Test Study Guide

Individuals have been gender-typed when they

adopt cultural definitions appropriate and normal behaviors for their sex.

Nurturance, gentleness, and expressiveness would be considered _________ traits; aggressiveness, independence, and dominance would be considered _________ traits.

affective; instrumental (emotions. feelings) (active, effective)

Biases in research can enter the process

all of the above: when a comparison group is chosen; at the question formulation stage; when researchers choose or create biased measures

Many women with eating disorders

all the above: also have depression. also have anxiety. are socially rewarded for their low weight.

Trafficking of children takes place in the context of

all the above: extreme poverty. gender inequality. limited choices.

Women are more likely to identify as feminists when they

all the above: have a positive experience of feminism. recognize discrimination exists. have a feminist mother.

Feminists are often portrayed as

all the above: lesbians. man-hating. fighting-women.

Abusive families are usually

all the above: patriarchal. emotionally distant and unaffectionate. conflictual.

Backlashes against 20th century feminism have included

all the above: the claim that feminism is outdated. referring to feminists as "ball-busters" and "feminazis." blaming infertility on feminism.

Organized ways to get involved in feminism as a student include

all the above: volunteering at the women's center on campus. taking courses on women and gender and recommending them to others. joining an organization for women's equality.

Women-of-color argue feminist theory and research should analyze the position of

all the above: white women in relation to women of color. white women in relation to men of color. people of color in relation to white men.

Female under-prediction effect

although women score lower than men, they receive higher grades in college - a mis-measurement of women's potential with negative results

People who believe that women can be intelligent and successful businesswomen, but that those same women are angry, selfish, and unfeminine are

ambivalent sexists.

People who believe women can be intelligent and successful businesswomen, but consider those same women as angry, selfish, and unfeminine are

ambivalent sexists.

testosterone

an androgen that causes the internal structures of male sexual anatomy to develop

social learning theory

an approach that emphasizes how children learn gendered behavior from their environment

self-objectification

an effect of the pervasiveness of objectification is that women and girls learn to think of themselves as objects

feminist

an individual who holds the beliefs that women are valuable and that social change to benefit women is needed

gender identity disorder

an official psychiatric category for those individuals who experience a disjunction between their assigned sex and their core gender identity

More males wish to become females than vice versa. One reason for this sex-related difference, according to the textbook, may be

androcentric cultures are less accepting of deviant behavior in males.

The testes typically produce ____________, which shape infants' bodies into a form typical of males.

androgens

According to Plant, Hyde, Keltner, & Devine (2000), the three emotions considered stereotypically "male" are

anger, contempt, and pride.

According to Plant, Hyde, Keltner, & Devine (2000), the three emotions considered stereotypically "male" are

anger, contempt, pride

According to Plant, Hyde, Keltner, & Devine (2000), the three emotions that are stereotypically "male" are

anger, contempt, pride

If a therapist has sexist assumptions about psychological symptoms, then

any person's probability of receiving appropriate care may either increase or decrease.

When a woman politician or "authority figure" is portrayed in the news, it is likely her ____________ will be including in the commentary, not as likely for a man

appearance

rape myths

are socially propagated beliefs about female-male relations that make rape seem unimportant or even acceptable.

Stereotypes

aren't individual opinions, but collective agreements about what constitutes reality

Freud's Theory of Personality

arose in the late 1800s as a way to explain personality development and also as a way to provide treatment to people with mental problems. The theory gained and then lost popularity but remains a provocative and controversial approach to personality. The basic concepts include the notion that an unconscious region of the mind exists beyond conscious awareness and that instincts furnish the energy for personality functioning. Freud's View of Gender Identity Development begins with the passage through a series of psychosexual states or stages Oral Anal Phallic Latent Genital

Violence is often used

as a means of control in sexual encounters and romantic relationships.

The modern incarnation of the African American stereotype of the Jezebel is represented

as the "ho".

Aging men tend to talk about their bodies ____________ while women speak of ____________.

as wholes; parts of their bodies

When people become gender-typed, they

ascribe to themselves cultural traits, behaviors, and roles normative for people of their sex.

gender typed

ascribing themselves the traits, behaviors, and roles normative for people of their sex in their culture.

legitimizing myths

attitudes or beliefs that are used to maintain the status of non dominant groups -popular culture, mythology, religious stories and symbolism (woman are the source of evil, adam and eve) (week or helpless, they need male protection) (sleeping beauty, snow white)

legitimizing myths

attitudes, values, and beliefs that serve to justify hierarchical social practices

gender difference hypothesis

based on the notion that men and women differ on a variety of important characteristics and that these differences are statistically and clinically significant -research operating from this orientation are interested in gender differences and design studies to detect them

Some women become so disempowered by abuse that they feel trapped, worthless, depressed, and even a kind of post-traumatic stress disorder called

battered women's syndrome.

Although psychologists like to do experiments because they can show causation,

behavior in a laboratory may not be representative of behavior in other situations

Gender role

behaviors typically associated with males or females

Social Privilege

being accorded social power, status and resources; individual and group privileges are not generally recognized as "special" by the group - generally privileged per dominant group membership (race/ethnic, gender, ability) - awareness of privilege is a developmental process

Social oppression

being denied social power, status and resources, due to non-dominant group membership -awareness of oppression is a developmental process

Gender constancy

belief that gender is constant throughout lifetime

hostile sexism

belief that men are superior to woman and that woman are a threat to society as a while (trying to take over mens rightful place"Most women fail to appreciate all that men do for them." "Women seek to gain power by getting control over men." "Most women interpret innocent remarks or acts as being sexist."

The DSM (psychological book of diagnoses) has been revised in part because

beliefs about what is normal have and continue to change.

benevolent sexism

beliefs about woman that are positive on the surface but on a deeper level they serve to justify the second class status of woman (put woman on a pedestal but none the less reinforces woman's subordinationDespite its overtly positive flavor, this idealization of women implies that women are weak, soft creatures that are best suited to traditional gender roles

sex

biological differences in genetic composition and reproductive anatomy and function

Jezebel

black woman portrayed as immoral, seductive, promiscuous

The mental pictures women have of their bodies and the feelings they have as a result are referred to as

body image

The mental pictures women have of their bodies and the feelings they have as a result are referred to as

body image.

Feelings that women have about their bodies' sizes, shapes, and attractiveness are part of their

body images

Feelings that women have about their bodies' sizes, shapes, and attractiveness are part of their

body images.

female to male transsexual

born as females but believe deep down they are male

male to female transsexual

born male but believe deep down they are female

secondary sex characteristics

breasts and body hair

sample

can lead to bias in selecting a sample researchers generally want to be able to extend their research findings REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES

klinefelter's syndrome

causes men to have less masculine physiques and appearances, along with increased risk of learning disabilities

dihydrotestosterone

causes the penis to grow and the testicles to form

outgroup homogeneity effect

characterize outgroup members as being all alike and having similar qualities

feeling rules

children are taught what it means to experience and emotion, what others expect them to feel, and how they are supposed to recognize emotions in others

puberty

children develop secondary sex characteristics

gender segregation

children express strong preferences to play with other children of the same gender

feeling rules

children not only learn display rules but feeling rules that is they learn what it means to experience an emotion what others expect them to feel and how they are supposed to recognize emotions in others

gender segregation

children's preference to play with same gender friends

differences tradition

claims that there are fundamental differences between women and men that should be recognized and honored

similarities tradition

claims that women and men are very much alike in intelligence, personality, abilities, and goals

What type of explanation does the textbook emphasize in explaining why people find it so hard to abandon stereotypes?

cognitive

Given the research on gender-related differences in cognitive abilities, we can conclude all of the following EXCEPT

cognitive differences can be easily traced to biological dissimilarities

Given the research on gender-related differences in cognitive abilities, we can conclude all of the following EXCEPT

cognitive differences can largely be traced to biological dissimilarities between the sexes.

During the design stage of the research process all the following are done EXCEPT

collection of data

In North American society, meaningful roles for elders are more apparent in

collectivist cultures, including many Native American, Asian, and African American communities.

If a woman shows token resistance to a man's sexual advances and then "gives in," she is doing all of the following EXCEPT

communicating honestly with her partner

twin studies

compare monozygotic twins with dizygotic twins to help separate the influences of genetics and environment

female under-prediction effect

compromises women's right to equal education; usually talking about expecting lower scores on tests from women

In the 1970's, women met to talk about their lives as women; in the process, they realized their problems were related to society's devaluation of women. The groups developed were referred to as _____________ groups.

consciousness-raising

By age 3, most children can identify their own sex. However, they may believe that people can change sex by changing hairstyle or clothing because they lack gender ________.

constancy

Later Development

continues during later childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, but most of the research has concentrated on developing gender flexibility. People experience an increased ability to be more flexible concerning gender and a greater tolerance of atypical gender-related behaviors. Increasing gender knowledge forms the basis for this flexibility, but women tend to be more gender flexible than men, and people tend to allow for more flexibility for self than for others. -For most children, gender development is complete by age 6 -Around age 11, boys spend more time in gender-typed activities -By middle childhood, children exhibit some stability in terms of gender-typed patterns of activities

gender fluidity

conveys a wider, more flexible range of gender expression, with interests and behaviors that may even change from day to day

imitation

copying someone else's behavior observational learning---occurs through watching others' behavior

woman of color feminism or womanism

criticizes the white womans movement for excluding women of color and other issues important to them.points out strengths and positive values of minority communities

The difference tradition in feminist theory and politics stems from

cultural feminism.

A feminist who focuses on the differences between women and men and who feels "feminine" characteristics should be recognized as valuable rather than be devalued is most likely a

cultural feminist

The liberal feminist perspective is less likely to emphasize the value of so-called feminine traits than the

cultural feminist perspective.

Emotional display rules

cultural guidelines on which emotions may be displayed by whom and when

Television violence builds schemas of the world as

dangerous and scary

The ability to recognize the emotions expressed by others is called

decoding ability

The ability to recognize the emotions expressed by others is called

decoding ability.

liberal feminism

deeply held beliefs about equality an orientation that connects it to political liberalism. from this perspective a feminist is a person who believes that women are entitled to a full legal and social equality with men an who favors changes in laws customs and values to achieve the goal of equality.fostered research on such topics as how people react to others when they violate gender norms,how children are socialized to accept gender roles, and sex discrimination in employment.

When creating questions for her survey, Anne decided that she would avoid using terms often used to describe women and men in traditional roles. Anne is trying to minimize sex bias in the ___________ stage of research.

design

Children who have Turner's syndrome

develop external female parts

consciousness-raising groups

developed by second wave feminists, women met informally to talk about their lives as womens.

Variability hypotheses

developed to present men as more variable than women, and therefore "better" - overall, women & men are far more similar than different, across cognitive abilities and skills

secondary sex characteristics

development of breasts and body hair

social learning theory

development of gendered behavior is influenced by environmental factors

assigned sex

diagnosis based on physical appearance ITS A BOY ITS A GIRL

role overload

difficulties of meeting these expectations ex) the secretary who is asked to work over time on short notice and must scramble to find child care may experience both conflict and over load as she calls baby sitters and types a report

sexism

discrimination or prejudice against people because of their gender -both men and woman can be perpetrators or targets

Matriarch

domineering, aggressive, strong, unfeminine; often portrayed as a hostile, tongue-lashing nag that drives men away and bullies everyone else

ambivalent sexism

double edged way of thinking in which woman are sometimes treated with contempt and sometimes adored if someone is describing someone as an ambivalent sexist, that would mean he/she is uncertain whether they are sexist or not. A lot of words for nothing.

The longer lasting kind of depression is called

dysthymic disorder.

independent self

each individual is unique, the task of each individual is to fulfill his or her potential and become and autonomous person

Independent self

each individual seen as unique; task of individual is to fulfill her/his potential and become an autonomous person (individualistic culture)

pornography

efers to audio, visual, or written materials that combine sex with degradation or violence (typically against women). Pornography almost exclusively is portrayed through the male gaze. It focuses on male pleasure; female pleasure is generally depicted only as a way to please men. Some pornography is especially virulent, featuring images of women being raped, tortured, or humiliated for the sexual pleasure of men. These forms of pornography are disturbing not only because of the subject matter but also because they desensitize viewers to violence against women

confounding

effects of two or more variables were mixed, making it impossible to determine which variable is causing the effects

feminist language reform

efforts to eliminate gender bias in the structure, content and usage of language and to provide nonsexist alternatives. modified old and created new language

feminist language reform

efforts to eliminate gender bias in the structure, content, and usage of language and to provide nonsexist alternatives

gonads

embryonic sex glands

Demonstrating Emotionality

emotional display rules

__________ by men are often not labeled as emotionality.

emotional displays

benevolent sexism

emphasis that women are special beings to be cherished and protected

radical feminism

emphasizes male control and domination of woman throughout history . views the control of women by men as the first and most fundamental form of oppression :woman as a group are oppressed not by their biology or their social class but by men as a group .

radical feminism

emphasizes male control and domination of women throughout history

socialist feminism

emphasizes that there are many kinds of divisions between groups of people that can lead to oppression. believe that acts of discrimination based on social class,race, and gender are equally wrong . believes that these forms of discrimination are inseparable.

