numbers are added together
central limit theorem
measuring the central area of the data set, where the scores tend to center
central tendency
Which of the following is not a PASW command that you can use to summarize your data? a. descriptives b. frequencies c. histograms d. cluster
cluster
Proportion of shared variance between two measures
coefficient of determination
knowledge-based info; some info you have to regurgitate back
cognitive
domains of human performance?
cognitive affective psychomotor
The variable weight (in kg) would be considered a. continuous b. interval c. ordinal d. nominal
continuous
The variables age (in years), sport, and college major would be considered _______, _______, and _______, respectively. *a. continuous; nominal; nominal b. ordinal; nominal; ordinal c. continuous; nominal; continuous d. continuous; continuous; ordinal
continuous: nominal ; nominal
The variables percent body fat (%), oxygen consumption (ml/kg/min), and weight (in pounds) would be considered _______, _______, and _______, respectively. a. nominal; nominal; nominal b. ordinal; nominal; ordinal c. continuous; nominal; continuous d. continuous; nominal; ordinal *e. continuous; continuous; continuou
continuous; continuous ; continuous
The variables time (in seconds), temperature (in degrees F), and triathlon event (swim, bike, run) would be considered _______, _______, and _______, respectively. a. nominal; nominal; nominal b. ordinal; nominal; ordinal c. continuous; continuous; nominal d. continuous; nominal; ordinal
continuous; continuous; nominal
The variables height (in inches), gender, and race would be considered _______, _______, and _______, respectively. a. nominal; nominal; nominal b. ordinal; nominal; ordinal *c. continuous; nominal; nominal d. continuous; nominal; ordinal
continuous; nominal ; nominal
(r)?
coorelation coefficient
statistical method to help measure correlations
corrleation coefficients
peak/shape of the curve
kurtosis
how we describe different types of numbers
descriptive statistics
how we describe different types of numbers -Mathematical summaries of performance -Performance characteristics -Characteristics of the distribution
descriptive statistics
a stress test is an example of what purpose of evaluation?
diagnosis
Which pair of scores represents the same level of measurement? a. football jersey numbers and height b. eye color and distance c. height and eye color d. distance and height
distance and height
questions to determine if s test was valid?
does it measure what it was supposed to? is it appropriate?
Who did best relative to his or her classmates? That is, who had the highest percentile? a. Timmy, whose percentile was 97% on a fitness test b. Jessica, who scored 45 correct on a test with 50 questions c. Shawn, whose z score was 0 on a written health test d. Allison, whose T score was 75 on a soccer test e. unable to determine from data given
e. unable to determine from data given
the mean is affected by the ______________________ of every score in the data set
numerical value
Lining students up according to height without actually measuring height represents what level of measurement? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio
ordinal
The level of measurement that, at best, can rank subjects is
ordinal
movement abilities
psychomotor
a valid test must have a high degree of ______
reliability
Which distribution is the most homogeneous given the following: (1) mean = 100 and variance = 25; (2) mean = 120 and variance = 36; (3) mean = 90 and variance = 49.
*a. (1)
Interclass Reliability
-Based on the correlation between two measures
Correlation
-Can help describe relations -predict outcomes
Measures of Variation
-How scores spread out within a distribution -range, variance, standard deviation
Sit-and-reach test
-Low back pain associated with poor abdominal strength/endurance and poor hamstring flexibility -measures hamstring flexibility
Physical Activity
-PA is variable -this makes assessment difficult, particularly in a free-living environment -has no gold standard for measurement
Correlation Coefficient (r)
-Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient -Index of the linear relationship between two variables
Flexibility
-Range of motion of a joint or group of joints -specific to a joint and its surrounding tissues
Test-Retest Reliability
-Simplest way of determining reliability or consistency -a test is administered twice to participants -longer time between testing occasions is called stability reliability
Assessing Flexibility requirements
-Specificity -Warm up
Fitnessgram
-The "National Youth Fitness Test Battery" -First nationally recognized fitness test battery that includes health-related criterion standards
Measures of Central Tendency
-Where the scores tend to center -a single score that better represents all of the scores -mean, median, mode
Dual-Energy X Ray Absorptiometry (DXA)
-XRay passes rays at two energy levels through the body -diagnostic test for osteoporosis -error less than 2%
Body Mass Index (BMI)
-a measure of an adult's weight in relation to his or her height -moderately high correlation to body density -acceptable for those people who are obese
Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)
-a way of measuring PA intensity level -how hard you feel like your body is working -based on increased heart rate, respiration rate, sweating, and muscle fatigue
Power
-amount of work performed in a fixed amount of time P = W / T
Youth Fitness Test Batteries
-assessment of physical fitness has shifted from motor fitness to more health related emphasis
Construct related evidence
-associated with convergent or discriminant evidence -"If, in theory, the construct is valid, then such and such should occur..."
