test yourself ch6 cont cont cont cont

Attitude inoculation is a way to A) increase resistance to attitude change. B) make fear-arousing messages more persuasive. C) ensure audience attention. D) bring attitudes into line with values. E) induce people to use heuristic processing.

a)

Hosking and colleagues (2009) examined cultural differences in predictors of behavioural intentions to quit smoking. The factor that was more predictive of Westerners' intentions than Southeast Asians' intentions was A) personal attitudes towards smoking. B) social norms about smoking. C) perceived control. D) internal affect. E) cultural attitudes towards self-improvement.

a)

Miguel recaptures the freedom of his youth when he test-drives the new Volkswagen "bug." He feels 25 years younger and remembers cruising the beaches of California in his old 1970 bug when he was in college. He decides to purchase that new VW model. Miguel's positive attitude toward the car is primarily driven by A) an affective component. B) a behavioural component. C) operant conditioning. D) a cognitive component. E) classical conditioning.

a)

Viswesvaran and Deshpande (1996) studied mid-level business managers in India. Some of these business managers were struggling with the question of whether to make unethical business decisions. Based on laboratory research on the effects of deciding to behave immorally, it is reasonable to predict that those managers who ________ would be most lenient about unethical practices a year later. A) made unethical decisions B) made ethical decisions C) felt forced to make unethical decisions D) deliberated longer about their situation E) had family members who had behaved unethically

a)

When your grandmother admonished you, "Never look a gift horse in the mouth," she was reminding you to be appropriately grateful for the gifts you receive. Were a dissonance theorist to remind you never to look a gift horse in the mouth, he or she would be giving you advice on how to A) avoid cognitive dissonance. B) prevent insufficient justification. C) prevent consonance in your cognitions. D) graciously accept the gift of a horse. E) avoid things that might be costly.

a)

Which of the following social psychology concepts is most closely related to the expression, "Saying is believing"? A) counter-attitudinal advocacy B) post-decision regret C) anchoring and adjusting D) justification of effort E) illusion of choice

a)

Why do people often experience post decision dissonance? A) Almost every alternative has both an upside and a downside, and this makes people feel uncomfortable. B) People fear that indecision will be evaluated negatively by others. C) People tend to find most decisions difficult. D) People are motivated to believe in a just world. E) It's easier to value an option we've chosen than to disparage an option we've rejected.

a)

You have just undergone a three-week initiation process to become a member of a fraternity. During the initiation, you were made to do such things as shave your head, run naked through the cafeteria, and sing obnoxious fraternity songs during your classes. You now consider the fraternity the best thing that's ever happened to you and are convinced that your fraternity brothers are friends for lifE) Your attitude toward your fraternity is probably the result of A) justification of effort. B) post-decision dissonance. C) the overjustification effect. D) insufficient punishment. E) flawed cognitions.

a)

According to cognitive dissonance theory, soldiers may reduce their guilt about killing innocent civilians during wartime by A) killing more enemy soldiers. B) dehumanizing their victims. C) going into therapy. D) telling themselves that the war is almost over. E) introspecting on what they have done.

b)

According to dissonance theorists, the practice of threatening mild punishment works because it arouses _______ cognitive dissonance and therefore causes _______. A) little; a change in attitude toward the forbidden act B) much; a change in attitude toward the forbidden act C) no; little if any frustration D) no; avoidance of the punishment E) much; avoidance of the punishment

b)

According to research by Sharon Shavitt (1990), consumers' attitudes toward social identity products are _______ based because they are informed by _______. A) cognitively; logical appraisals of the product. B) affectively; values and the self-concept. C) behaviourally; past product purchases. D) cognitively; social identity concerns. E) behviourally; values.

b)

Attitudes are an individual internal phenomenon, yet they are of tremendous interest to social psychologists. Why? A) Attitudes are the most powerful predictor of social behaviours. B) Attitude change is often a social phenomenon. C) Many attitudes are shared by groups of people. D) Attitude change can be used to maintain self-esteem. E) Attitude change is often self-serving.

b)

Cognitively based attitude is to _______ as _______ attitude is to emotion. A) evaluation; value-based B) appraisal; affectively based C) evaluation; behaviourally based D) values; affectively based E) evaluation; affectively based

b)

Eva's friends and her husband think that it's important that she get a mammogram at her next annual check-up. Eva believes that it will be relatively easy for her to make time in her schedule for that extra procedure. Thus, Eva has every intention of getting a mammogram as part of her annual check-up. This example best reflects the power of _______ and _______ respectively, to influence behavioural intentions and subsequent behaviours. A) subjective norms; affectively based attitudes B) subjective norms; perceived behavioural control C) specific attitudes; deliberative attitudes D) deliberative attitudes; subjective norms E) specific attitudes; perceived behavioural control

b)

Fear-arousing communications are most likely to result in attitude change when A) they are sufficiently strong to induce perceptions of threat. B) people think that attending to a message will reduce the fear. C) people process fear appeals peripherally. D) the messages are found to be shocking. E) people are in a good mood and the message takes them by surprise.

b)