The frequency of hot flashes has been associated with

ethnic and cultural differences.

Interactionally: recognize discrimination

even when women and men behave in different ways, this does not justify discrimination/ oppression

Research suggests ___________ greatly improve/s older people's health and feelings of well-being as they age.

exercise

self-fulfilling prophecy

expectations can make the expected events come true

self fulfilling prophecy

expectations can make the expected events come true. powerful and lasting effects.

embodied experiences

experiencing the world inside ones own skin, in the moment as opposed to looking at oneself as if from afar. ex) pleasure at the feeling of warm sand under your feet or enjoyment of the flavor and texture of biting into a ripe peach

objectification theory

explains that in a sexually objectifying culture, girls and women learn to "internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves"

The tendency for the media to feature men's faces more often than women's is called

face-ism

Stereotype threat in terms of math performance means

fear of confirming the stereotype women are bad at math may negatively impact women's math performance.

Children learn what they are "supposed" to feel and act in various situations, which translates to "boys feel A and girls feel B" or "boys should show X emotion.: These rules are called

feeling rules

stereotypes in popular comic strips

female characters are less active than male characters (Brabant & Mooney, 1986, 1997).

Our society relies on standardized tests (i.e., SAT, GRE) to predict college performance. Women score lower than men on these tests AND get better grades in college. Women's educational achievement is misrepresented by the

female underprediction effect.

menarche

first period around age 12

quid pro quo harassment

first type of sexual harassment refers to situations in which men engage in unwanted sexual behaviors and make it clear that the woman's employment is contingent upon enduring such behavior. "Quid pro quo" is a Latin phrase that very roughly translates to "in exchange." So, in cases of quid pro quo harassment, men essentially attempt to provide employment or advancement in exchange for a woman's tolerance of unwanted sexual remarks or behaviors.

global feminism

focuses on how prejudice and discrimination against women are related across cultures and how they are connected to neocolonialism and global capitalism. sweatshop labor conditions, unequal access to healthcare and education and forced prostitution.

woman of color feminism/cultural feminism

focuses on issues of importance to minority communities: poverty, racism, jobs, health care, and access to education

faceism

form of objectification .Scientists have examined the composition of thousands of media images and have determined that images of men were significantly more focused on faces, whereas images of women were significantly more likely to show their bodiesThe face conveys the most information about a person's individuality, yet for women it is likely to be downplayed in media portrayals. Face-ism sends a subtle message that women are less valuable, interesting, and worthy of respect. It objectifies women and makes a clear point that the female body is more important than the female herself.

dizygotic twins

fraternal

Lesbians named _________ as their number one source of support.

friends

hijras/aravanis

from north and south india respectively, they are a third sex category and have an ambiguous social position, both enacts femininity and flouts it

Though feminist theory has generally labeled ___________ the primary source of oppression for all women, many women do not consider _____ the primary problem.

gender

A study on stereotype threat and math performance (Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999) showed

gender differences in math performance may be partly due to stereotype- influenced beliefs and expectations

social constructivism

gender is a creation of culture

gender consistency

gender is a permanent condition

gender constancy

gender is permanent

"Aggressive female" is an example of which sexist language practice?

gender making

Research documenting ___________ is often overlooked, while research documenting ___________ is sought and publicized.

gender similarities; gender differences

gender schematic

gender typed people have a well developed gender schema and rely on it spontaneously in making sense of the world

Increased pressure to conform to gender roles is called

gender-intensification

Emotion internalized

gendered emotionality is constructed at the social and cultural level, as well as by early experiences and unconscious fantasy- gendered emotionality becomes a deeply internalized part of the self

parents teach

gendered emotions to children

double binds

"damned if you do, damned if you don't" situation

patriarchal

"ruled by the fathers"

optimal gender

"which sex will the child fit best?"

Compared to males, females receive, on average,

(It's not: lower scores on the math section on the SAT and similar grades in college)

Social differences between the behaviors of men and women should be called "gender differences" rather than "sex differences" because the differences are

(it's not "two of these are correct"); I believe it's likely to be constructed within a social context.

Stereotype threat in terms of math performance means

(it's not "women stereotype their own math abilities")

When women attempt to assert dominance through touch,

(it's not they are seen as low-status.) I believe it's: their behavior may be misinterpreted as a sexual move.

The variability hypothesis suggested that

(it's not: women are more likely than men to be mentally defective)

Social implications of gendered emotions

- Across gender, emotions are more similar than different, but gender stereotypes remain influential, skewing perceptions - men in our culture are more likely to learn expressing anger is an acceptable and effective means of controlling others, including women

Emotions, Status and Power

- Emotional expression is linked to status and power and differs across culture - high and low status people are perceived differently when expressing the same emotion

Many interaction factors are responsible for gender difference in math

- biological differences unlikely reason - math as a male domain (stereotype) - girls' low confidence leads to low self- expectations (stereotype threat) - gender bias in the classroom

Emotion Stereotypes

- emotions have traditionally been gender-marked or gender typed : female/ male - women and men do use emotional words differently, based on gender-typing - Men's emotional displays are frequently not labeled as "emotions"

Stereotypes about emotionally suggest men need to be coaxed into recognizing and expressing feelings

- men more encouraged to express certain feelings as a form of relational power & control - Men discouraged from full range of emotional expression, limit their experience of feelings

Social implication of gendered cognition

- need to pay more attention to girls' intellectual development, including selection of toys - emphasis on standardized tests may be misplaced; goal of testing is to predict performance and girls performance is not being predicted - beliefs about women's alleged inability to do math and science perpetuate their exclusion from prestigious and rewarding careers in science and engineering

Socioculturally: opportunities for equality

- studies show diversity in cognitive skills and personality is strongly related to sociocultural factors - providing opportunities for girls and boys to broaden their experiences - de-genderize cognition & emotion - rethink differences differences as diversity

Emotion internalized examples

- the self develops in relation to the primary caretaker (usually the mother) - girls grow up with a sense of similarity and continuity with their mothers - boys develop an identity in opposition to all that is feminine

Gender and Caring for Children

-Attachment extends to a variety of relationships -Biological foundation for nurturing Mothers are primed by hormonal events surrounding birth Increases their responsiveness to babies -Socialization pressures Fathers viewed as "helpers" Mothers viewed as primary care-givers may vary in two ways: responsiveness to children pleasure in caring for children -Some evidence suggests that mothers are primed by hormonal events surrounding the process of giving birth so that they are responsive to babies, providing a biological foundation for nurturing. However, others also respond to infants, and gender differences in responsiveness to children grow over childhood: Girls become more and boys less responsive. These changes may be due to socialization pressure to adopt traditional gender roles. Evaluating the pleasure derived from child care is complicated by the situation that few men are involved in such activities in the same ways and to the same extent as women are. Research indicates that fathers may enjoy their limited role in childcare more than women enjoy their more extensive and demanding one. When men are as involved as women in childcare, they feel the same satisfactions and frustrations. 2. Prominence of Male Aggression has been traced to human prehistory and the advantages of aggression. These stories may reflect the theorists' personal views rather than the circumstances of early humanity. Even for prehistoric humans, aggression would have had disadvantages as well as advantages, and controlling aggression would have been essential.

The Psychodynamic Approach to Personality

-Devised by Sigmund Freud -Emphasized the differences between personality development and functioning of men and women -Casts women as inferior to men -Theorized existence of the unconscious -Instincts: dynamic forces underlying thought and action

Influences on Gender Identity Development

-Gender identity continues to develop during adolescence and into adulthood -Sources of influence: -Biological factors -Family environment -Peers -Media

first wave

-began with seneca falls convention -planned by 5 women -hundreds of people attended meeting included 40 men staton wrote declaration of sentiments which stated that woman should have the right to vote -after much debate it passed *nineteenth amendment (focused on de jure inequalities primarily on gaining womans sufferage)

second wave

-birth control pills became available -many married women also sought BC to limit size of their families -during end of 2nd wave abortion became legal based on the protection to privacy provided by the 14th amendment -also associated with the sexual revolution -civil rights act was passed -national organization for woman was founded -association for women in psychology was formed (1960's womans liberation movement that campaigned for equal rights on issues such as employment, marital relationship and sexual orientation)

Women stereotypically expected to keep a relationship smooth and conflict-free

-married women often expected to be emotion manager and mediator of relationship and family

third wave

-significant backlash against the second wave movement -many women disowned the term because they had been exposed to negative stereotypes -thought feminism was no longer relevant (WOMAN STILL FACE DISCRIMINATION) (reflects views of younger feminists and stresses being involved in changing how society deals with HIV/AIDS violence against woman, economic crisis, and other political social issues.

sexual revolution

-women could want and enjoy sex -led to big changes towards female sexuality

The development of sexual and reproductive anatomy is complete in a fetus at

12 to 14 weeks.

autosomes

22 pairs of the 23 chromosome pairs

hostile work environment

2nd type of sexual harassmentHostile work environments involve men making unwanted sexual gestures toward female employees or creating an atmosphere that is somehow threatening or offensive to women. Examples of behavior that might occur in a hostile work environment include male employees commenting on the bodies of female employees, the presence of visible pornography, and so forth.

Virtually every expressive trait

?

A study of US couples, divorced, compared to men, women spent.... A. more than twice as many hours per week on household chores B. An average of 5 more hours more per day on household chores C. Almost four times more hours per week on household chores D. An average of 10 more hours per week on household chores

A

Children, especially girls, are most often sexually abused by.... A. Someone they know and trust B. Babysitters C. Strangers D. Other children

A

Despite changes in ideals of feminine beauty over the years, one thing remains constant... A. They all require alterations of womens natural appearance through products B. They all were intiated by men C. They all include long hair D. They all include high heels

A

Established men in a company often serve as mentors for incoming men, assisting them in their progression up the corporate ladder. This is called the .. A. Old-boy network B. Testosterone elevator C. Mens club D. Glass ceiling

A

If a woman shows token resistance to a mans sexual advances and then gives in she is doing all of the following except... A. Communicating honestly with her partner B. Perpetuating restrictive gender stereotypes C. Encouraging behaviors that may lead to date and acquaintance rape D. Teaching men to disregard women's refusals

A

Meta-analysis revealed what about parental gender treatment of children? A. Overall, parents treat children, across gender B. mothers were likely to encourage gender-typed play and activities C. Fathers stereotype more than mothers D. no conclusions can be made

A

Slang words for women often portray them as.. A. Sexual objects B. Art objects C. Parts of plants D. all the above

A

Some scholars believe the term _____ should be reserved for the material combining sexual themes with violence, dehumanization, degradation or abuse. A. Pornography B. Erotica C. Sexually explicit media D. XXX

A

The Most common situation or context in which rape occurs is in societies.. A. Approving or condoning the use of violence B. Where violence against men also is tolerated C. Where men have little power relative to women D. Where rape is punished severely

A

The devaluation of female-gender words can be seen in.. A. Master/Mistress B. the generic lie C. Mr. / Mrs. D. the terms male professional/ female professional

A

The tendency to generalize people who are members of the opposite sex and refer to them as being all alike and having similar qualities is called A. Outgroup Homogeneity B. The intergroup bias effect C. Paternalistic prejudice D. None of the above is correct

A

When a woman is reduced to her body and sexualized, she is being.. A. Sexually objectified B. Embodied C. Gender marked D. Scripted

A

When talking to their daughters as opposed to their sons, parents A. used a greater number of emotion words B. used a lesser variety of emotion words C. Mentioned sad aspects of events less D. All the above are correct

A

Which of the following statements about sexual scripts is not correct... A. There are no differences between the scripts of women and men B. They are internalized by individuals C. There are expected punishments for violating the rules D. They are regulated by law / religion

A

_____ Can be defined as biological differences in genetic composition and reproductive anatomy and function A. Sex B. Gender C. Gender identity D. Sexual identity

A

Kaschak's Antigone Phase Women Unresolved

Accept subservience -Passive, dependent Accept male-defined sexuality Deny own needs -Few female friendships

Research on media images of women across ethnic groups suggest

African-American women are more sexually objectified than White women

Research on media images of women across ethnic group suggest

African-American women are more sexually objectified than White women.