Judgmental approach
-based on the beliefs or experience of experts
Presidential Youth Fitness Program
-began in 2013 -school based -adoption of Fitnessgram test
Accelerometers
-can measure acceleration in one (uniaxial) to three (triaxial) planes
Surgeon General's Report on PA and Health
-concluded that many Americans do not get enough PA to promote health and lower the risk of a variety of chronic diseases
Reliability
-consistency or repeatability of an observation -reproducible -stability, dependability, and precision
Pedometers
-counts steps by responding to vertical acceleration -vertical acceleration triggers a lever arm to move vertically and a ratchet to rotate -number of steps are recorded
Validity
-degree of soundness or truthfulness of a test measuring what it is designed to measure
Fat Mass
-essential fat -storage fat -Low Density -Average density of 0.9 g/cm^3
Warm-Up
-essential prior to assessing flexibility -should begin with some whole-body aerobic exercise such as walking or cycling
Task Specific Survey
-essentially an activity diary -participants asked to keep a daily record of activity patterns -measures converted to EE by an activity score
Gynoid Obesity
-excessive body fat around lower body -"good obesity"
Android Obesity
-excessive body fat on the trunk -associated with higher risk of coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, stroke, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia -"bad obesity"
Content-Related Validity
-face validity, logical validity -evidence of truthfulness based on logical decision making and interpretation -sources to validate are content experts, judges, colleagues, etc.
Specificity
-flexibility is joint specific -rules out possibility that single test can truly characterize one's flexibility -each joint has a set ROM that is unique to the function of that joint
Internal Validity
-high scientific control -results can be attributed to the treatments used in the study
History survey
-identifies physical activity and compares to current risk factors -PE and sport participation, physical activity patterns, parent activity
Combination approach
-involves use of multiple available sources -experts, prior experience, empirical data, norms
Submaximal exercise testing
-less than maximal effort -linear relationship of Heart rate, workload, and VO2 Max
Storage Fat
-located around internal organs (internal storage fat) and directly beneath the skin (subcutaneous storage fat) -provides bodily protection and serves as an insulator for body heat -adipose tissue
Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER)
-measures aerobic capacity -run as long as possible back and forth across 20m space at increasing pace -recorded score is the total number of laps completed by each participant
Hydrostatic Weighing
-measures body density -based on Archimedes' principle -criterion method for skinfold and girth measurements
Indirect Calorimetry
-measures total energy production by the body -estimates heat production by determining O2 consumption or CO2 production 3 types: closed circuit, open circuit, portable systems
Direct Calorimetry
-measures total heat loss from the body -participant placed in thermally-isolated chamber and the heat they dissipate is measured -EE measured by heat production
External Validity
-more generalized and realistic -generalizability of the results
Goniometry
-most feasible method of clinical assessment of flexibility
z-score
-most fundamental standard score -have a mean score of 0 and standard deviation of 1
Skinfold Assessment
-most reliable, valid, and popular field-based method for estimating body composition -uses skinfold calipers at multiple sites and then estimates percent body fat
Lean body mass
-muscle, bone, organs -high density -average density of 1.1 g/cm^3
Essential Fat
-necessary for bodily functioning -women > men -marrow of bones, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, intestines, muscles, and lipid-rich tissues throughout the CNS
Normal Curve
-normally distributed data
Direct Observation
-participant is observed by individuals, groups, or device -systematic observation using timed sampling protocols
Recall Survey
-participants asked to recall activity over a period of time -can assess frequency and duration of moderate, vigorous and leisure activities -difficulty in assessing intensity
Surveys
-provide an indirect assessment of physical activity behavior -goal is to estimate the EE attributable to participation in specific types of physical activity -contains 3 categories
Criterion-Related Validity
-statistical validity, correlational validity -evidence that a test has a statistical relationship with the trait being measured
Absolute Intensity
-the amount of energy used by the body per minute of activity
Physical Fitness
-the attainment or maintenance of physical capacities that are related to good or improved health and are necessary for performing daily activities and confronting expected or unexpected physical challenges
Relative Intensity
-the level of effort required by a person to do an activity
Equivalence Reliability
-two parallel or equivalent forms of an exam are given to participants -the scores on each exam are correlated to determine the level of agreement between two exams
Concurrent validity
-type of Criterion related validity -criterion is measured at about the same time as the alternative measure
Predictive validity
-type of criterion related validity -criterion is measured in the future
Criterion-Referenced Test
-used to make categorical decisions (pass/fail) -typically involve nominal data but can include continuous data -CRTs involving continuous data use cutoff scores
Construct-related validity
-used to validate measures that are unobservable yet exist in theory -evidence that combines logical (content) and statistical validity (criterion) procedures -constructs are based on theories and theories are validated through research
Split-Halves Reliability
-uses a single test to determine reliability by splitting the test into parts
Empirical approach
-uses an external criterion measure -cutoff scores directly established based on the data available on this external attribute -fire department entrance test based on this approach
Normative approach
-uses norm-referenced data to set standards with a theoretically accepted criterion
Convergent evidence
-variables that theoretically should correlate
Discriminant evidence
-variables that theoretically should have no correlation
Heart Rate Monitors
-worn on the chest with electrodes or straps -oxygen consumption is estimated and converted to kcals.
If everyone in a classroom scores the same on an exam, the variance is a. 0 b.1 c. −1 d. unable to determine
0
Assume that resting heart rates are normally distributed with a mean of 80 beats per minute and a standard deviation of 8 beats per minute. What is the probability of randomly selecting a person with a heart rate of 95 beats per minute or greater? a. 0.000 b. 0.030 c. 0.500 d. 0.970
0.030
In a normal distribution, the mean divided by the median equals a. 0.00 b. 100 c. 1 d. a figure that cannot be calculated
1
Perfect correlation has an r squared value of...?
1
what are the 3 limitations of (r)?
