The Cold War

The KGB

A secret police, eventually called the _________, spied on citizens and enforced the ideas of the state. Intellectuals, activists, and other people perceived as opponents of those in power were exiled to the Gulag, a system of prisons and work camps in Siberia.

The beginnings of the Vietnam War (summary)

After World War II, Vietnamese nationalists, led by popular communist leader Ho Chi Minh, fought for independence from France. The Vietnamese defeated the French in 1954, and the region was divided into communist North Vietnam and noncommunist South Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh wanted to unite North and South Vietnam and form a single nation controlled by a communist government. The United States feared that if the communists gained control of South Vietnam, it would only be the first of a series of takeovers by the communists in Southeast Asia.

The Ceasefire of the Korean War

After the election, Eisenhower visited Korea to help facilitate peace talks. When the peace talks did not work, he threatened to use nuclear weapons to bring the war to a speedy end. This threat led to the ceasefire on July 27, 1953. In the end, there was no victory in the Korean War. The Korean Peninsula is still divided into two countries: one communist and the other democratic. Nearly 2.5 million lives had been lost during the conflict.

Rivalry in the Olympics

Although the 1952 Olympic Games was friendly, eventually the Olympics became another stage for the Cold War when Soviet and American athletes competed against each other. Each country viewed victory as a sign of its superiority.

Declining Support of the Vietnam War

Although these missions did often succeed in finding Viet Cong supporters, they also uprooted uninvolved civilians and created millions of refugees. Several incidents revealed the brutality of the war for the Vietnamese people and eroded ______________ for the war in the United States. For example, Americans learned that U.S. forces had killed civilians in the South Vietnamese town of My Lai.

Division of Germany

American, British, and French troops occupied Western Europe and West Germany, including part of Berlin, the former German capital. The Soviet Union occupied Eastern Europe and East Germany, and the other part of Berlin.

Viet Minh

An organization Ho Chi Minh formed in 1941 to resist the Japanese occupation

The Red Scare

As the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States intensified in the late 1940s and early 1950s, hysteria over the perceived threat posed by Communists in the U.S. became known as the _________ _____________. (Communists were often referred to as "Reds" for their allegiance to the red Soviet flag.) Federal employees were analyzed to determine whether they were sufficiently loyal to the government. The House Un-American Activities Committee, as well as U.S. Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, investigated allegations of subversive elements in the government and the Hollywood film industry.

Ho Chi Minh Trail

As the conflict continued, they developed an elaborate network of paths and underground tunnels that allowed the movement of troops and supplies. The United States called this network the ____ _____ ____ ___________. The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese also received weapons and money from communist powers- China and the Soviet Union.

Division of Korea

At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies could not agree on who would control Korea until it was able to write a constitution and form a government. They decided to divide Korea into two zones along the 38th parallel of latitude. North Korea, which bordered China, was to be controlled by the Soviet Union. South Korea was to be controlled by the United States.

The Yalta Conference

At the ________ _________________, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin wanted Germany to remain weak and divided. U.S. President Roosevelt and UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill wanted free elections in the Eastern European countries to establish democratic governments there. The Big Three decided at Yalta to dismantle Germany's military industry, prosecute war criminals, and provide economic aid to the German people. They also agreed in theory to divide Germany into four occupation zones and that they, along with France, would each control one zone. The Soviets pledged to allow free elections in all formerly Nazi-controlled countries.

Effects of the Tet Offensive

Before the Tet Offensive, American leaders had claimed that the war was progressing smoothly. After Tet, however, the U.S. government had to admit publicly that the war was not going well.

Public Awareness of Nuclear Attacks

Beginning in 1950s, the U.S. government funded a series of videos and other resources to increase public awareness of the dangers of nuclear attacks. The resources promoted methods for surviving such an attack. For example, people were encouraged to build fallout shelters and practice "duck and cover."

Election of 1968

Both Republican Richard Nixon and independent candidate George Wallace ran on law-and-order platforms, but Wallace's racism alienated most people outside the Deep South. Nixon won 32 states and carried the election with 43.6 percent of the popular vote to Humphrey's 42.9 percent. Nixon took office in early 1969.

The Berlin Wall Construction

By the 1960s, the Soviets were increasingly embarrassed by the many people who chose to escape from communist East Germany to West Berlin. To prevent people from East Germany and other Soviet-controlled countries from escaping to the West, the East German government surrounded West Berlin with a barbed-wire barrier during the night of August 12-13, 1961. They also ordered the construction of a high, solid wall of thick concrete. On the East German side of the wall was an open area patrolled by armed guards, known as "no man's land."

Bombing during the Vietnam War

By the end of 1964, the Viet Cong had begun attacking American military bases. U.S. military leaders at home suggested a series of air strikes against the North Vietnamese. These strikes, they thought, would lessen North Vietnam's ability to provide supplies and troops to the South Vietnamese resistance. In February 1965, Johnson approved the plan under the name Operation Rolling Thunder. The United States did not declare war, but by the 1968, more than 500,000 U.S. soldiers were fighting in South Vietnam.