In the 1980's, much of the research on gender stereotypes focused on subtypes of women and men. The subtypes involved women's and men's

All are correct: "role behaviors, physical and personality characteristics

Some feminist psychologists argue studying gender differences is not very useful because of which of the following issues?

All are correct: Problems with values and interpretation of the research results; problems defining a true gender difference; difficulties measuring gender differences

Third-wave groups such as the Riot Grrrls have goals such as

All are correct: asserting women's place in rock and pop music; reclaiming girl culture; proclaiming the joys of women's sexuality

Language has traditionally marked women as

All are correct: available to be consumed by men; lower status than men; property of men;

Which of the following impacts mathematical ability and performance?

All are correct: gender differences in math experience; confidence and self-expectation issues; sex discrimination in testing

When stereotypes are activated by our culture, less prejudiced people

All are correct: make conscious choices not to stereotype; stop and think about the stereotypes; replace stereotypes with more accurate information

Meta-analysis is an improvement over simple reviews of studies because

All are correct: reviews fail to attend to moderator variables; it takes into account the magnitude and consistency of differences; it takes into account sample size

Duval & Ruscher (1994) showed __________ are more likely to use imperative or command verbs when talking to __________.

All are correct: those who see themselves as dominant; those they see as less competent... those who see themselves as higher status; those seen as lower status... men; women;

Though Western society does not pressure women to undergo genital cutting or require them to veil their faces and bodies in public, Western society restricts women's bodily freedom and integrity through practices like

All of the above are correct: sexual harassment in public places. pressure to seek the perfect body through dieting. encouraging women to undergo cosmetic surgery.

With regards to differences and similarities among women, feminist psychologists believe

All of the above: we must not assume all women have much in common with each other simply because they are women. women's psychology is affected by women's social and cultural backgrounds. it is important to study varied groups of women.

African American women are often cast into biased prototypes labeled the

All of the above: Mammy. Jezebel. Sapphire.

Which of the following impacts mathematical ability and performance?

All the above are correct.

The beliefs of the dominant groups in society

All the above: are normative. become more visible when those outside of the dominant group question them. are not always recognized as values because they are so common in popular thinking.

Which of the following is an accurate statement?

All the above: Women are more likely to become widows than men to become widowers. Men who are widowed are likely to remarry. Younger widows usually recover better from their loss than older widows.

Biases in research can enter the process

All the above: at the question formulation stage. when researchers choose or create biased measures. when a comparison group is chosen.

Studies on the importance of gender as a social category find people are more likely to

All the above: confuse individuals of the same gender with each other than individuals of the same age or race. categorize others by their gender than by their race. notice when a person breaks a gender prescription than when he or she "fails to act his or her age."

Changes in sexual activity for women in later life may be influenced by

All the above: finding a suitable partner. fewer concerns about pregnancy and interruptions by children. what the woman was taught when she was younger.

More male-to-female than female-to-male transsexuals undertake transition, probably due to

All the above: rules for masculinity more restrictive than those for femininity; feel more of a need to have a sex change, in order to act and be treated as women. surgery to create a penis is more complicated than the surgery to remove one. it is easier for females to act like a man and have hormone injections than to try to have a working penis constructed.

role models

Although women are still tokens in many positions, they serve as role models for other women who aspire to similar goals. Role models are people similar to oneself who are successful and visible in a given arena. Role models are important because they allow people to picture themselves in positions they might not otherwise consider.

Attachment

An intimate relationship which develops between the caregiver (almost always a mother) and the child -Critical periods of development A variation on maternal instinct: bonding -Depends on innate components in the early interaction between infant and caregiver between infant and caregiver and is important in the infant's survival. Infants who fail to form attachments fail to thrive. The related concept of bonding is a variation on maternal instinct that proposes that a permanent bond forms on the basis on contact during the first few days after birth. Despite the popularity of the concept, research has failed to substantiate claims based on the notion of bonding.

Anger and Aggression

Anger: internal emotion Aggression: behavioral reaction to anger Expression of anger more closely related to gender role than gender: Masculinity -> more likely Femininity -> less likely should have a strong relationship, with anger being the emotion and aggression the behavioral expression of anger. The two, however, have a far from perfect relationship. Contrary to early theory, frustration does not always lead to aggression. According to surveys in the U.S. and other countries, anger is a very common emotional experience, but physical aggression is not. Gender-related differences exist in the expression of anger, with gender role rather than gender being more strongly related to the expression of emotion.

A group of house husbands studied by researchers considered which of the following to be an advantage to their lifestyles? A. the ease of housework with new "gadgets" B. The increased involvement with their children C. giving their wives a chance to earn money D. the knowledge gained from watching daytime tv

B

Research documenting _____ is often overlooked, while research documenting ____ is sought and publicized A. Gender differences; gender similarities B. Gender similarities; gender differences C. Masculinity; femininity D. Feminity ; masculinity

B

Societies in which men are allocated more power and higher status are referred to as.. A. Matriarchal B. Patriarchal C. Monarchical D. Partisan

B

The belief men are allowed to have a variety of sexual experiences, but women should save their sexuality for marriage, is known as.. A. The double bind B. the double standard c. the double whammy

B

The ideal Images of women make.. A. Thin men actually like women more B. Women of color invisible C. Are strongly attainable D. Women of all ethnic groups empowered

B

The practice of using children in commercial sex work is called.. A. Dumping B. Trafficking C. Associating D. Stigmatization

B

Though people often ask why a battered woman doesn't just leave. research shows that a woman is more likely... A. To leave when she is afraid of her partner B. To be injured or killed after she leaves her partner C. To leave when her partners abuse is cyclical D. All the above are correct

B

Violence is often used... A. to express passion or commitment B. As a means of control in sexual encounters and romantic relationships C. By men who hold traditional protective beliefs about women D. By people who have more effective communication skills they choose not to use

B

Which of the following is not true about stereotypes? A. Targets of stereotypes are easily identified and relatively powerless B. Stereotypes are easy to modify when encountering disconfirming examples C. People largely agree about the characteristics of a stereotype group D. Stereotypes imply a covert comparison between groups to the disadvantage of the stereotyped group

B

_____ Can be defined as the traits making up masculinity and feminity A. Sex B. Gender C. Gender identity D. Sexual Identity

B

Zanna & Pack (1975) asked women to describe themselves to men whose "ideal woman" was supposedly traditional or non-traditional. When the men were attractive, the women

B and c: portrayed themselves as more traditional when believing the man traditional portrayed themselves as less traditional when believing the man nontraditional

Social Learning Theory

Based on the concepts of operant conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, social learning theory adds observational learning, modeling, and imitation to explain learning as a cognitive phenomenon. Bandura hypothesized that children observe many gender-related behaviors from a wide variety of models and come to exhibit appropriate gender-related behaviors as a result of their observation and modeling. Classifies gender development as learned behaviors Variation of traditional learning theory: -Operant conditioning: Reinforcement/punishment -Observation of others (modeling): Positive and negative consequences

Relational aggression & social aggression

Behaviors that harm others through damage to personal relationships E.g., sulking, silent treatment

The Media and Gender Development

Both print and electronic media provide models of gendered behaviors that influence children, adolescents, and adults. Media portrayals can be so powerful that they become the standard for people's lives, cultivating what people accept as normal and desirable. Massive influence -"Cultivates" belief of the world -Synthesized realism

During the phallic stage the personality development of girls and boys differs,

Boys: -Oedipus complex: Attraction to their mother Hostility for their father -Castration complex: Boys fear their father will remove their penises Leads to identification with the father Girls: Penis envy Girls believe that they have already been castrated and feel inferior due to their lack of a penis. To resolve the Oedipus complex, both boys and girls must stop pursuing their other-gender parent and identify with the same-gender parent.

Goals of aggression

Boys: exert control over others, gain social recognition, get money Boys tend to use more confrontational and direct aggression Girls: loss of self-control, avoid victimization Girls tend to use more indirect or relational aggression

A "two person career" is typically described as one in which A. There is a family business, allowing parents to alternate work and childcare B.The couple recognizes homemaking as an important job. sharing the work. C. A wife is an unofficial contributor to her husbands work D. none of the above

C

Aggressive female is an example of which sexist language practice? A. Trivialization of female gender forms B. Labeling the exception to the rule C. Gender Marking D. Exclusion

C

Feminism may be defined... A. As the belief men do not understand women B. by the belief sisterhood is more important than any other relationship C. most simply as a movement to end sexism and sexist oppression

C

In socieities that have a third gender, individuals of that gender are usually... A. men trying to pass as men B. women trying to pass as men C. individuals who dress in a manner that includes both female and male clothing and who follow behavioral rules considered appropriate for their third-gender status

C

Mens success is most often attributed to ability and intelligence. Womens success is most often attributed to ... A. Ability and intelligence B. Good looks and her husband C. Luck and hardwork D. Sexual Bargaining

C

One of the widely held set of myths and misconceptions about rape and rape victims in North America is... A. Women cannot prevent rape regardless of how badly they may want to B. Rapists unconscious motivations are those of power and not a drive for sex C. Victims precipitate rape by looking seductive or sexy D. None of the above

C

Recent surveys of masturbation among women and men have shown... A. Women begin to masturbate at the same age as men B. Masturbation usually takes the place of sexual fantasies C. Women who had experienced orgasm through self-gratification had more orgasms with their partners D. A greater percentage of women have been masturbating since kinseys survey

C

Saying psychological knowledge about women is mostly androcentric means the information is considered... A. Created by men B. anti-woman C. Male- centered D. misogynistic

C

Some women become so disempowered by abuse there's a kind of post-traumatic stress disorder called... A. Cyclical disorder B. Patriarchal trauma C. Battered womens syndrome D. Cyclic redundancy

C

The effects of violent and nonviolent pornography ______ in_____ helps create a climate in which sexual aggression against women is normalized... A. Are equivalent; either one B. Differ; nonviolent pornography C. Differ; violent pornography D. Are similar; neither one

C

The idea children learn from their environment come from.. A. Psychodynamic theory B. Humanisitic theory C. Social Learning theory D. Gestalt theory

C

The pervasive phenomenon of women being blocked in career advancement by invisible barriers, has been called.. A. The top-down barrier B. The occupational advancement bias C. The glass ceiling D. The old-boy network

C

Which of the following is not a gender stereotype? A. Women are more graceful than men B. Women are innately more qualified to take care of children than are men C. Men tend to be inherently physically bigger than women D. Men are better managers than women

C

Mathematical and Quantitative Performance

Complex pattern of findings Before age 13, slight advantage for girls By age 13, slight advantage for boys Other assessments show no difference Men's performance shows more variability Standardized exams (e.g., SAT, GRE) may exhibit testing bias

Evidence for Other Sources of Gender Differences

Cultural and social role differences that men and women experience. Differences in training and experience Ex., familiarity and instructions can influence performance on spatial tasks When people believe that their performance may reflect on them as part of a stigmatized group, their performance tends to suffer, and many situations assessing verbal, quantitative, and spatial performance fall into this category. Stereotype threat: The presence of negative stereotypes affects the performance of those to whom the stereotype applies Examples: math performance, spatial rotation tasks

Biases in the choice of research participants often include A. Relying on college student samples B. Biases of age, social class, and developmental C. A tendency to study males and male issues more often than females and female issues D. All the above are correct

D

Fictitious sets of credentials for psychologists, identical except for the gender of the applicant, were sent to department chairpersons, the "female" applicant was... A. rated less favorably than the male B. rated more favorable than the male C. Considered qualified for a lower level position than the male D. A and C

D

Girls dissatisfaction with how they look... A. Is worse than boys dissatisfaction since boys gain muscle rather than fat B. Is linked to the rapid and normal weight gain of puberty C. Is worse than boys dissatisfaction since girls are more likely to defined by their physical selves D. All the above

D

Language has traditionally marked woman as.. A. Sexual objects for men B. Property of men C.lower status than men D. All the above are correct

D

Most news reports and magazine articles addressing violence against women... A. Focus on the victim rather than the perpetrator B. Use terms like "Abusive relationship" and "domestic violence" rather than stating a man has attacked his wife/gf C. Use passive and indirect language about violence D. All the above

D

One reason multiple roles usually benefits psychological well-being may be paid work is generally a source of ... A. Increased self-esteem B. More social involvement C. An independent Identity D. All the above are correct

D

The following constitutes hostile environment sexual harassment... A. Putting up sexual signs in a work environment B. Making sexist comments C. Making negative remarks to a person bc of his gender D. all the above

D

Which of the following can result in tokenism? A. A solo woman in an otherwise all male group B. A lone man in an otherwise all female group C. A single Black person in an otherwise all white group D.All the above

D

With regards to differences and similarities among women, feminist psychologist believe A. We must not assume all women have much in common with each other simply because they are women B. Women`s psychology is affected by womens social cultural backgrounds C. It is important to study varied groups of women D. All the above are correct

D

Women who masturbate report having.. A. greater sexual desire B. greater marital satisfaction C. Higher self-esteem D. all the above

D

______ views gender typing as a way to organize the world based on gender associations A. Observational learning theory B. Social learning theory C. Gestalt theory D. Gender schema theory

D

Series of studies by Harlow Maternal Deprivation and Its Consequences for Nurturing

Deprived baby monkeys of their mothers Observed the effects Conclusions: -Social isolation associated with abnormal behaviors -Contact with other monkeys appeared to be critical (rather than mothering) -Care-giving is dependent on experience This research suggests that caregiving is dependent on experience and not on inherent biological factors. Contact with other monkeys seems to be the critical experience rather than being mothered, which indicates that maternal behaviors are not directly modeled.

second shift

Despite spending a full day at work, women who work outside the home come home each evening to perform the majority of household chores and child care.