1. the relationship between the variables is curvilinear 2. correlation doesn't prove a cause and effect relationship 3. if there is a long amount of variation you can get a false positive
Karen's T score was 65. What is her z score? a. 0.5 b. 1.5 c. 2.0 d. need more information
1.5
Assume that resting heart rates are normally distributed with a mean of 80 beats per minute and a standard deviation of 8 beats per minute. What is the z score of a heart rate of 95 beats per minute? a. −1.88 b. 1.88 c. −2.00 d. 2.00
1.88
What is the variance of a distribution having the following statistics: N = 25; ΣX = 125; ΣX2 = 1025? a. 13 b. 15 c. 17 d. 19
17
In a fairly large, normal distribution with a mean of 15.0, two- thirds of the cases fall between the score points 12.5 and 17.5. The standard deviation can be estimated to be close to a. 1.0 b. 2.5 c. 4.0 d. 6.25
2.5
The mean on a test was 50 and the standard deviation was 20. What percent of people scored between a z score of .80 and a raw score of 68? a. 2.78 b. 18.41 c. 21.19 d. 28.81
2.78
Consider the following data: 8, 10, 12, 14, 7, 5, 9, 10. What is the standard deviation? a. 2.8 b. 8.0 c. 9.0 d. 10.0
2.8
How many students out of 100 would be between the z scores of .33 and .94?
20
Consider the following: mean = 196, standard deviation = 14, and N = 17. What is the raw score for a z score of 0.35? a. 207 b. 205 c. 203 *d. 201
201
Using the scores 1, 3, 2, 1, 3, find (ΣX2)/2 + (ΣX)2 × 2
212
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores are normally distributed with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. A student's SAT score is 430. What is the student's percentile? Round to the nearest whole number.
24
T score = 43. What is the percentile? a. 24.20 b. 25.80 c. 34.13 d. 43.06
24.20
What percentage of the cases would you find in a distribution between the median and Q3? a. 25% b. .34% c. .50% d. unable to determine from given information
25%
what percent of the cases would you find in a distribution between the median and P75?
25%
What score represents P16 if the mean of the distribution is 300 and the standard deviation is 10? a. 295 b. 290 c. 275 d. 265
290
what would the percentile of a z-score of -1.0 be? why?
34.13% 68.23% encompasses -1 to + 1 so you divide it by 2 to determine just -1.0
A pupil attains a raw score of 82 on a test with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 12. What is the corresponding T score?
35
Assume that a teacher wants to grade on the curve. The average grade will be a C. She will give 10% of the class an A and 10% an F. What is the T-score cutoff to pass the test (i.e., earn a grade of D or better)? Round to the nearest whole number. (Hint: Find the z score from the table of normal-curve areas.)
37
What T score value is associated with a score of 15 from a distribution having a mean and standard deviation of 25 and 10, respectively? a. 35 b. 40 c.45 d. 60
40
On a knowledge test, a score of 10 is at the 40th percentile. What does this indicate
40 percent of the test scores were at or below 10
. SAT scores are normally distributed with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. A student's SAT score was at the 30th percentile. What was her raw score? Round to the nearest whole number. a. 416 b. 426 c. 448 d. 466 e. 486
448
With a mean of 27.1 and a standard deviation of 3.9, the T scores for the raw scores 26 and 32 are a. 36 and 65 b. 42 and 59 c. 46 and 61 d. 47 and 63 e. 49 and 60
47 and 63
What is the T score for the 43rd percentile? a. 48.20 b. 48.52 c. 49.30 d. 49.82
48.20
What is the standard deviation of the combined classes? Year 1: N=60;ΣX=560;ΣX2 =7880;SD=1;M=14.Year2:N=40;ΣX= 450; ΣX2 = 4905; SD = 3; M = 10. Round to the nearest whole number. a. 2.0 b. 3.0 c. 4.0 d. 5.0
5.0
Consider the following scores: 2, 3, 3, 4. What is the standard deviation? Round to the nearest tenth.
7
The mean on a test is 200 and the variance was 400 points. What percentage of people scored less than 170? Round to the nearest whole number. a. 7 b. 13 c. 43 d. 87
7
The mean on a test was 200 and the standard deviation was 20 points. What percent of people scored less than 170? Round to the nearest whole number. a. 7 b. 13 c. 43 d. 87
7
Carovonan Method
70% Heart Rate Reserve + Resting = T
For a 100-point test, the cutoff for an F is 60 points. With a mean of 74 and standard deviation of 10, how many students out of 100 would receive an F? a. less than 1 b. 8 c. 15 d. more than 20
8
Consider the following data: 8, 10, 12, 14, 7, 5, 9, 10. What is the variance? a. 2.8 b. 8.0 c. 9.0 d. 10.0
8.0
If IQ scores are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, what percentage of the population has IQs between 85 and 130? a. 34.13 b. 68.26 c. 81.85 d. 95.44
81.85
what would the percentile of a z-score of +1.0 be? why?
84.13% use the 34.13% since it's +1.0 then add 50 because it's above the mean
What percentage of the normal curve lies between -1.53 and +1.37 standard deviation units from the mean?
85.17
The average athlete is able to begin activity 90 days after having a knee operation. The standard deviation is 20 days. Sixty-eight percent of athletes are able to participate within how many days? Round to the nearest day.