The Civil War in Greece & the Rebellion in Turkey

By the spring of 1947, Greece had been divided by __________ _________ for close to a year. A communist rebel army controlled northern Greece and seemed headed toward overthrowing the Greek monarchy. In Turkey, the Soviets threatened to encroach on the country's territory in southeastern Europe.

Communism in China

Chinese communist revolutionaries gained ground in their civil war against the government controlled by the Nationalist Party of Chiang Kai-shek. Many citizens in China thought the Nationalist government was not equipped to run the country because the party had a history of corruption. Even though the U.S. sent billions of dollars in aid against the communist rebels, in October 1949, the communists officially won the civil war.

The Pentagon Papers

Citizens' distrust of the federal government was growing. In 1971, the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret study of the war's progression from the mid-1940s through the spring of 1968, appeared in the national press. (Leaked by Daniel Ellsberg in New York Times). The public discovered that U.S. involvement in Vietnam had begun long before direct military action. Many were shocked to discover that every president since Harry S. Truman had authorized financial and military aid in the region. The study also showed that the Johnson administration had deliberately misled the public and Congress about events in Vietnam in order to justify bombing and sending more troops.

The Tet Offensive

Communist leaders decided to plan a series of attacks that would cause the South Vietnamese defenders to lose hope of victory. These attacks were set to take place on Tet, the Vietnamese New Year, which was scheduled as a time of truce. To distract U.S. military leaders, communist forces launched fresh attacks on U.S. military bases. Some 50,000 U.S. and South Vietnamese troops were busy defending U.S. bases when the _______ _______________ began on January 31. Viet Cong forces attacked dozens of cities, airfields, and military bases. They even managed to get inside the U.S. embassy in the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon.

The Arms Race

Countries around the world were alarmed by the U.S. development of nuclear weapons, but probably none more so than its main rival, the Soviet Union. However, the Soviets were already developing their own nuclear weapons and successfully tested a nuclear device in 1949. The superpowers also developed long-range missiles to deliver nuclear weapons. An intercontinental ballistic missile, or ICBM, is a rocket-launched weapon capable of flying to another continent—such as from North America to Europe. The two superpowers stockpiled ICBMs as deterrents. To deter is "to discourage or persuade against."

Stalin Ignores Yalta Conference

Despite Stalin's promise to allow elections in Eastern Europe and to temporarily occupy Germany, he did not keep his promise after the war ended. No democratic elections were held in Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union invaded and established communist governments in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. These countries became satellite states, or countries that are officially independent but under political control of an outside government.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

During the Berlin crisis, 12 noncommunist nations from North America and Europe joined together in the hopes that their alliance would deter Soviet expansion in Western Europe. They also vowed to defend on another against attack.

U.S. Embargo on Cuba

Eisenhower placed an _______________ on U.S exports to Cuba except for medicine and food. Then, near the end of his term of office, Eisenhower cut off all diplomatic relations with Cuba.

The Resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis

Finally, on October 28, a settlement was reached. Khrushchev agreed to stop sending missiles to Cuba and to return the missiles already in Cuba to the Soviet Union. In addition, he agreed to dismantle the launching sites. In return, Kennedy promised that the United States would not invade Cuba and also secretly agreed to remove U.S. nuclear-armed missiles from Turkey. These missiles could have been used to attack the Soviet Union.

General William Westmorelamd

Following the Tet Offensive, _____________ ____________ ______________, the commander of the U.S. Army in Vietnam from 1964 to 1968, requested some 200,000 more combat troops. Westmoreland claimed that this push could at last defeat the communists. However, American public opinion and a new secretary of defense were against further escalation. They did not believe Westmoreland and objected to the increasing human and financial cost for no apparent benefit.

Beginnings of the Rivalry between the U.S. & the U.S.S.R.

For example, both countries spied on each other. They spent massive amounts of money to build their military capabilities. They used threats, offered rewards, and competed economically. They stirred up wars and revolutions in countries that were friendly to their rival. They argued whenever the occasion arose, defending their way of life and criticizing the other's way of life. They used propaganda and disinformation to influence public opinion about each other.

Dean Acheson

Helped develop the containment policy into what became known as the Truman Doctrine. Secretary of State from 1949-1953.

Vietnam's Declaration of Independence

Ho's Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam echoed the U.S. Declaration of Independence. In it, he declared, "All men are created equal; they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights; among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."

How did the Soviets react to the Marshall Plan?

However, the Soviets feared the Marshall Plan would extend the influence of the United States in Eastern Europe, and they pressured Eastern European countries to withdraw from the plan.

The Domino Theory

If one country became communist, this could influence its neighbors to become communist. Also suggested that the world was in danger of being overrun by communism.

The Truman Doctrine

In 1947, President Truman announced that the United States would send economic and military aid wherever it was needed to stop the spread of totalitarian governments. The United States would help "free peoples" and anticommunist governments respond to external and internal threats. The United States would also support anticommunist revolts or rebellions against existing communist governments.