Researchers who adhere to the differences tradition believe that psychology and its theories have failed women by

Devaluing their strengths

The word pair "lord/lady" is an example of

Devaluing women

Which Theory is Best?

Development is complex—none of the theories explains all the data! Social Learning theory Concepts do not appear incrementally Cognitive Developmental theory Does not allow for differences in boys'/girls' development Gender Schema theory Does not address differences in schemata between girls and boys

Implications of Gender-Related Differences

Differences in abilities seem larger than suggested by research data Confidence levels may be mediated through social beliefs Stereotypes lead to incorrect conclusions Small distinctions can lead to differential expectations for boys and girls The gender differences in several cognitive abilities should produce some differences in occupations but not the magnitude of difference that exists. Janet Hyde has argued that the publicity given to gender differences in mental abilities has led to the acceptance of these differences as large when they are not.

Spatial Performance

Even greater variety of tasks than verbal and math; yields a greater diversity of findings: Spatial perception: Identify and locate planes Mental rotation: Visualize objects as they would appear if rotated Spatial visualization: Identify the relationship of objects in space Spatiotemporal ability: Tracking objects moving through space

wage gap

Even when women and men are equated on factors such as level of education, quality of education, hours worked, and overall productivity, women earn less than men.Many people underestimate the importance of the wage gap. It is not a women's issue. It is a societal issue. Many families depend on women to earn all or much of the family's income. Underpaying women hurts families, including the men and the children who are depending on them. Everyone suffers when women are underpaid.

canting

Fashion spreads and advertisements often feature women in strange, contorted, and uncomfortable looking positions.Women in these positions are often shown on the ground, with the camera looking down on them. Models in these postures frequently employ vacant stares that do not meet the camera. These images send messages of submissiveness, low status, and masochism. Men are very rarely depicted in canting postures; they generally look into the camera and are depicted in positions of power or equality.

______ in particular were likely to be stigmatized as "suffering from the newly invented disease of lesbianism."

Feminists

Wechsler scales

Focused interest on various mental abilities and the findings that women tend to score higher on verbal tasks, whereas men tend to score higher on performance tasks. Verbal Performance consists of a variety of tasks that require a verbal response. Various reviews suggest that the advantage for girls and women is small and may be too small to be of any practical value. However, their advantage in writing performance is large. Mathematical and Quantitative Performance show no gender differences during elementary school. Beginning during junior high school, the definition of mathematical ability changes, and boys begin to outperform girls on some standardized mathematics tests. Tests such as the SAT underpredict women's and overpredict men's math performance in college, suggesting that these tests are biased. Attitudes toward math differ more than performance does. Girls feel that math is less important to their future, feel less confident about their math ability than boys, and receive less encouragement from parents and teachers. Boys and girls tend to perceive that math is a male domain. Spatial Performance has been defined in an even greater variety of ways than have verbal and mathematical performance, leading to a great diversity of findings. Spatial perception includes the ability to identify and locate the horizontal or vertical in the presence of distracting information, and boys and men show a small advantage on this type of task. Mental rotation includes the ability to visualize objects as they would appear if rotated in space, and boys and men have a large advantage in such tasks. Spatial visualization refers to the ability to process spatial information so as to understand the relationship between objects in space, such as the ability to see a figure embedded in other figures, and this spatial task does not always show gender differences. Spatiotemporal ability involves judgments about moving objects in space, and the limited research suggests that men do better than women at these tasks. Research indicates that experience is a factor in all of these types of spatial performance, and boys may get more experience with these tasks than girls, explaining their advantage in several of these tasks. Other Mental Abilities include memory, creativity, musical ability, and nonverbal communication. As the headline story suggested, women and men use different strategies to find their way. Men are more successful in navigating in laboratory situations, but both are equally successful when navigating around in the world. Gender-related differences that appear in performance on memory, creativity, musical ability, and nonverbal communication tend to be attributable to gender role expectation rather than mental abilities. For example, gender differences in communication style, especially in the ability to interpret nonverbal cues, may be more related to status and power than to gender. SOURCE OF THE DIFFERENCE could be structural or functional differences in the brain, socialization, or conformity to gender expectation. Assess a range of abilities Women score higher on verbal subtests Men score higher on performance subtests

Intelligence testing 1916: Terman adapts Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test for use in US

Found no gender differences Contrasted the societal assumption of women's intellectual inferiority

Freud and Women

Freud's theory was uncomplimentary and biased against women Viewed women as "failed men" Freud was accused of sexism by his female colleagues, but he never changed his theory to a more positive view of women.

______________ can be defined as the traits that make up masculinity and femininity

Gender

_____________ lead/s to selective attention and selective memory.

Gender Schemas

Sexual Violence

Gender difference is large Rape is a common crime Women report 15.4% since age 14 Another 12.1% met legal definition Reluctance to report rape Only 30% perpetrated by strangers Related to the stigma and victim-blaming The stigma is even more severe for male rape victims Result: official crime statistics are underestimates Women fear rape, but they fear stranger rape when acquaintance rape is far more common but less reported. The reluctance to report rape is related to the stigma and victim blaming associated with this crime, and the stigma is even more severe for male rape victims. Research with rapists indicates some common beliefs, for example, they believe that they have the right to control women and to treat women violently. Research has linked hostile masculinity and high frequency of uncommitted sex to increased likelihood of committing rape. Feeling entitled to have sex puts men at risk for committing rape.

Considering Diversity

Gender identity disorder (GID) Must meet four of five DSM criteria: 1. cross-sex behaviors 2. cross-sex toy and activity preferences 3. cross-sex peer affiliation 4. cross-dressing 5. a stated desire to be the other sex

Peers and Gender Development

Gender segregation is a prominent feature of children's interactions during middle childhood, and this same-gender interaction tends to preserve and magnify gender differences. -Peers are highly influential -Around age 3, children develop preference for same-gender peers -Differences in activities -Boys are rougher, more competitive, form hierarchies Peers may act as the "gender police" to curtail gender flexibility, but peers may also act to promote gender flexibility. -Curtailing cross-gender behaviors Especially in early, middle childhood -Or may act to promote gender flexibility As is often the case in older youth, e.g., college age

Boys score higher only on advanced standardized Math tests; girls get better math grades overall

Girls higher academic achievement is rarely interpreted to mean girls are more intelligent suggesting instead, girls get their higher grades by being quiet and neat

Girls and boys have different attitudes toward math

Girls: See math as less important to their future Feel less confident about math ability Receive less encouragement from parents and teachers As a result, boys and girls tend to perceive math as a male domain

_______ is/are the leading cause of death for African American women aged 25-34.

HIV/AIDS

Indirect aggression

Harm through indirect means Behind the scenes Getting someone blamed for a bad outcome Mocking someone's behavior/actions

Horney's Theory of Personality

Horney replaced the biological emphasis with a social one. She reformulated the masculine bias in Freud's theory, eliminating the concept of penis envy and postulating that men's assertion of women's inferiority exists to keep men from contending with their own feelings of inferiority. Horney rejected women's masochism as normal and contended that society's role for women is the source of many of women's problems. -New interpretation of feminine masochism -Argued against male bias in psychoanalytic theory -Replaced penis envy with womb envy -Men see women as inferior to keep them from dealing with their own feelings of inferiority

Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories of Personality Development

Include attempts to remove the sexist elements from traditional psychoanalytic theory as well as to reformulate psychoanalytic concepts -Nancy Chodorow -Ellyn Kaschak

Verbal Performance

Includes a variety of tests related to language, reading, and writing Girls and women have a small advantage -May be too small to be of any practical value Only 1% of the variance attributable to gender 99% of the variance to something OTHER than the gender of the participants Females' advantage in writing performance is larger

Wechsler scales VERBAL Subtests

Information - general knowledge Similarities - verbal reasoning; categories Arithmetic - numeric Vocabulary - word meanings Comprehension - social judgment Digit Span - short-term auditory memory

Which of the following is NOT true of the womanism movement?

It emphasizes male control and domination of women throughout history

Which of the following is NOT true of the womanism movement?

It fights male control promotes domination by women

In most fairy tales, the heroine has fallen prey to an evil scheme and can only be saved by the arrival of her prince. These kinds of stories serve as

Legitimizing myths

Developmental Gender Differences in Aggression

Longitudinal studies of aggression Aggression tends to decrease For some children, a high level of aggression is a stable trait Boys more likely to be higher in aggression Affected by parenting styles/television are difficult to confirm before elementary school, but boys may be more aggressive even during early childhood. Longitudinal studies of aggression indicate that it is a stable behavior pattern, and children who are aggressive during elementary school tend to grow into aggressive adolescents and adults. Fewer girls than boys are physically aggressive, but girls tend to use social and relational aggression, which produces harm but no physical violence. Boys, however, are more likely to be involved in physical confrontations and to use weapons, making their aggression more dangerous. Aggressive boys and girls may seek different goals, with girls wanting to avoid victimization and boys wanting money and status.

Saying psychological knowledge about women is mostly androcentric means the information is considered

Male-centered

Gender and Crime

Men More likely to commit crime/acts of violence 3.5 times more likely to get arrested than women 3.5 times more likely than women to be both perpetrators and victims of violent crime. Women Behavior evaluated differently than men Increase of criminal activity starting 1970s Increases in rate of crime among women have tended to be for nonviolent rather than violent offenses. Women, however, fear criminal victimization more than men, especially rape.

Gender Differences in Aggression during Adulthood

Men are more aggressive --in everyday contacts --when physically attacked --when frustrated Women are more aggressive --when responding to insults, including impolite treatment and rude comments tend to be manifested in terms of style. Women are not less aggressive than men under all circumstances, but men use physical aggression more readily than women, especially when women perceive the likelihood of retaliation. Women are more likely to cause harm to others by using social or indirect aggression. When considering this type of aggression, women are as aggressive as men. When considering physical aggression, substantial gender differences exist; women's experiences with fights tend to be relationship violence, whereas men are more likely to fight with other men.

However, women and men do navigate differently...

Men orient to directions and forming an abstract map of the area. Women are more likely to use landmarks to find their way.

Which of the following is true regarding behavioral differences between girls and boys?

Most children demonstrate a preference to play with same-gender friends by age two or three.

Considering Diversity: Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities

Most of the research on cognitive abilities focuses on European Americans in the United States Cross-cultural research indicates that other groups show different patterns Few gender differences are as large as cultural differences in cognitive processes leads to a complex picture of gender differences in mental abilities in which culture as well as gender affect performance on spatial tasks. The male advantage appears in many cultures, but the women in some cultures score higher on spatial tasks than the men in other cultures. Richard Nisbett proposed that people in Eastern and Western cultures think differently, which leading to cultural differences in thought and memory that are much larger than gender-related differences.

Chodorow's Emphasis on Mothering

Mothering replaces the Freudian emphasis on the trauma of the Oedipal conflict with a concentration on the pre-Oedipal period, concentrating on how the mother-infant relationship is key to personality development Chodorow hypothesized that boys and girls have different experiences in separating themselves from their mother, with boys having to strive for separation and girls neither striving for nor attaining the same level of separation. Boys' and girls' experiences differ -Separating themselves from their mother -Boys having to strive for separation -Girls neither striving for nor attaining the same level of separation

In males, __________________ prevents the embryo's internal structures from developing into female organs.