99 days
Underweight
< 18.5 BMI
Measurement
Act of assessing, usually results in quantifying characteristics
-objective indicator of body acceleration -measures frequency, intensity, and time -ease of data collection -provides minute-by-minute information -allows for extended periods of recording (weeks)
Advantages of Accelerometers
-represent specific, desired performance levels that are explicitly linked to a criterion -absolute standards -achievement based on reaching the standard, not competing -participants know exactly what is expected of them
Advantages of CRT
-accurate -specific information about frequency, duration, and type of activity -direct and objective -suitable for almost all activities -low subject burden
Advantages of direct observation
Obesity
Along with physical activity levels and sedentary behaviors, what else is found to track into adolescence and adulthood from childhood?
Blind vs Double Blind
Blind=ppl don't know what group their in, Double Blind= investigator doesn't know what ppl are in what group
What are the 3 scales of perceived Exertion
Borg, Omni, Cert
What does it mean when the t-test is more than 0.05?
Difference not significant, 95% chance due to chance alone
Disadvantage of Cross Sectional
Different People/Different variables
-costly -does not measure activity that is static or center of gravity is stationary -inaccurate assessment of a large range of activities -lack of field-based equations to accurately estimate EE in specific populations -difficult to analyze
Disadvantages of Accelerometers
-time consuming -can be expensive -accessibility to all locations -observations may not reflect habitual physical activity -not feasible for large populations
Disadvantages of Direct Observation
-really only validated for walking -does not provide data on type, frequency, intensity, or duration of physical activity -loss of accuracy when jogging, running
Disadvantages of Pedometers
What is the appropriate procedure for weighting the score on the final examination to count twice as much as the midterm examination score?
Double the T score for the final and add this to the T score for the midterm.
Torque
Effectiveness of a force for producing rotation around an axis
What is the difference between an experimental group and a control group
Experimental group=subjects that are exposed to the treatment, Control Group=subjects not exposed to the treatment
taken along the way to give you an idea of how someone is doing-pretest, initial evaluations & a type of research process -no formal tests just observation w/ feedback -ex. therapist monitoring ROM of shoulder after surgery.
Formative Evaluations
Different forms of overload
Frequency, intensity, duration
you can talk, but not sing during the activity
How does the talk test classify moderate intensity?
you will not be able to say more than a few words without pausing for a breath
How does the talk test classify vigorous intensity?
220-age
How is max heart rate predicted?
Standard Deviation
How spread out the data is from the mean
Experimental research includes what 4 things?
Hypothesis, operational definitions, independent variables, dependent variables
what is the IV and DV? Temperature causes a change in ice cream sales
IV: temperature DV: ice-cream sales
why is there randomization for external validity?
If a sample is not drawn randomly it may not represent the population or what was drawn
Leaner
If two individuals had the same weight but different % body fat, would a leaner or fatter individual weigh more underwater?
Reliability
Inter-researcher reliability=do you get the same results using different researchers?
What are the two forms of validity
Internal and external
-Contraction -Familiarization -Method of loading -Body positioning -Specificity
Items to consider with muscular testing
Who has developed a taxonomy for the psychomotor domain
Krathwohl
-cutoff scores always involve some subjective judgment -misclassifications can be severe -participants who attain the cutoff level may not be motivated to continue to improve
Limitations of CRT
-If the relationship between the variables is curvilinear -Correlation does not indicate cause-and-effect relationship -Greatly influenced by the variance or range of the variables measured
Limitations of r
objective tests vs subjective tests?
MC and TF vs. essay and short answer
mean of t score? SD of t score?
Mean: always 50 standard deviation: always 10
Kinesmetrics
Measurement and evaluation in Kinesiology
Absolute endurance
Measurement of repetitive performance at a fixed resistance
Relative endurance
Measurement of repetitive performance related to maximum strength
Mesocycle
Month
Ecocentric contraction
Muscle generates force as it lengthens
Concentric Contraction
Muscle generates force as it shortens
Isometric contraction
Muscle generates force but remains static in length and causes no movement
Overload
Must increase weight and speed over time
What are the 4 subtypes of research?
Nautralistic, comparative, cross sectional, longitudinal
Zero correlation
No correlation
Naturalistic observation
Observing participants in their normal setting
Negative Correlation
One goes up the other goes down
Positive Correlation
One goes up the other goes up
Advantage of Longitudinal
Only dealing with one person=less variables
What are the 6 basic training principles?
Overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, variety, periodization
-60 min daily -Most MVPA -bone and muscle strengthening activities -age appropriate
PA recommendations: Children (6-17)
-120 minutes daily; 60 min structured and 60 min unstructured -1/2 MVPA -Bone strengthening activities -age appropriate
PA recommendations: preschool children (ages 3-5)
Advantage of naturalistic observation
People act naturally
Obesity
People who suffer from ________ have higher rates of CVD, cancer, and diabetes.
-adults should do at least 150 minutes/week of moderate activity OR 75 minutes/week of vigorous activity -muscle strengthening on 2 or more days/week -preferably spread throughout the week
Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (2008): Adults
Muscular Endurance
Physical ability to perform/sustain work
Variety
Prevents over training, physiological, works diff muscles
Coefficient of Determination (r^2)
Proportion of shared variance between two measures
Experimental cause is the only way to...?
Prove a cause and effect relationship between two variables
1. Placement 2. Diagnosis 3. Prediction 4. Motivation 5. Achievement 6. Program Evaluation
Purposes of Evaluation
What are the two main types of research?