In the 1930s, when anti-Asian prejudice was commonplace in the United States, Richard LaPiere (1934) had no trouble finding pleasant accommodations for himself and his Chinese traveling companions. Surprised, LaPiere later sent letters to the establishments they visited, asking whether Chinese visitors would be welcome. More than 90% of those who responded replied that they definitely would not accommodate Chinese. This study is noteworthy because it suggested that A) contact with people against whom we are prejudiced can actually reduce prejudice. B) the link between attitudes and behaviours is often tenuous. C) reports of prejudice in the United States were largely incorrect. D) hypocrisy is more common than many of us would like to think. E) rational persuasive appeals reduce prejudice.

b)

Recall that in experiments conducted by Mike Leippe and Donna Eisenstadt (1994, 1998), white college students agreed to write essays in favor of doubling funds for minority student scholarships, even though that policy would reduce funds available for majority students. What happened? A) Participants who were initially prejudiced did not change their attitudes, but non-prejudiced participants did. B) Participants convinced themselves that they supported the policy of expanding aid to minority students. C) Participants changed their attitudes about the policy, but not about minority students. D) Participants who were prejudiced refused to write the essays. E) Participants showed increased prejudice towards minority students.

b)

What do Shelly Chaiken's (1987) heuristic-systematic model of persuasion and Richard Petty and John Cacioppo's (1986) elaboration likelihood model of persuasion have in common? A) Both models have yielded findings that directly contradict results of the Yale persuasion studies. B) Both models specify when people will be influenced by the quality of argument as opposed to irrelevant factors. C) Both models view attitude change in response to persuasion attempts as self-serving. D) Both models predict that people will be most influenced by such peripheral or superficial factors as speaker attractiveness. E) Both models predict that situational variables are the only determining factor in attitude change.

b)

Which of the following best illustrates an implicit attitude? A) when Tracy checks off her opinion on a survey questionnaire B) when Randi experiences a flash of discomfort around her lesbian friends C) when Sarah sees Schindler's List and concludes that it is anti-Semitic D) when Jodi, who is white, marries Percy, who is black E) when Taylor thinks about which movie is her favourite

b)

Why would a race track of all places be an excellent place to conduct research on post-decision dissonance? A) The odds are against inexperienced bettors, but experienced bettors are more likely to win money than to lose it. B) It's a place where the consequences of both revocable and irrevocable decisions can be systematically studied. C) Trainers, owners, and jockeys have invested a lot of time and effort to breed and train a winner. D) A lot of people go to watch the races, but not everyone believes that betting is moral. E) It is a large random sample of people.

b)

Your best friend Nina may or may not visit New York this weekend. According to Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein's (1980) theory of planned behaviour, what information would be most useful in helping you predict whether Nina will actually travel to New York? A) Nina's past travel behaviour B) Nina's intention to visit New York C) Nina's intention to get away this weekend D) Nina's attitude about traveling E) Nina's attitude toward New York

b)

Sang-pil Han and Sharon Shavitt showed Americans and Koreans advertisements that stressed either independence or interdependence. They found that _______ were persuaded most by ads that stressed _______. A) Koreans; logical arguments. B) Americans; interdependence. C) Americans; independence. D) Americans; emotional appeals. E) Koreans; independence.

c)

Anthony Greenwald and his colleagues (1991) provided participants with audiotapes that contained subliminal messages to improve memory or to raise self-esteem. After participants had listened to the tapes, the researchers assessed their memory or self-esteem. Greenwald and his colleagues found that subliminal messages A) did nothing more than relax participants, improving their performance on memory tasks. B) increased memory, and this increase in memory lead to increases in self-esteem. C) did nothing to enhance memory or increase self-esteem. D) increased self-esteem, but did not improve memory. E) worked to enhance memory or self-esteem only when participants thought they worked.

c)

As a persuasive communicator, your goal is to influence the opinions of your audience. You are most likely to benefit from an audience that is slightly distracted when A) you are not an acknowledged expert on the topic. B) your arguments are strong. C) your arguments are rather weak. D) your audience holds a weak attitude toward the issue. E) you have a cold.

c)

At the new-car dealership, Josh asks the saleswoman a number of questions: "How good is the gas mileage on this model? What does Consumer Reports say about this make and model? Does this car hold its resale value?" The _______ component of Josh's attitude toward the car was most likely to inform his questions. A) dissonant B) affective C) cognitive D) behavioural E) emotional

c)

Imagine that you are listening to a political candidate. Which of the following scenarios would result in the most attitude change in the direction of the candidate's position? A) The arguments are strong, but you don't regard the candidate as expert in the area, which is also not particularly relevant to you. B) You care deeply about the issue and the speaker is very attractive, but he presents a superficial argument. C) The topic is not very important to you and you are captivated by the candidate's dazzling smile. D) You find the candidate unattractive and the arguments are weak, but the topic is highly relevant to you. E) The arguments are low in quality, but there are a lot of them, and the issue is one about which you care deeply.

c)