Mullerian duct inhibiting hormone

Over 150 ___________________ cultures have recognized a third-sex category.

Native American

Kaschak's Antigone Phase Men's Oedipal role Resolved

Nonpatriarchal Power: not major issue Women: independent Sexually unselfish

Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) believe that females learn to see themselves as objects and to constantly try to imagine how others see them; they call their theory

Objectification theory

Other Cognitive Abilities

Overall, research yields no consistent gender-related differences in Memory Creativity Musical ability Non-verbal communication Any difference found tend to be attributable to gender role expectations

The self-fulfilling prophecy is comprised of which of the following social mechanisms?

People act to confirm beliefs others have about them.

Wechsler scales PERFORMANCE Subtests

Picture Completion - memory/ visual detail Coding - visual-motor skills Picture Arrangement - visual sequential reasoning Block Design - visual abstraction Object Assembly - part-whole reasoning Mazes - planning, visual-motor coordination

Role of MTV and music video culture

Popular music and music videos shape perceptions of reality, especially for youth; Music videos provide important visual cues for selling music and creating images; Videos rely on gender, racial, and sexual stereotypes and scripts to cut through need for deep descriptions; 1980's stereotypes from rock music; today same stereotypes persist, but hip hop culture

______________ is sexually themed material that includes violence, dehumanization, degradation, or abuse towards women.

Pornography

Biological Factors and Gender Development cont.

Prenatal hormones -Potentially related to childhood behavior -Influence of higher levels: Eg., effects of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) -Even when within normal range: -Girls high in 'masculine' behavior had mothers with higher levels of testosterone during pregnancy -Sex reassignment surgery

Which of the following statements about the development of gender is INCORRECT?

Pressure for conformity to gender roles occurs earlier for boys than girls

Differences between Girls and Boys

Reflect their socialization Both children and adults have more positive attitudes about "tomboys" than about "sissies." Children master information about their own gender before the other -Greater pressure on boys to adopt the typical and approved gender role. more rigid and harsh training. -Girls are allowed greater leeway in behavior -Girls develop gender knowledge faster than boys -Children evaluate their own gender more positively than the other gender

Evaluating the pleasure derived from child careis complicated by the situation that few men are involved in such activities in the same ways and to the same extent as are women.

Research indicates that fathers enjoy their limited role in childcare more than women enjoy their moreextensive and demanding one. When men are as involved as women in childcare, research suggests that they feel the same satisfactions and frustrations!

In the majority of the world, which of the following is NOT true about marriage and love?

Romantic love is seen as necessary to marriage.

Biological Evidence for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities

Selection differences during evolution: Empirical confirmation is not possible Influence of prenatal hormones: Creates only small differences in performance Brain imaging technology (PET, fMRI): Some differences in left hemisphere activation There is often more difference within genders than between them! The appeal of a biological basis for gender differences in mental abilities is strong, but the research evidence is weak. The influence of prenatal hormones creates small differences in performance, and empirical confirmation for an evolutionary view of behavior is not possible. The research on functional imaging of living brains has shown some gender differences in patterns of activation, but the results show more individual variation than gender variation. Men's and women's brains are more similar than different.

When people present themselves in a way confirming others' beliefs about them, they create a

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A woman's habitual and chronic preoccupation with her appearance and others' experience of her appearance is referred to as

Self-objectification

In the mid-1800's in the U.S., a feminist movement emerged. It reached its peak with the ____________, then lost momentum in the ____________.

Seneca Falls Declaration of 1848; 1920's after women won the vote

In the mid-1800's in the US, a First Wave feminist movement emerged. It reached its peak with the ____________, then lost momentum in the ____________.

Seneca Falls Declaration of 1848; 1920's after women won the vote

_________ can be defined as biological differences in genetic composition and reproductive anatomy and function.

Sex

Which of the following statements about biological sex is FALSE?

Sex is fixed at conception.

Considering Diversity in Emotion

Six universal basic human emotions Happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, and disgust Cross-cultural differences Individualistic vs. Collectivistic cultures Acceptance of anger varies Differ in display rules CONSIDERING DIVERSITY, emotions show both consistency and differences across cultures. On an abstract level, many similarities appear across cultures, and Paul Ekman and his colleagues have investigated the ability of people from a variety of cultures to recognize facial expression associated with basic emotions. In terms of specific situations and behaviors, enormous cultural differences appear. People in collectivist cultures tend to differ from those in individualist cultures, but emotional expression differs for collectivist cultures in Asia and Africa. Some cultures discourage the display of anger, whereas others allow it. Cultures vary both in restricting and prescribing what emotions men and women should experience under what circumstances.

Cognitive Theories of Gender Development

Social learning theory -criticized as too passive -Evidence suggests that children actively organize information about their gender -Emphasis on cognition: -Cognitive Developmental Theory -Gender Schema Theory

Kaschak's Antigone Phase Men's Oedipal role Unresolved

Social power & status -Proprietary over women -Women: subservient Patriarchal terrorism -Control, major goal Sexually self-centered

Gender Identity Development during Childhood

Starts at birth, with different treatment for boys and girls Infants as young as 7/9 months can distinguish between women's and men's faces, but they attend primarily to hair length as the distinguishing cue.  By age 24 months, toddlers exhibit some knowledge of gender-typical activities.

Important features of stereotype threat include:

Stereotype threat most effects individuals who care about their performance in the threatened domain.

Which of the following is NOT true about stereotypes?

Stereotypes are easy to modify when encountering disconfirming examples.

Which would likely lead to stereotype threat?

Tell white male college students that Asians tend to do better than whites in math before a difficult math test

Expressivity and Emotion

The gender difference in expressivity can be understood as a difference in display rules: Allow (and even demand) that people enact their gender roles Results in the expression of different emotions in boys and men compared to girls and women Men and women are supposed to restrain displays of certain emotions yet are free to show others

Children and Media

The types of bias in adult programming appear in children's television, promoting stereotypical views of gender-related behaviors. Movies, videos, and children's books all tend to portray gender in stereotypical ways. Children average about 30 hours of television viewing per week Stereotypic gender roles common in: --programming biases --commercials targeted at youth Many groups advocate for media education to reduce negative effects of gender stereotyping

When women attempt to assert dominance through touch

Their behavior may be misinterpreted as a sexual move.

Despite changes in ideals of feminine beauty over the years, one thing remains constant:

They all require alterations of women's natural appearance through products.

Despite changes in ideals of feminine beauty over the years, one thing remains constant

They all require alterations of women's natural appearances through products

Which of the following is NOT a possible result of intersexuality?

They are all possible: An individual with a penis and testicles also menstruates. A person who has lived as a man has a baby. A person has both a penis and a vagina.

occupationally segregated

Today, women have gained access to nearly every occupation, yet women are disproportionately represented in occupations such as teaching, secretarial work, waiting tables, nursing, and housekeeping. Some people have referred to these nearly exclusively female and relatively low-paying jobs as pink-collar jobs. When the workforce within an occupation is comprised of at least 70 percent of people from one gender, it is categorized as occupationally segregated. Occupational segregation has been decreasing since the 1970s, but there are still quite a few jobs that are almost exclusively held by women or men. In 1997, it was estimated that 50 percent of women would have to change jobs in order to desegregate the workforce fully.

The Prominence of Male Aggression

Traced to human prehistory -advantages of aggression may reflect the theorists' personal viewsrather than the circumstances of early humanity -Even for prehistoric humans, aggression would have had disadvantages as well as advantages Controlling aggression would have been essential

Feelings that women have about their bodies sizes, shapes, and attractiveness is body images.. T or F

True

Women who look unambiguously like women but have not developed complete internal reproductive structures are said to have

Turner's syndrome

The Sequence of Childhood Gender Role Development

Under 18 months: fail at gender labeling 24 months: most are correct in labeling includes learning to apply gender labels correctly, which occurs between 2 and 3 years. By age 3 many children can form grouping based on gender but still lack gender constancy: a complex concept that includes gender stability, the belief that gender is a permanent personal feature, and gender consistency, the belief that people retain their gender even when they undergo other physical changes. By age 4, most children have a concept of gender-typed activities and some gender stereotypes. During the first few grades of elementary school, children can be misled into making mistakes of gender consistency by the transformation in physical appearance or proper name, indicating how difficult this aspect of gender knowledge is for children to acquire. -Gender as permanent, unchangeable -Comprised of -Gender stability: Gender as a stable personal-characteristic -Gender consistency: Retain gender even when physical features/behaviors change

Impact of Media Sexism

Visual images in media more likely to evoke and create stereotypes because people less likely to monitor their responses to pictures as compared to words; Individuals who watch a lot television also have greater sexist responses to questions about the role of women and men (Signorielli, 1989)

mentors

Women also have increasing access to mentors. Mentors are established people who are active in helping less established people achieve their goals. Mentoring relations are associated with increased job satisfaction and likelihood of staying in a job. One major function that mentors may serve is to introduce their protégées to informal social networks embedded in the workplace. Many business deals and hiring decisions are made outside the office in social settings. Therefore, it is important for women to infiltrate the social networks that exist in the professions, as well as creating their own. Women need to be part of informal social interactions in order to gain parity with men.

Media Images of Women and POC

Women and men of color are shown less than White women, men in the media; Women and men of color appear primarily in situation comedies

Stereotypes about men and women include which of the following?

Women are seen as affective, whereas men are seen as instrumental

Stereotypes about men and women include which of the following

Women are seen as affective, whereas men are seen as instrumental.

Cognitive Abilities Prevailing view 19th - 20th centuries

Women were not as intelligent as men

Sexuality stereotypes

Women who are particularly strong in physical skills or personality traits tend to be stereotyped as lesbians; Men who are more effeminate and enjoy "girly" pursuits such as fashion and decorating are stereotyped as gay.

Personality traits

Women —Affective and communal—concerned with feelings and other people; (warm, expressive, sensitive)Typical feminine traits considered more childlike, connected to immaturity, nurturing, caregiving, weakness vs. Men —Instrumental and agentic—active agent , effective "doer"; Typical masculine traits more active, independent, aggressive, dominant, competent; Masculine traits are socially-desirable and more closely associated w/ adult roles, leadership

___________ report more emotions of powerlessness than ________.

Women; men

Physical stereotypes

Women—dainty, soft, graceful vs. Men—tall, strong, sturdy

intersexuality

a collective term for a number of specific variations on the theme of biological sex

core gender identity

a fundamental sense of belonging to one sex or the other

sex differentiation region of the Y chromosome

a gene that case the embryonic sex glands to grow and develop into testes

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

a genetically inherited malfunction of one or more of the enzymes needed to make the steroid hormone cortisol, causes the mother's body to overproduce other hormones

token

a member of a group that is less than about 15 percent of the larger group. female firefighters and male nurses

feminism

a movement to end sexism and sexist oppression

sexual orientation

a multidimensional concept involving erotic attraction, affectional relationships, sexual behavior, erotic fantasies, and emotional attachments

feminist

a person male or female who believes that woman have value and deserve to achieve equality with men -there is many negative stereotypes about woman but most are untrue

To be a feminist researcher, one must be

a person of either sex, who approaches research with a feminist perspective.

puberty

a series of physiological events that changes a child into a person capable of reproducing

transgender movement

a social movement for the acceptance of more than 2 sex categories

sex discrimination

a teacher who pays more attention to the boys in class

moderator variable

a variable that interacts with an other variable to change its effects

moderator variable

a variable that interacts with another variable to change its effect

oppression

a widespread and systematic pattern of prejudice and discrimination

vicarious achievement

a woman is suppose to identify with her husband and feel gratified by his success

Gender labeling

ability to use boy/girl labels consistently

female selective abortion

aborting healthy fetus's only because they are female

female selective abortion

aborting healthy fetuses only because they are female

self-presentation

acting out a self in response to the expectations of others

sel presentation

acting out a self in response to the expectations of others.

In general, hormonal explanations are ________________ in accounting for the gender-related difference in depression.

insufficient

Many cultures value interconnectedness over independence. In other words, people in collectivist cultures are expected to develop an

interdependent self

Women who become gender-typed

internalize the subordination and devaluation of their social role and adopt behaviors that are a consequence of subordination.