Qualitative and quantitative
Advantage of Cross Sectional
Quick
How can confounding variables be eliminated?
Randomized treatment group, blind, double-blind, placebo
what has the least stable measure of variability? why?
Range; Data sets could be very different but have the same range
Health-related fitness
Refers to the attainment or maintenance of physical capacities related to good or improved health
R squared
Square of correlation
What do error bars represent?
Standard Deviation
Evaluation
Statement of quality, goodness, merit, value, or worthiness
Longitudinal
Study of same group individuals over a period of time
. Which of the following measure represents the highest degree of relative performance? a. percentile of 90 b. T score of 72 c. raw score of 60 with mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10 d. z score of 1.5
T score of 72
True
T/F: A test can be reliable but not valid
False; Overfatness
T/F: Obesity refers to level of overweight
False; Absolute Endurance does
T/F: Relative Endurance has a high correlation with maximum strength
True
T/F: VO2 max and VO2 Peak are highly correlated
True
T/F: a high correlation exists between a person's RPE (times 10) and the actual heart rate during physical activity
True
T/F: a valid test must have a high degree of reliability
False
T/F: administering the same test twice, or two separate tests is always the best option in practice
True
T/F: conflicting data suggests that US youth are unfit and that fitness levels are decreasing
True
T/F: physically active groups have lower relative risk of developing fatal cardiovascular disease than sedentary groups
False
T/F: there is a gold standard for physical activity measurement
True
T/F: there is a linear relationship between heart rate, work load, and VO2 Max
False; it has yet to be established
T/F: there is a relationship between lack of lower back flexibility and lower back pain
True
T/F: there is no single measurement that provides an assessment of an individual's muscular strength/endurance
True
T/F: there is no valid test of general flexibility
What does is mean when the t-test is less than 0.05...?
There is a significant difference, 95% chance not due to chance alone
Disadvantage of Longitudinal
Time
Specificity (In basic training principle)
Train what you want to improve
Confounding Variables
Variables other than the independent variable that could inadvertently influence the dependent variable
Work
W = Force x Distace
What are the 6 necessary components of a principle training program
Warm up and stretching, cardio-respiratory endurance, cool-down and stretching, flexibility, resistance, recreational activites
Microcycle
Weeks
-evaluating a program -identifying excellence in achievement -identifying the current status of participants either locally or nationally
What 3 things can Normative data be useful for?
-health related fitness items -criterion referenced standards for each test -motivational awards
What are 3 elements present in all the test batteries?
-walking briskly -water aerobics -tennis (doubles) -general gardening -cycling slower than 10 mph -ballroom dancing
What are some examples of Moderate intensity activities?
-race walking, jogging, or running -swimming laps -tennis (singles) -heavy gardening -cycling 10mph or faster -aerobic dancing
What are some examples of vigorous intensity activity?
Cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness, body composition, flexibility, balance and coordination
What are the 5 aspects of Physical Fitness?
-treadmill -stationary cycle -step bench -swimming flume -arm crank device
What are the most common maximal exercise tests?
The talk test
What is a simple way to measure relative intensity?
Maximal Oxygen Consumption
What is considered the criterion measure of cardiorespiratory fitness?
35
What is the VO2 Max for an average sedentary individual?
70
What is the VO2 max for elite endurance athletes?
196
What is the max heart rate for someone aged 24 years old?
VO2 Max
What is the most reliable and valid measure of cardiorespiratory endurance?
Rockport 1-Mile Walk Test
What is the most reliable and valid of the field methods for measuring cardiorespiratory endurance?
-healthy fitness -needs improvement -needs improvement -- health risk
What three fitness zones does the Fitnessgram identify?
Lean body mass and fat mass
What two components can Body Composition be looked at as?
-Respiratory Exchange Ratio greater than 1.1 -Heart rate near age predicted maximal levels
What two other concepts are highly correlated at VO2 peak?
-result was "Step It Up! The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Promote Walking and Walkable Communities (2015)"
What was the result of the Surgeon General's Report on PA and Health?
170
What would someone's heart rate be who gives an RPE of 17?
Homogenous values
When variation is small, values are tightly clustered
External Validity
Whether results can be applied to the real world
Internal Validity
Whether results can be attributed to different treatments with in study
Test
Written, oral, physiological, psychological, or mechanical instrument or tool
Macrocycle
Year
Goniometer
_______ is a protractor type of instrument used to measure the joint angle at both extremes in the total ROM.
Physical inactivity
_________ is negatively related to all components of health-related physical fitness.
What is summation notation? a. a series of Greek symbols b. an extension of scales of measurement c. the software used within PASW to generate results d. a shorthand method of describing mathematical steps
a shorthand method of describing mathematical steps
Central Limit Theorem
a sum of random numbers becomes normally distributed as more and more of the random numbers are added together
performance compared to a set or standard
criterion-referenced standards
performance compared to a set or standard
criterion-referenced standards (EVAL)
professor market the answer as wrong (even though it was right)
error
measures the merit (goodness) of how accurate a test or measurement is
evaluation
experimenters or testers anticipating that certain participants will perform better.
expectancy
loss of participants from comparison groups for nonrandom reasons
experimental mortality
what happens in the Rosenthal effect?
experimenters or testers anticipate (expect) that certain participants or groups will perform better than others.