The authors of your text present a study by Egan and his colleagues in which monkeys were given a choice between different colours of M&Ms. Later their preference for different colours of M&Ms was re-assesseD) The researchers found that A) the monkeys couldn't remember what they picked. B) the monkeys selected colours only at random. C) the monkeys showed post-decision dissonance. D) the monkeys couldn't see the colours. E) the monkeys preferred M&Ms that had a different colour from those they had originally chosen.

c)

You've recently learned that eating avocados, which you love, is bad for your health. To reduce the dissonance you experience after reading this news, you would most likely A) reread the article more carefully. B) consume a larger quantity of avocados. C) question the validity of the research and the integrity of the scientists. D) look for more articles on avocados. E) tell all of your friends about the findings.

c)

Andrew Davidson and James Jaccard (1979) studied the relation between women's attitudes and their use of the birth control pill. These researchers found that the best predictor of whether women were using the birth control pill two years after reporting their attitudes was their A) belief about their partners' attitudes towards the pill. B) attitudes towards adoption. C) attitudes towards abortion. D) attitude towards using birth control pills during the two-year period. E) attitude towards unwanted pregnancy.

d)

For those who are most threatened by a fear-arousing message, the addition of ________ can be effective in creating attitude change and preventing an audience from turning their attention away. A) real-life examples B) frightening and graphic images C) soothing music D) humour E) attractive and colourful images

d)

Jill is a devout Catholic who believes that the use of birth control is wrong. However, Jill becomes involved in a relationship and together she and her partner decide to practice birth control. Jill will probably A) now hold a more negative attitude toward birth control. B) denounce the Pope and leave the Catholic church. C) feel motivated to leave the relationship. D) now hold a more positive attitude toward birth control. E) exhibit no change in her attitude toward birth control.

d)

Rachel had never tasted sushi before. After she gladly tried it for the first time, she discovered that she really liked it, and can't wait to order it again. Rachel's attitude toward sushi is a(n) _______ attitude. A) cognitively based B) decision-based C) value-based D) behaviourally based E) affectively based

d)

Susan carefully rinses her mouth with an unpleasant-tasting mouthwash every day. One day, Susan reads an article reporting credible dental research that suggests that mouthwash is completely ineffective and that mouthwash may even be related to tooth decay. The discomfort that Susan experiences in response to this article is called A) self-deception. B) insufficient justification. C) self-justification. D) cognitive dissonance. E) self-discrepancy.

d)

The _______ component of attitudes is to emotional reactions as the _______ component is to knowledge and beliefs. A) evaluative; behavioural B) affective; behavioural C) cognitive; behavioural D) affective; cognitive E) evaluative; cognitive

d)

Your friend Jamie shows you the gift she bought for her mother's birthday. It's an atrociously ugly fake marble statue of an angel, with the saccharine words "My Mother's An Angel" sloppily lettered on the bottom. Jamie asks you what you think, and because her feelings are easily hurt, to spare her, you say, "It's wonderful! Maybe I'll get one for my mom!" In this case, you _______ experience dissonance because there is _______ justification for your action. A) will not; sufficient internal B) will; sufficient external C) will; not D) will not; sufficient external E) will; sufficient internal

d)

According to the authors, every time we make a decision, we experience some amount of dissonance. Why? A) The rejected alternative is seldom completely positive. B) After people invest effort, they are motivated to second-guess themselves. C) People seldom seek out objective information before decision-making. D) People often make the wrong decision. E) The chosen alternative is seldom completely positive.

e)

Elliot Aronson and his colleagues (1991, 1993) asked college students either to compose a persuasive message advocating the use of condoms, or to compose and deliver their message in front of a video camera. In addition, half of the participants in each group were made mindful of the times that they didn't use condoms. After completing these tasks, participants were allowed to purchase condoms at a low price. What is the significance of their findings from this experiment? A) They demonstrated that although dissonance can bring about attitude change, behaviours are not affected. B) They demonstrated that in some conditions, fear and anxiety can actually encourage condom use. C) They demonstrated that dissonance may not have a strong impact on attitude change, but behaviours may still be affected. D) They demonstrated that before people will use condoms, they must experience dissonance. E) They demonstrated that dissonance created by feelings of hypocrisy can change both attitudes and behaviours.

e)

In a study by Peterson, Haynes, and Olson (2008), smokers with __________ were particularly likely to respond to hypocrisy induction by actually quitting smoking. A) fewer years of smoking B) fewer health problems C) low self-esteem D) greater dislike of cigarettes E) high self-esteem

e)

People are unlikely to change their attitude after saying something they don't truly believe if there is _______ for the lie. A) insufficient justification B) a small cash reward C) insufficient rationalization D) internal justification E) external justification

e)

Research has found that explicit attitudes are rooted in ________ whereas implicit attitudes are rooted in ________. A) emotions; sensations. B) childhood experience; current events. C) positive experience; negative experience. D) negative experience; positive experience. E) recent experience; childhood experience.

e)

The concept of _______ refers to people's beliefs about how those they care about will view a behaviour in question. A) judgmental norms B) social convention C) normative evaluations D) reciprocity norms E) subjective norms

e)

When people listen carefully to a persuasive communication and think about the arguments, they are using the _______ route to persuasion. A) direct B) heuristic C) peripheral D) indirect E) central

e)