Rosenfield (2000) suggests that women's higher rates of ____________ disorders and men's higher rates of ___________ disorders are due to gender socialization.

internalizing; externalizing

Those individuals whose biological sex is not completely, clearly male or female are referred to as

intersexed

Men are more likely than women to try to take over the conversation using

intrusive interruptions.

self-objectifications

involves habitual and chronic preoccupation with self-surveillance that disrupts a woman's connection to her subjective experiences and divides her attention

Modern feminists are often trivialized by the idea equality

is a "women's problem"

thin ideal

is a culturally prescribed ideal appearance for women that emphasizes extreme thinness

erotica

is a term that refers to materials that contain nudity or consensual acts of sexuality and are designed to elicit sexual arousal. Erotica, unlike pornography, does not seem to have negative effects on male consumers' attitudes toward women. Erotica is more difficult to find than pornography, but several lines of erotic products designed for and by women are available on the market today. use of erotica can be a healthy behavior for women, men, and couples. It would be a good thing for women if erotica became more available. It would be a great thing if it started to replace pornography.

The idea that men are unceasingly and unapologetically violent in abusive relationships

is belied by the cyclical pattern of most domestic violence.

Gender Bias in the Media

is prominent, providing inaccurate and systematically biased views of women and men. For example, women do not appear on television or in movies in proportion to their presence in the population, and depictions of women and men in these two media tend to be consistent with stereotypes. Despite the fictional nature of programming, media stereotypes have the power to influence people and promote stereotypical thinking. Media provide inaccurate and systematically biased information about gender: Males: Older, more prestigious, often the lead character Females: Younger, less likely to be employed, often secondary characters

Sexuality, as described by Crawford, is

is shaped by gender and culture

comparable worth

is the idea that jobs with similar requirements and value should pay similarly. Comparable value is difficult to assess, but companies are increasingly attempting to do so. Some companies have started examining the jobs they offer and rating them in terms of the skill and education required, as well as workload and other factors. Jobs are then assigned scores and pay for jobs with the same scores are equated. This is quite complicated and, not surprisingly, has not been implemented by many employers.

pay equity

is the simple idea that the pay for a given job should be the same, whether it is done by a man or a woman.

while psychology has traditionally focused on changing individuals,

it can also contribute to social change.

Many grandmothers who are full-time caregivers of grandchildren report

it was a nondecision as the children's parents were somehow incapacitated.

variability hypothesis

it was asserted that men, as a group, are more variable---in other words, although men and women may be similar on average, there are more men at the extremes of human behavior

Feminist critiques of the proposition males are biologically predisposed to be better in math than females include findings

items in standardized tests tend to appear in contexts more familiar to boys, such as sports

Feminist criticisms of traditional psychotherapy include

its focus on the individual as the source of his or her problems.

cognitive development theory

jean piaget. belived children move through fixed stages in development

Around the world, women are _________________ to endorse benevolent sexism.

just as likely as men

Television sexism is exemplified by the

larger number of male than female characters shown.

reinforcement

learning technique, behavior that is followed by desirable consequences is reinforced, and is more likely to occur in the future

Strong and athletic women are likely to be stereotyped as

lesbians

gender aschematic

less gender typed people have less developed gender schemas and rely heavily or more on other schemas

gender aschematic

less gendered typed people have less developed gender schemas and rely more on other schemas - the difference between schematic and aschematic is the matter of degree

The similarities tradition in feminist theory and politics stems from

liberal feminism

A person who believes women and men should be treated equally, supports the means to achieve this, and emphasizes the similarities between the sexes is a

liberal feminist

statistically significant

low probability of getting that result on chance alone, but not impossible

Compared to males, females receive, on average,

lower scores on the math section of the SAT and better math grades in college.

compared to males, females receive, on average

lower scores on the math section of the SAT but better math grades in college.

andocentric

male centered

Conservatives often refer to feminist criticism of the male status quo as

male-bashing

Saying psychological knowledge about women is mostly androcentric means the information is considered

male-centered

klinefelters syndrome (XXY)

males that have an extra X- reduced male features

operant conditioning

manipulation of behavior by the stimuli that follow it

The devaluation of female-gender words can be seen in

master/mistress

Mean difference

mathematical average of differences

clinical significance

meaningful or important choose to study whether men and woman differ in their choice for red or yellow snow cones- although statistically significant the results were not clinically significant

Children also learn feeling rules

meanings of emotions, other's expectations of feelings and how one to recognize emotions in others - feeling rules are based on gender stereotypes of emotionality, and example of social construction

BEM sex role inventory (BSRI)

measure the degree of femininity masculinity or androgyny that a person exhibits

faceism

measured as the proportion of the overall image devoted to the face, it is typically a man's face that is more focussed on in media

Face-ism

measured by comparing the size of the body and head and expressing it as a proportion (Archer, Iritani, Kimes & Barrios, 1983). The facial prominence in published images is usually higher for men.

When all but gender is equal, _________ initiated more touching.

men

stereotypes in movie roles

men are likely to be portrayed as aggressive and dominant, women as passive and relatively powerless (Haskell, 1997).

stereotypes in male-oriented magazines

men are more likely to be shown in occupational roles and rarely as fathers or husbands (Vigorito & Curry, 1998)

intrusive interruptions

men do more of this. active attempts to end the others speakers turn and take over the conversation

glass escalator

men in female dominated jobs fare better than women in the same occupation, they are more satisfied, get better evaluations, and advance faster

Zimmerman & West (1975) found that in male-female conversations

men make over 95% of interruptions when talking to women

In most studies on whether men or women talk more in a cross-gender situation,

men talk more than women

pro-feminist

men who believe that this term acknowledges women's leadership of the feminist movement and express their understanding that women and men have different experiences of gender

ambivalent sexism

men who endorse both hostile sexism and benevolent sexism

Around the world, __________ are more likely than ___________ to endorse hostile sexism

men; women

schema

mental framework

schema

mental template used to organize information and shape the way people see the world

sex typed

more elaborate than gender schemas and rely on them more heavily,characterized as appropriate for or of one sex rather than the other

Studies of lesbians' experiences of aging show

most lesbians find their partner relationship to be increasingly important.

Feminism may be defined

most simply as a movement to end sexism and sexist oppression.

expectancy X value model

motivation of men and women are channeled in different directions . involves the individuals expectations of success, and the subjective value

Feminism can best be defined as:

movement to end sexism and sexist oppression.

Despite popular stereotypes, there is _______________ in the emotionality of men and women.

much more overlap than difference

hermaphrodite

named after a child of the greek deities: Hermes & Aphrodite, person with a sexually ambiguous body

berdache/two spirit people

native american third sex category, biological males who wore women's clothes but i could vary

prejudice

negative attitude or feeling toward a person because of his or her membership in a particular social group

heterosexism

negative attitudes and beliefs about lesbian, gay, transgendered, and bisexual people

Schema

network of associations around a group, or mental network that guides people as they experience the world around them; term commonly used in psychology

gender stereotypes

networks of related beliefs that reflect the "common wisdom" about women and men

Gender stereotypes

networks or schemas of related beliefs that reflect the "common wisdom"

As adults, individuals with Gender identity disorder GID may develop gender dysphoria, depressive dissatisfaction with their gender.

not all children accept the gender role that matches their sex. Boys receive more pressure to conform to the male gender role, but more boys than girls are diagnosed with gender identity disorder in which they adopt cross-gender behavior and resist identifying with their own sex. As adults, these boys may grow into men with gender dysphoria, dissatisfaction with their gender, and some seek sexual reassignment, becoming transsexual or transgendered individuals. Although people tend to confuse gender dysphoria with homosexuality and tranvestism, these behaviors are separable. Gender identity disorder remains controversial and far from well understood. Some seek sexual reassignment, toward becoming transsexual individuals. It is a process during which "transgendered" is often preferred.

In their respective cultures, third-sex people are

not considered gay

When a woman feels that she is unlovable or unattractive because she hates or is embarrassed by some part of her body, she is

objectifying herself

When articles on female politicians, athletes, and authors prioritize women's appearance, they are

objectifying them

faux lesbianism

occurs when two or more women engage in sexually suggestive or sexually explicit behaviors with one another for the purpose of entertaining or pleasuring men. Women engaged in faux lesbianism are not acting on their own desires or pursuing their own pleasure; they are putting on a show for men. Not surprisingly, scenes of faux lesbianism are presented through a pronounced male gaze.

Until recently, men controlled institutions of knowledge, and if and when women attended university and developed expertise, they still were

often denied legitimacy, the funds for large-scale research, or an actual degree.

hierarchical

one or more dominant groups and other subordinate groups. dominant group has more of whatever society values

experimental research

one variable is manipulated and its effects on the other is measured *IV and DV -researchers begin their experiment with a hypothesis- their prediction about the variables

The tendency to generalize people who are members of the opposite sex and refer to them as being all alike and having similar qualities is called

outgroup homogeneity

The tendency to generalize people who are members of the opposite sex and refer to them as being all alike and having similar qualities is called

outgroup homogeneity.

Zimmerman & West (1975) found in male-female conversations

over 95% of interruptions were by men

Emotional Display Rules

overlearned habits about who can show what emotion to whom and when they can show it Make it possible to experience one emotion, but display another (or none at all) An emotional double standard -Women seen as emotional - Men seen as rational These stereotypes do not apply to all emotions -Men more often associated with anger Men and women experience emotions with similar frequencies, although they differ in which emotions: -Males -> excitement, calm -Females -> anxiety, sadness

ovaries

pair of female sex glads that contain eggs

testes

pair of male sex glands that produce sperm

Repeated, unexpected periods of sudden intense fear or discomfort occur in the context of

panic disorder.

Abusive families are usually

patriarchal.

gender schema theory

people acquire gender relevant schema at early ages. as children acquire them they use them to understand and organize info about their own gender and shape their own identity

The Japanese proverb "the nail that sticks up gets hammered down" means

people should not stand out or be different from everyone else.

out-group homogeneity effect

people tend to characterize outgroup members as being all alike and having similar qualities

intergroup bias effect

people tend to perceive their own social group more positively than other groups

gender schematic

people who has well developed gender schema and rely on it spontaneously in making sense of the world

intersexed

people with genitals that are not clearly male or female -2 % of the population -dr's assigned sex based on appearance of genitals

core gender identity

peoples fundamental sense of whether they are male or female -most cases babies grow into children and adults with core gender identities consistent with their genotypes and assigned sex

adolescence

period of pre adulthood where older children become increasingly independent and sexual

genotype

persons genetic make up (Female XX) (Male XY)

self esteem

persons overall level of positive regard and self respect

In the Balkans, under special circumstances, a woman may take on the legal and social status of a man by becoming a

pledged virgin

Some scholars believe the term ____________ should be reserved for material combining sexual themes with violence, dehumanization, degradation or abuse.

pornography

______________ is sexually themed material including violence, dehumanization, degradation, or abuse towards women.

pornography

female infanticide

preference for sons

global feminism

prejudice and discrimination against women are related across cultures

sexism

prejudice on the basis of sex or gender

punishment

presentation of a stimulus decreases the likelihood someone will repeat the behavior

positive reinforcement

presentation of stimuli increases the likelihood that someone will repeat the behavior

mullerian duct inhibiting hormone

prevents the internal embryonic structures from developing into female organs

Media Literacy

process of accessing, analyzing, evaluating and creating messages in wide variety of forms; Media critics highlight importance of consumer activism through discussions and buying power

role conflict

psychological effects of being faced with sets of incompatible expectations or demands

Meta-analysis analyzes results of multiple studies:

quantitatively summarizing results of the studies, allowing statistical analyses.

A feminist who emphasizes male control and domination of women is most likely a

radical feminist

variability

range or spread of data (difference)

Kenney-Benson

recognized girls as cooperate and having drive for mastery

women have greater decoding ability

recognizing emotions expressed by others - relates more to social status/ power

self-esteem

refers to a person's overall level of positive self-regard and self-respect

male gaze

refers to how women are typically viewed from a male perspective. The male gaze is evident in the mass media, particularly in films and television. It often seems as though the camera is a view seen through male eyes. If you examine the composition of scenes in films and television, the camera is often angled down at female characters.The male gaze is easily recognizable in sex scenes. The camera often lingers over the female body and highlights her nudity, while the male body is obscured by a woman or by props.

gender normative/cisgender

refers to people whose sex assignment at birth corresponds to their gender identity and expression

appearance schematicity

refers to the belief that appearance is a very important part of the self and is a significant determinant of life outcomes

body image

refers to the mental picture we each have of our bodily appearance as well as the associated feelings

objectification

refers to the treatment or perception of a person as an object rather than as an individual

seneca falls declaration of 1848

rejected the doctrine of female inferiority then taught by academics and clergy

Family Environment and Gender Development

related through both parents' and siblings' behaviors. Parents influence gender role development, especially in terms of traditional gender role ideology. Within families, fathers tend to be more traditional and more influential than mothers, pushing children toward traditional gender role behaviors. Without fathers present, children tend to be less traditional. Although many parents endorse gender equity, assignment of chores tends to reinforce traditional gender role behavior. In addition, parents often provide gendered models for their children. The presence and gender of siblings also affects children's gender development. Having more siblings tends to be associated with more gender stereotyping, especially when the siblings are a mixture of girls and boys. Family context is critically important -Both overt and covert beliefs about gender -Differential treatment by parents for boys/girls -interactions, toys, sports, academics -Traditional vs Non-traditional homes -Influence on gender role flexibility Many parents endorse equality, but still serve as gendered role models -Types of employment -Division of household chores Gender composition of siblings affects gender socialization -More siblings-> more gender stereotyping

Hostile acts attempting to damage another person's relationships or social standing are called

relational aggression.