generalizability of results
external validity
Measurement on the nominal scale is accurately described as quantitative measurement. a. true b. false
false
The first quartile corresponds to the 75th percentile value. a. true b. false
false
The larger the standard deviation, the more homogeneous the distribution. a. true b. false
false
The total area to the left of -1 standard deviation from the mean in a normal distribution represents approximately 84% of the total area of the curve. a. true b. false
false
what can affect the reliability?
fatigue practice participant variability time between testing circumstances surrounding the testing periods appropriate level of difficulty precession of instrument environmental conditions
example of an achievement purpose for evaluation?
finishing a marathon
taken along the way to give you an idea of how someone is doing
formative
A distribution of scores is best obtained with what PASW command? a. report b. means c. frequencies d. descriptives
frequencies
in a bell curve ______ declines in a predictable manner as scores deviate farther and farther from the curve
frequency
how many times we see a score over an over again
frequency distribution
To compare two sets of data, the most appropriate technique to use is the a. frequency distribution b. frequency polygon c. histogram d. cumulative frequency polygon
frequency polygon
Which of the following does not represent a nominal scale of measurement? a. gender b. race c. religion d. height
height
what we are getting from the sample is accurate to the population
high external validity
nothing else can explain it but the treatment you used; no extraneous variables affects the results
high internal validity
how do you find the range?
high score-low score
how do you find the range?
high score-low score 50-30= 20
The graphing technique that is most appropriate for depicting the shape of a single set of data is a a. frequency distribution b. frequency polygon c. histogram d. cumulative frequency polygon
histogram
Which of the following graphs is the best choice in determining the shape of a distribution? a. bar chart b. histogram c. pie chart d. frequency table
histogram
events occurring during the experiment that are not part of the treatment
history
threats to internal validity?
history maturation testing instrumentation statistical regression selection-maturation interaction selection bias experimental mortality expectancy
correlations explains what?
how two variables are related
independent variable vs. dependent variable?
independent: manipulated or controlled dependent: variable being tested or measured
test=
instrument/tool
changes in instrument calibration, including lack of agreement within and between observers
instrumentation
when a group is selected on some characteristic, the treatment may work only on groups possessing that characteristic
interaction of selection bias and the experimental treatment
results can be attributed to the treatments used in the study
internal validity
continuous variables typically a number line like a thermometer
interval
Who did best relative to his or her classmates? That is, who had the highest percentile? a. John, whose percentile was 97% on a fitness test b. Karen, who scored 45 correct on a test with 50 questions c. Mike, whose z score was 3.0 on a written health test d. Allison, whose T score was 75 on a soccer test e. It is impossible to determine from what is given.
it is impossible to determine from what is given
Why is the range not often used for statistical analysis? a. It is too large. b. It is the easiest measure to calculate. c. It is not very reliable. d. It takes too long to figure out.
it is not very reliable
what happens if you add all the residuals together?
it will equal zero
Which of the following tests will carry the greatest weight if you simply add the total number of correct items to obtain a total score for the course grade? a. items = 200; mean = 140; standard deviation = 10 b. items = 200; mean = 130; standard deviation = 20 c. items = 200; mean = 150; standard deviation = 30 d. items = 200; mean = 120; standard deviation = 40
items = 200; mean = 120; standard deviation = 40
measurement and evaluation in kinesiology
kinesmetrics
peak of the curve
kurtosis
if there is a ______________ that means the Independent variable does not predict the dependent variable
lack of fit
A distribution that has a large number of scores that cluster close to the mean with relatively few scores falling in either tail is said to be a. platykurtic b. mesokurtic c. leptokurtic d. heterogeneous
leptokurtic
not a lot of variation--> values are tightly clustered; more homogenous
leptokurtic
SD is a ____ measure of variability
linear
Criterion-Referenced
looking for a certain criteria to see if a subject has met it
high internal validity=
low external validity
Descriptive statistics provide a. mathematical summaries of data b. inferences about population parameters c. generalizations about distributions d. predictions regarding future trends
mathematical summaries of data
best score or average score
mathematical summary
processes within the participants that operate as a result of time passing
maturation
Affected by the numerical value of EVERY score in the dataset
mean
The most stable measure of central tendency with interval data is the
mean
Three of the following four things have something in common. Which does not belong with the other three? a. mean b. range c. standard deviation d. variance
mean
When you sum all of the X values of interest and divide by the number of values that you summed, you have calculated a a. mean b. median c. mode d. variance
mean
Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate for continuous scale measurements? a. mode b. median c. mean d. either the mode or the mean
mean
Which of the following is the arithmetic average? a. mean b. median c. mode d. variance
mean
most stable and reliable but it may not be representative of skewed data sets
mean
Which of the following statistics are most commonly reported in sport and exercise science research reports? a. mean: standard deviation b. median: standard deviation c. mean: range d. mode: range
mean : standard deviation
in a kurtosis graph all the values have the same what?
mean, median and mode
on a positve graph where is the mean? median? mode?
mean: low median and mode: peak
-works well for skewed data sets -middle score, 50th percentile (P50); the typical value
median
The advantage of the _____ is that it is not affected by extreme scores d. This could be used with ORDINAL, INTERVAL, and RATIO DATA
median
Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate for ordinal scale measurements? a. mode b. median c. mean d. either the mode or the mean
median
Which of the following is not affected by the value of every score in the set on which it is calculated? a. mean b. standard deviation c. median d. variance
median
Which statistic requires the data to be ranked before its calculation? a. mean b. median c. average d. mod
median
works well for skewed data sets middle score, 50th percentile (P50); the typical value
median
ranking scores on a test from highest to lowest facilitates finding which of the following measures?
median and mode
adequate in the middle and varies on ends (normal)
mesokurtic
Which statistic can be used with either continuous, nominal, or ordinal data? a. mean b. median c. average d. mode
mode
most unstable measure of central tendency; easily obtained
mode
when participants receive more than one treatment, previous treatments may influence subsequent ones
multiple-treatment interference
How can a standard z score be changed to a T score?
multiply by 10 and add 50
Isotonic contraction
muscle generates enough force to move a constant load at a variable speed through full range of motion (ROM)
Isokinetic contraction
muscle generates force at a constant speed through full range of motion
if a graph is negatively skewed which way does it lean? positively skewed?
negative: to the right positive: to the left
For a set of 5,000 scores, the mean is 98, the median is 110, and the mode is 120. Which of the following describes the distribution? a. homogeneous b. heterogeneous c. positively skewed d. negatively skewed
negatively skewed
How does one describe a distribution that has many more high scores than low scores? a. positively skewed b. negatively skewed c. normal d. rectangular
negatively skewed
With a mean of 12 and a median of 14, we can infer that the distribution is a. positively skewed b. negatively skewed c. normal d. rectangular
negatively skewed
Political party affiliation (Republican, Democrat) is an example of which measurement scale? a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale
nominal
The numbers on the shirts of football referees represent what level of measurement? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio
nominal
Which of the following measurement scales is related to naming or classifying?
nominal
gives name to a grouping categorical data (inclusive)
nominal
lassifying subjects as athletes or nonathletes, male or female, from New York or Hawaii, is an example of which measurement scale? a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale
nominal
steps taken by men and women is an example of_____
nominal
hierarchial scales of measurement?
nominal ordinal interval ratio
the value you get from the population; performance compared to others
norm-referenced standards
parts of evaluation (4)
norm-referenced standards criterion-referenced standards formative summative
the value you get from the population; performance compared to others
norm-referenced standards (EVAL)
What is another name for the z score table? a. percentile table b. T-score table *c. normal curve table d. symmetrical table
normal curve table
moderate vs. vigorous activity is an example of
ordinal
the variable BMI group (low, normal, high, very high) would be considered a. continuous b. interval c. ordinal d. nominal e. ratio
ordinal
when we are looking at numbers or information (ranking of gold, silver or bronze)
ordinal
Given that the mean is 80 and the standard deviation is 10, which of the following does not belong? a. z score = -1.21 b. T score = 37.9 c. raw score = 67.9 d. P = 38.69
p=38.69
what happens in the Hawthorne effect?
participants' performance can change when attention is paid to them.
a number that represents the percent of observations at or below a given score
percentile
Which of the following does not belong with the other two? a.Tscore=70 b.zscore=2.0 c. percentile = 95
percentile 95
z-scores can an give us __________ and _________ that fall under a certain area of the curve
percentiles and percent of observation
amount of variability in the data set
performance characteristics
a swim test to figure out what lane swimmer should be in is what purpose of evaluation?
placement
6 purposes of evaluation?
placement diagnosis prediction motivation achievement program evaluation
lots of variation--> values are widely scattered ; more heterogenous
platykuritc
positive(direct) vs. negative(indirect) relationship?
positive: x an y are increasing negative: x increases, y decreases
With a median of 12 and a mean of 14, we can infer that the distribution is a. positively skewed b. negatively skewed c. normal d. rectangular
positively skewed
Assess at beginning and at the end to see if the student has increased their activity is an example of what purpose of evaluation?
program evaluation
evaluation=
quality/merit
measurement=
quantifiable
What is the simplest measure of variability to calculate
range
Reaction-time tests are what level of measurement?
ratio
To make statements such as 8 units is twice as much as 4 units, what level of measurement is required? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio
ratio
Which of the following allows for fractional comparison? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio
ratio
Which of the following is the highest (most sophisticated) scale of measurement? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio
ratio
Which of the following scales contain an absolute zero point?
ratio
continuous variables, zero has a meaning
ratio
steps per day is an example of
ratio
Oxygen uptake capacity measured in liters per minute is an example of which type of measurement? a. nominal scale measurement b. ordinal scale measurement c. interval scale measurement d. ratio scale measurement
ratio scale measurement
You want to make the norms as easy as possible for students, parents, administrators, and teachers to understand. How would you report your results?
raw scores and percentiles
Treatments that are effective in constrained situations (e.g., laboratories) may not be effective in less constrained settings (real world)
reactive effects of experimental arrangements
pretest may make participant more aware or sensitive to the upcoming treatment
reactive or interactive effects of testing
A distribution around a given mean and standard deviation that is mesokurtic with no skewness is said to be
regular, bell shaped , normal
a test can be _____ but not _______
reliable but not valid
a test is considered reproducible if?
repeated measures of the same trait are reproduced under the same conditions
Rosenthal effects vs. Hawthorne effects?
researcher bias vs. participant bias
each data point is a certain distance point away from the best fit
residual
gives us info about regressions and what were looking at overall
residual scores
choosing comparison groups in a nonrandom manner
selection bias
the passage of time affecting one group but not in other in nonequivalent designs
selection-maturation progress
Physical Fitness
set of attributes that are either health or skill-related
estimating one variable(Y) from the other (X)? more than one x?