Kaschak's Antigone Phase

replaces the Oedipus analogy with the female analogy of Antigone, Oedipus's faithful daughter. Kaschak took this character as a symbol of female development in a patriarchal family. Men who do not overcome the Oedipus phase of development treat women as extensions of themselves and their needs, and women who fail to overcome the Antigone phase fit into these subservient patterns, never acknowledging their own needs. Psychodynamic...BUT Social Role embodied? Oedipus symbolizes power and entitlement Antigone symbolizes women's self-sacrifice MEN's rights -Historically perpetuated by society

meta-analysis

researchers gather all of the existing studies on a topic and then use statistical methods to determine the overall size of relationships between variables -helps control for flaws in individual studies -facilitates the direction of gender similarities-important bc scientific method is designed to detect differences

Statistical significance can be defined as:

results not likely due to random chance.

The media reinforce the idea that it is socially acceptable to ______________ overweight women.

ridicule

conservatism

seek to keep gender arrangements as they have been in much of the recent past with males holding more public power and status and women being more or less defined by their sexuality and their roles as wives and mothers

conservatism

seek to keep gender arrangements as they have been much of the past, with men holding more public power and status

When people present themselves in a way confirming others' beliefs about them, they create a

self-fulfilling prophecy

The act of stifling one's own feelings and thoughts in order to fit in and be seen as a nice girl is called

self-silencing

androgens

several steroid hormones that shape the development of a typical male body

In her research on how people used sex, race, and age to identify characteristics of the person from whom they bought a subway token, Grady (1977) found

sex was mentioned as the first or second characteristic 100% of the time.

________ is to ___________ as nature is to nurture.

sex; gender

Male commentators often remark upon the _____________ of women athletes, a behavior that does not carry over to men athletes.

sexiness and physical appeal (or lack thereof)

History of gender

sexism, racism, and class bias were often intertwined and the brain often was the battle site

When a woman is reduced to her body and sexualized, she is being

sexually objectified

When a woman is reduced to her body and sexualized, she is being

sexually objectified.

penis envy

sigmund freud's theory-when a girl discovers that they dont have a penis this anger leads them to fall in love with their fathers. jealous of mens penis want to obtain one. since they cant have their father thats why they marry and have children

In general, the cognitive abilities of males and females can be described as

similar

When they play alone, boys and girls' play styles are ____________, but when they play in groups, their play styles become ________________.

similar; increasingly gender-typed.

The idea that children learn gender from their environment comes from

social learning theory

The right to display anger, something men do more often than women, is a kind of

social power

status

social standing that elicits respect

gender

socially constructed identity that is different from but built upon sex sex organs=female but behavior=gender

Gender role:

socially significant activities that men and women engage in with different frequencies

Gender distinctions occur at which three levels?

societal, interpersonal, individual

core gender identity

someones deep down sense of being male or female-matches a persons assigned sex. when it DOES NOT match core gender identity its called *gender identity disorder*

correlation coefficient

statistic that tells us the degree to which two variables vary with each other -ranges from -1 to 1 -0.0 means there is no relationship -1.00 means one variable increases and the other decreases -positive or negative

estrogens

steroid hormone produced by the ovaries

When stereotypes are activated by our culture, less prejudiced people

stop and think about the stereotypes and replace them with more accurate information.

correlational research

studies existing relationships no variables are manipulated or changed by the researchers -survey research

Learning Genderized Emotions

studies show parents are more likely to talk about people and emotions with their daughters rather than with sons;

neosexism

subtle form of sexism based on the beliefs that woman have already achieved equality- and woman who say otherwise are trying to gain an unfair advantage

When Ashley met a woman who was stronger and more athletic than many of her male friends, she reclassified the woman as an "athletic woman" rather than changing her stereotypes about women in general. "Athletic woman" is an example of a

subtype.

deficits theory

suggests that factors within the workplace make it more difficult for women to persist and succeed than men. The deficits theory gets its name from the idea that there are deficits in the work environment, rather than deficits in women themselves.

sex-role spillover theory

suggests that harassment occurs when a woman's gender is more salient as a worker so that men see her first and foremost as a sex object. Gender is more salient when a woman is in a token position. this can happened in a male dominant work force or if the job has objectification built into it.

evolutionary perspective

suggests that we inherit many of our behaviors from our ancestors

behavioral confirmation

suggests that when higher power people interact with lower power people about whom they hold stereotypes, they may---intentionally or unintentionally---treat those people in ways that actually elicit stereotype-consistent behaviors, even when the stereotype is inaccurate

In the Balkans, under special circumstances, a woman may take on the legal and social status of a man by becoming a

sworn virgin

PRESCRIPTIVE

telling us how to behave

DESCRIPTIVE

telling us what behaviors mean

profeminist

term acknowledges women's leadership of the feminist movement and expresses their understanding that women and men have different experiences of gender

gender-marked

terms that are always prefaced by "women" if it is something being done by women, but never prefaced by men because it is seen as normal for men to do it

One of the dangers of creating a "generic" woman against which to compare all women of color is

that researchers are making white women the norm, just as previous psychologists made men the norm.

power

the ability to control the outcomes of others by providing or withholding resources

Women who wish to change as individuals may find

the answer is not: two of these are correct

essentialism

the belief that the characteristics attributed to females are biologically fixed and unchangeable

paternalistic prejudice

the belief that woman need to be helped and protected by men -two commonly contradicting myths: 1)woman are pure-promotes that good girls do not desire or enjoy sex/can get in the way of healthy sexual relationships 2)woman are sluts-very dangerous/legitimizes sexual assaults and violence. beliefs that woman can be responsible for their own rapes

Biological Factors and Gender Development

the biology that underlies gender identity remains elusive. Recent research relating prenatal hormone levels to childhood masculinity and femininity suggests that prenatal hormone exposure may have an impact on developing gender identity. However, even children with intersex conditions usually develop a clear male or female gender identity. The evidence from individuals who have been sexually reassigned is not so clear. One famous case—the case of John/Joan—indicated that reassignment was unsuccessful and chromosomal sex dominated gender identity, but another similar case was successful, and the genetically male individual adopted a female gender identity. Biology may prime individuals to develop gender identity, but it is not clear that biology determines gender identity. -Configuration of external genitalia -Contributes to categorizing and identity -Evolutionary view: adaptations have shaped gender-related behaviors Girls: expressions of nurturing Boys: exploring the environment

relational authenticity

the congruence between what a girl thinks and feels and what she does in relationship situations

achievement motivation

the desire to accomplish something valuable and important and to meet high standards of excellence

confounding

the effects of two or more variables are mixed, and it becomes impossible to decide which variable is causing experimental effects

growth spurt

the gain in weight/body fat as well as a gain in height

gender schema theory

the gender schema, used by the individual as an aid to thinking and understanding, is learned very early and it guides the individual in becoming gender typed

biological determinism

the idea that gender is determined by biological features

autonomy

the ideal adult is seen as one whose sense of self is entirely separate from others, and who is independent and self-reliant

intrusive interruptions

the kind of interruptions that are active attempts to end the other speaker's turn and take over the conversation

Today, women earn ______________ of higher degrees in psychology.

the majority

body image

the mental picture one has of one's appearance and the associated feelings about the size, shape, and attractiveness of one's body

menarche

the onset of menstruation

Among teens, the strongest predictor of sexual activity is

the perceived level the sexual activity of one's friends

adolescence

the period after puberty and before adulthood

female infanticide

the preference to have a son is so extreme that it reduces the survival rate of baby girls

variability

the range or spread of scores

The range or "spread" of scores in a test is called

the range, or spread of dispersion

Although experimentation is the most respected paradigm for psychological research, it may not always be ideal for research on gender because

the researcher creates an artificial environment to manipulate participant experiences.

During the first month after conception,

the sex is already determined

assigned sex

the sex label of either female or male given to an infant

With regards to reproduction, sex refers to

the specialized structures, organs, and hormones creating one of two reproductive forms within a species.

horizontal sex segregation

the tendency for women and men to hold DIFFERENT jobs -secretaries -elementary school teachers

vertical sex segregation

the tendency for women to be clustered at the bottom of the hierarchy within occupation -present when men tend to hold positions that have higher status and better pay within the occupation. ex) health care industry social worker=woman physician=man

gender

the traits that make up masculinity and femininity

The major accomplishment of the first wave of feminist activists was

the vote for women

sex segregation

the workforce separation of men and women

sex chromosomes

the x and y chromosomes xx is female, xy is male

stereotypes

theories that people carry around in their heads about how members of a particular group think, look, and behave, and how these attributes are linked

stereo type threat

theory that explains that negative stereotype about the performance of groups can negatively influence the performance of people who belong to those groups

Individually: thinking critically

there is much more variability within gender/sex than between the sexes on every cognitive skill, ability, or personality trait tested - ever.

If there is a genetic component to sexual orientation,

there is no single gene that determines whether one is gay, straight, or bisexual.

Girls may want to be tomboys because

they are aware of the status advantages of men.

According to the textbook, research on masculine generics has shown

they are not truly generic

According to the textbook, research on masculine generics has shown

they are not truly generic.

Research on ethnic minorities of both sexes is scarce except when

they are seen as creating social problems like teen pregnancy and crime.

Though being physically harmed, many young women stay in a violent dating relationship because of all of the following reasons EXCEPT

they prefer violent men

When meta-analysis practitioners decide which studies to include,

they rely on their own judgments.

Crawford believes if feminist psychologists concentrate on studying the experiences of white, middle-class, heterosexual women,

they will limit the understanding of women's experiences, just as understanding of humans was limited when white males were the primary focus of research.

kathoeys

third sex category from thailand, have male genitalia but wear women's clothes

pledged virgin

third sex category in areas of the Balkans in which a born female takes over a man's roles when there is no man available, not thought of as a woman

old boy network

this is why woman have a harder time finding a mentor than men. "band of brothers" to look out for each others interests

Though people often ask why a battered woman doesn't just leave, research shows that a woman is more likely

to be injured or killed after she leaves her partner.

The practice of using children in commercial sex work is called

trafficking

affective and communal

traits considered characteristic of a women: describe a person who is concerned with feelings and other people

instrumental and agentic

traits traits considered characteristic of men: they describe a person who is active and effective

fa'afafine

translated to "in the way of a woman", third sex of the Samoans in the South Pacific

discrimination

treating people unfairly because of their membership in a particular group

Feminist therapy

tries to help clients' understanding many personal problems result from androcentrism.