simple correlation; multiple correlation
predict the criterion, outcome, or dependent variable (Y) from a single predictor or independent variable X
simple linear prediction (regression)
if x and y are close to zero you can't do this type of equation
simple linear regression
If a distribution of test scores has an unusually high score in comparison to the other scores, what shape does it have? a. normal b. skewed left c. skewed right d. uniform
skewed right
Which words might be used to describe the shape of a distribution? a. skewness b. ICC c. variance d. range
skewness
symmetry of curve (leaning + or -)
skewness
shape of the distribution
skewness (-1 to +1)
the statistical term for the shape (or symmetry) of a distribution is __________ and the peakedness of a curve is referred to as _______. a. kurtosis; skewness *b. skewness; kurtosis c. kurtosis; normal d. normal; skewness 141
skewness; kurtosis
3 parts of reliability?
stability, dependability and precision
Which measure of variability is normally reported with the mean? a. range b. variance c. standard deviation d. correlation
standard deviation
you are discussing the heterogeneity of your tennis class results with one of your fellow teachers. Which of the following terms will you probably use in the discussion? a. standard deviation b. intervally scaled c. percentile d. grouped frequency distribution
standard deviation
A set of observations that have been standardized around a given M and SD
standard scores
the fact that groups selected based on extreme scores are not as extreme on subsequent testing
statistical regression
Which of the following represents the nominal scale of measurement? a. achievement on the SA T test b. student enrollment (ID) number c. percentage of body fat from skinfold calipers d. age of the students
student enrollment (ID) number
Which of the following represents the nominal scale of measurement? a. body fat b. test score c. student number d. vertical jump
student number
Exercise
subset of PA -- planned, structured, and repetitive and has an objective
shows the end product
summative (sum is when you add things and get the result)
shows the end product -final evaluations at the end end of a training unit -ex. grades students earn at the end of a semester
summative (sum is when you add things and get the result) (EVAL)
how do you find the SD given the variance?
take the square root
Summative Evaluation
taken at the end of the program
Formative Evaluation
taken during the program at certain weeks
-test or tool used to make a measurement -can be written, oral, physical, psychological, or mechanical (treadmill) -Cognitive- thinking, knowledge based -Psychomotor- skills involving movement of body -Affective- psychological and emotional
test
physiological, psychological, oral or written measurement or tool that is used to get measurements
test
Given the following statistics, which test would contribute most to a composite score obtained by adding each student's four scores together? a. test A: M = 80; SD = 2 b.testB:M=70;SD=4 c.testC:M=60;SD=6 d.testD:M=50;SD=8
test D:M=50;SD8
the effects of one test on subsequent administrations of the same test ("learning effect")
testing
Aerobic Power/Capacity
the ability to supply oxygen to the working muscles during physical activity
skewness and symmetry are characteristics of
the distribution
VO2 peak
the highest rate of oxygen consumption measured during the exercise test
Calorimetry
the measurement of the quantity of heat exchanged
Body Composition
the study of the components of the body and their relative proportions
The standard deviation is an indication of
the variability of a set of test scores around the mean
where are the mean, median and mode on a normal shaped graph?
they are all very close
Which of the following is a characteristic of ratio scale measures? a. They indicate rank-only order. b. They have absolute zero values. c. They have arbitrary zero values. d. They indicate only group membership.
they have absolute zero values
Which of the following is a characteristic of ordinal scale measures? a. They indicate rank order. b. They can express ratios. c. They have arbitrary zero values. d. They indicate only group membership.
they indicate rank order
Why are standard scores so important? a. They are related to the normal curve. b. Grades can be based on them. *c. They permit scores to be compared more appropriately. d. They are easier to interpret than percentiles. e. They reduce the variability in a distribution to 1 (for z scores) and 10 (for T scores).
they permit scores to be compared more appropriately
what do you need to take into consideration when determining if the assessment is feasible?
time setting training results equipment
what is the point of standard scores?
to have scores on the same scale so you can compare better
What is the ultimate goal of evaluation?
to make intelligent decisions
observed
total (combination of error and true)
Forced categories should not be created because of the potential loss of information. a. true b. false
true
The area to the left of 1 standard deviation from the mean in a normal distribution represents 84% of the total area of the curve. a. true b. false
true
content knowledge
true
3 types of variance
true error total
Total score variance minus error score variance leaves you with a. absolute score variance b. no variance c. true score variance d. observed variance
true score variance
validity= reliability= objectivity= feasibility=
truthfulness consistency equal among observers realistic
degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores for proposed uses of tests.
validity
wihtout reliability one cannot have _____
validity
4 most important aspects of a test
validity reliability objectivity feasibility
what is standard deviation used to illustrate?
variability
Average of the squared deviations from the mean (hence, the term mean square)
variance
Average of the squared deviations from the mean (hence, the term mean square) SD squared. SD=5 ____=25
variance
most stable measure of variability
variance
example of a motivational purpose for evaluation?
weight loss, good and bad exam grades
When are the mean, median, and mode identical? a. when the sample size is very large b. when all equal zero c. when the distribution is mesokurtic *d. when the distribution is symmetrical
when the distribution is symmetrical
Heterogenous values
when variation is large, values are widely skewed
if x and y are related can x predict y?
yes
what does it mean if you have a negative z-score?
you are below the mean
most fundamental standard score?
z-score