Zanna & Pack (1975) asked women to describe themselves to men whose "ideal woman" was supposedly traditional or non-traditional. When the men were attractive, the women

two are correct

Conservatism bases its belief of traditional roles for women on

two of the answers are correct: biology, religion

transexual

two types (people with gender identity disorder) -male to female transsexual -female to male transexual ez)a male to female transsexual who is sexually attracted to women would be considered lesbian

statistically significant

unlikely to have occurred by chance

statistically significant

unlikely to have occurred by random chance

In the US, the most common way for a woman to contract HIV is

unprotected sex with a man

One example of sexist language is:

use of the term "man" to describe humans in general.

display rules

used by a culture to govern which emotions may be expressed, under what circumstances, and how

meta-analysis

uses quantitative methods to summarize the results of research done by different people at different times

Meta-alaysis

using statistical methods to summarize results of multiple research studies, conducted by different people at different times

Moderator variable

variable interacting with another variable to change the overall effect

Cognitive Developmental Theory

views the acquisition of gender-related behaviors as part of children's general cognitive development, with its roots in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Children below age 3 years have not developed a gender identity. These children often fail at gender labeling, both for themselves and others, and in the process of development, children learn the correct label for themselves before others. Cognitive developmental theory relies on the development of gender constancy as a basis for other gender-related knowledge, but research has indicated that the knowledge that one remains the same gender does not necessarily develop before other gender knowledge, a damaging piece of evidence for this theory. This theory correctly predicts the gender stereotyping that is common among children. Views the acquisition of gender-related behavior as part of general cognitive development -Occurs through interactions with the environment -Follows Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Children's abilities develop in stages

gender management strategies

ways of behaving that are aimed at softening a woman's impact, reassuring others that she is not threatening, and displaying niceness as well as (not too much) competence

On TV, poor women are often featured in stories

welfare reform

On TV, poor women are often featured in stories

welfare reform.

denial of personal discrimination

when asking a person if they have ever personally been discriminated against they are much less likely to acknowledge that it has happened to them

self silencing

when girls try to stifled their own feelings and thoughts in effort to fit in

observational learning AKA modeling

when people aquire behaviors they see other people perform

stereotype threat

when people know that there is a negative stereotype about their group's abilities, the pressure caused by their fear of confirming the stereotype can ban interfere with their performance

sexual objectification

when women's bodies are sexualized in media, the women themselves are often reduced to those bodies or even just parts of them

sexual orientation

whether people are attracted to the opposite sex -separate from sex and gender very few people are 100% heterosexual -fantasies, thoughts, romantic attachments are all more than just having sex

two person career

which wives serve as unofficial contributors to their husbands work. wife working for pay and helping her husband in law school and keeping up with housework

In the classroom, race and gender interact. Those getting the most attention are __________; those getting the least attention are ____________.

white boys; minority girls

Body dissatisfaction is more common among _______________girls than among _______________ girls.

white,black

gender research has been androcentric

with great efforts to present women/girls as "inferior and deficient" as compared to a male normative

When the Virginia Military Academy and the Citadel went to court to prove women should not be permitted admission, they claimed psychological research proved women are weaker, more emotional, and could not compete with men. Feminist psychologists protested

witnesses had misrepresented and misused psychological research

When the Virginia Military Academy and the Citadel went to court to prove women should not be permitted admission, they claimed psychological research proved women are weaker, more emotional, and could not compete with men. Feminist psychologists protested

witnesses had misrepresented and misused psychological research.

menstrual disability hypothesis

woman should stay in bed and refrain from exerting themselves while menstruating

With regards to the popular belief "men are from Mars and women are from Venus," feminists believe

women and men are not complete opposites of each other.

gender typing

women and men come to accept gender distinctions visible at the social structural level and enacted at the interpersonal level as part of the self-concept

liberal feminism

women are entitled to full legal and social equality with men and who favors changes in laws, customs, and values to achieve the goal of equality

With regard to understanding the emotions expressed by others,

women are generally more skilled than men

hostile sexism

women are inferior and they are threatening to take over men's rightful (dominant) place

decoding ability

women are somewhat more skilled at recognizing emotions expressed by others

separatism

women can escape patriarchy only by creating their own woman-only communities

minimal parental investment

women contribute 9 months where men it just quick and easy

The status and pay accorded to nurses, teachers, homemakers, and child-care workers is less than lawyers, physicians, and auto mechanics because

women's work is devalued

____________ report more emotions of powerlessness than ________.

women; men

patriarchal

word that means ruled by the fathers, social systems allocate more power and higher status to men

turner syndrome

xo chromosomal composition, missing sex chromosome, look like normal females externally(short in stature, need to take estrogens to develop breasts and an adult woman's body shape

Fiske et. Al., 1991?

• 1. When participants watch a video or discussion, more likely to mix up people of same gender than same age, same ethnic group, or same name • 2. Competent but not likeable, incompetent but likeable o Low status groups such as Latinos were judged likeable but incompetent o Suggest that people are threatened by high status out-groups and defend themselves by believing that members of such groups are unfriendly, and uncaring

Crosby, 1982?

• A large sample of employed women & men • Weren't too happy about the salary discrimination but also didn't like how they were treated at work (women)

Swim?

• College men & women were asked to keep diaries of sexist incidents and their impact in a series of studies • Women reported an avg. of 1-2 such incidents every week • Men reported about 1 every 2 weeks • Women more likely to hear degrading remarks

Harasty, 1997?

• College students in same sex pairs were asked to discuss American men for 5 min. each • Participants generalized more when talking about the gender outgroup than when talking about their own group • Male pairs made more comments "women are all like that" • Women pairs made more comments "men are all alike"

Grady, 1977?

• Describe person who had just sold them a subway ticket • Participants always mentioned that it was a woman & African American

Boswell, 1979?

• Elem. & high school students asked about perceptions of people in math-related careers such as science, engineering & physics, described white coated loners, isolated in labs, etc.

Zuckerman and Kieffer, 1994?

• Face-ism index favored not only men over women but also European American over African American people. • Black women had lowest face-ism index

Messner et. al.,?

• Gender marking

Hall, 1995?

• Interviewed a group of phone sex workers • Did not need clothes or anything but a sexy voice to fit the males' needs

John & Sussman?

• Scenario b/t Pat & Chris in book • Participants changed the sex of the 2 characters from 1 scenario to the next, as the gender cues shifted

Parlee, 1981?

• Study involved group of men about aging • Decided to add a sample of women, but suggested only the sisters of the men should be added by biomedical scientists • Social scientists suggested the appropriate sample would be college educated women similar in social status

Barbara Frederickson, 1998?

• Swimsuit sweater study

Bargad & Hyde, 1991?

• Taking a single women's studies course led to a decrease in the passive acceptance of sexism • An increase of feminism, and plans for social activism

Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968?

• When a teach was led to believe a child was gifted, scores went up

Grab & Hyde?

• White, Asian & Hispanic women had the same body dissatisfaction • African American women were slightly lower

LaFrance?

• Women, like low-status people, seem to feel an obligation to smile

social dominance orientation

general measure of how much an individual supports the domination of so called inferior groups by superior groups.

One example of androcentrism would be

generalizing findings about men being to all people.

complete androgen insensitivity syndrome

genetic composition of xy, but the body is unable (completely) to process androgens and so male reproductive structures don't develop

gender intensification

girls become increasingly adherent to gender roles in adolescence focusing on appearance and abandoning previously enjoyed masculine pursuits

A feminist focusing on concerns like sweatshop labor conditions, unequal access to healthcare and education, and forced prostitution is a

global feminist

display rules

govern which emotions may be expressed under what circumstances and how

gender stereotypes

groups of gender schema that are shared by many people -woman are bitchy

Mammy

happy slave whose huge breasts and perpetual smile symbolize her as a nurturer, while her dark complexion, bandanacovered hair, broad features and fat body mark her as asexual

Rather than attributing their daughters' success in math to natural talent as they tend to do for sons, parents often attribute girls' successes in math to

hard work

Rather than attributing their daughters' success in math to natural talent as they tend to do for sons, parents often attribute girls' successes in math to

hard work.

GENDER IN THE EXPERIENCE AND EXPRESSION OF EMOTION

has been proposed as the key to gender differences in emotionality, with men failing to express the emotions they feel. Only by concentrating on fear and sadness in women and by overlooking aggression in men could women be considered more expressive than men. The gender difference in expressivity can be understood as a difference in display rules: Men and women are supposed to restrain displays of certain emotions yet are free to show others. These display rules allow (and even demand) that people enact their gender roles, resulting in the expression of different emotions in boys and men compared to girls and women. leads to an emotional double standard -women seen as emotional - men as rational These stereotypes do not apply to all emotions: men are associated with emotions associated with power women with emotions associated with powerlessness. Research on the experience of emotion indicates few gender differences in anger, but men experience more excitement and calm and women more sadness and anxiety. The expression of emotion clearly varies according to social display rules that govern which are appropriate emotional behaviors to show in what contexts.

partial androgen insensitivity

have an external sex organ that could be classified as either a small penis or a large clitoris, internally they have male testes located in the abdomen or in the labia

COGNITIVE ABILITIES

have been a concern of psychology since its early years. With the development of intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, psychologists began to measure the IQs of large numbers of people and found no gender differences. This lack of gender difference was surprising, given the societal assumption of women's intellectual inferiority.

Feminist psychologists believe that, with regards to equality with men, women

have not yet achieved full equality.

glass ceiling

he glass ceiling is a problem faced by women who aspire to move up within companies, but who find that they are unable to progress past a certain level women facing the glass ceiling are typically successful professionals who advance through their companies but find themselves stuck in positions just below the top.

envious prejudice

high status outgroups may be regarded by this, grudging acknowledgement of their competence along with dislike

visual dominance

high status people look at their subordinates while speaking to them but tend to look away when its a subordinates turn to talk

visual dominance

high-status people look at their subordinates while speaking to them, but tend to look away when it's the subordinate's turn to talk

The Myth of Maternal Instinct

holds that nurturing behaviors of mothers toward their children are determined by biological factors and are largely insensitive to environmental or experiential effects. Although the concept of instinct fell into disfavor as a way to explain behavior, belief in maternal instinct continues, and the rise of evolutionary psychology has brought the concept of instinct into consideration once again. Nurturing offspring is of paramount importance, but the extent to which these behaviors are instinctive is questionable. Nurturing behaviors of mothers -Very Darwinian -Determined by biological factors Reinforces intellectual inferiority Largely insensitive to environment or experiences The concept of instinct fell into disfavor -Lack of empirical support Belief in maternal instinct continues

gender similarities hypothesis

holds that women and men are quite similar and the differences that do exist between the sexes are mostly unimportant -researchers interested in the ways that women and men are similar and design studies to examine the ways in which gender is alike evidence suggests: more simliar than different parents construct gender females >verbal ability males>spatial tasks

Until 1973, _______________ was included in the DSM as a mental illness.

homosexuality

relational aggression

hostile acts that attempt to damage another's close relationships or social standing

The phrase "Women seek to gain power over men" demonstrates a ____________ belief.

hostile sexism

Cross-cultural research on menopause suggests

hot flashes vary in frequency cross-culturally.

paternalistic prejudice

how low status outgroups may be treated, seen as needing to be guided and taken care of for their own good by the dominant group.

sexual differentiation

how sex is formed during prenatal development

Gender Schema Theory

hypothesizes that children develop schema for gender, a cognitive structure that organizes and guides perception. In this view gender-related behaviors appear not only as a result of general cognitive development but also due to the adoption of specific schemata related to gender. Children come to understand masculinity and femininity, and they attend to and come to behave in ways consistent with their schema. Gender schemata influence information processing, memory, and attitudes, which leads to gender stereotyping. Children develop schema for gender: -The cognitive structure that organizes and guides perceptions -MORE important to identity than other schema! -Gender-related behaviors appear: -As a result of general cognitive development -Due to the adoption of specific schemata related to gender

androcentrism

idea that men are somehow the standard version of human kind and that woman are a variant of men

Differences tradition

idea there are fundamental differences between women and men that should be recognized and honored

Similarities tradition

idea women and men are very much alike in intelligence, personality, abilities, and goals

social comparison process

idealized beauty images make women feel bad because their own appearance suffers by comparison

monozygotic twins

identical

Gender identity:

identifying and accepting the self as male or female. Factors in the development of gender identity include the ability to distinguish between the sexes and label each, knowledge of gender roles, and how each individual fits into these categories.

double binds

if a subordinate group member acts like a member of the dominant group she is criticized for stepping out of her place and not being a model member subordinate group. if she acts like a model subordinate she is criticized for for not being as competent as dominant group members

Children across cultures seem to learn about aspects of gender through

imitation, gender schemas, gender constancy.

Gender Differences

in emotionality are smaller in collectivist cultures compared to individualistic ones, as collectivist cultures permit men and women to feel and express a full range of emotions

Among the factors reducing stereotyping is

increased information about targeted individuals.

gender intensification

increased pressure to conform to gender roles beginning in early adolescence

motherhood penalty

increases with each child. woman of childbearing age regardless of whether they have children may also encounter discrimination because employers are reluctant to hire workers who may need to take maternity leave.

Experiencing Emotionality

independent self, interdependent self

Interdependent self

individuals are connected in relationships; task is to maintain connections by fitting in and building reciprocal relationships (collectivist culture)

interdependent self

individuals are seen as connected in a web or relationships, and their task is to maintain those connections by fitting in, staying in their proper place, and building reciprocal relationships with others

gender-typed

individuals become this when they ascribe to themselves the traits, behaviors, and roles normative for people of their sex in their culture

linguistic sexism

inequitable treatment of women and men that is built into the language