CIA

In 1947, he signed the National Security Act, which created the Central Intelligence Agency. It played a key part in the Cold War, collecting intelligence and carrying out covert operations against perceived communist threats.

The Berlin Crisis

In 1948, a crisis erupted when France, the United Kingdom, and the United States decided to unite their parts of occupied Germany into a unified West Germany.

The Second Red Scare

In 1949, the Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb. The Soviet Union and the United States also spied on each other extensively and had many secret programs aimed at weakening the other's government. Many Americans were scared. They feared a nuclear war with the Soviet Union. They also felt threatened by communist spies working for the Soviet Union, who were living in the United States and plotting to destroy the country.

Eisenhower's New Look Policy

In 1953, when Dwight D. Eisenhower took over as president, he used the threat of nuclear weapons to handle conflicts with the Soviet Union.

Castro's Revolution

In 1956, after being released from prison, Castro and 80 of his followers attempted an invasion that ultimately failed. However, the survivors hid in the mountains of Cuba and launched both a publicity campaign and guerrilla warfare operations. His Revolution succeeded. Even though Castro had promised moderate reforms, he soon began to implement communist policies. He replaced Cuba's economy with a communist-style command economy, one in which the government decides what is produced and sets wages and prices. Cuba also began seeking aid from the Soviet Union.

U-2 Incident

In 1960, a CIA spy mission went wrong. People all over the world were surprised when the Soviet Union announced it had shot down a U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory. They had extremely powerful cameras that could take detailed pictures of locations on the ground such as military bases. The planes were detected by Soviet radar, and eventually, one plane was caught. The United States was highly embarrassed by the discovery of the flights.

Agent Orange

In 1961, U.S. forces began to help their South Vietnamese allies by using helicopters to spray Vietnamese jungles with a leaf- and-plant-killing chemical called ____________ _____________. It was used to destroy the dense forests where the Viet Cong hid their bases and supply trails. The chemical was successful at clearing trees and helping U.S. troops to avoid ambushes and surprise attacks. However, the chemicals in it are also hazardous to humans. Many U.S. veterans of Vietnam, Viet Cong and South Vietnamese civilians developed serious medical conditions thought to be caused by exposure to it.

Communication between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.

In 1963, a direct telegraph line was built that allowed leaders from both countries to send messages to each other quickly.

The Gulf of Tonkin Incident

In August 1964, the North Vietnamese torpedoed the U.S. destroyer Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin. He issued a warning that another attack on the U.S. navy would have serious consequences. Two days later, the Maddox reported it had been attacked again, and intelligence officers concluded that the North Vietnamese had struck a second time. Later analysis has proven that the Maddox was not actually attacked again. It is not clear whether Johnson knew this.

Rebuilding Japan

In Japan, the United States offered financial aid to spur industrial and economic development. American officials thought that if people were well off they would not be tempted by communism. On the other hand, the United States helped the Japanese repress activities from communist-backed labor unions.

Geneva Accords

In July 1954, representatives from France, Vietnam, and other colonies of Indochina signed a series of agreements at a conference in Geneva, Switzerland. Vietnam was temporarily divided into two sections at the 17th parallel. Ho and the Viet Minh led the northern section of the country. The southern section was officially under the rule of former Vietnamese Emperor Bao Dai but was actually run by a new prime minister, Ngo Dinh Diem.

NASA

In July 1958, Congress created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA, and JFK suggested the Apollo Program, which would land the first humans on the moon. Despite initial setbacks with the earliest Apollo flights, Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the moon on July 21, 1969, as a result of the Apollo 11 mission.

Soviet & Chinese Influence on North Korea

In June 1950, China and the Soviet Union backed an invasion of South Korea by North Korea. The goal was to reunite all Korea under a communist government. This was exactly the type of aggression the United States feared. However, South Korean defenses were unprepared and overwhelmed, and North Korean forces overtook the South Korean capital city of Seoul.

Sputnik & Effects

In October 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I. (Sputnik is Russian for "satellite.") Sputnik was the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. It was about two feet in length and completed one orbit in a little over an hour and a half. Many Americans were terrified that Sputnik, or a satellite of its kind, would drop bombs on U.S. cities. More realistically, they feared that if the Soviets could launch a rocket into space, they could also build a rocket that could carry a nuclear missile to North America.

British Assistance with France

In September 1945, British forces landed in Saigon, Vietnam's colonial capital, and reclaimed the country for their ally France. By October, French troops returned to assume control.

Missiles in Cuba

In September, U-2 photographs from flyovers revealed improvements at certain missile-launching sites. U.S. knowledge of Soviet technology led to the alarming conclusion that these sites had been modified to have the ability to launch intermediate-range missiles—missiles that could carry nuclear weapons and that could reach the southeast United States.

LBJ Withdraws U.S. Troops & Negotiates with North Vietnam

In late March 1968, Johnson not only refused to increase U.S. troop numbers in Vietnam but also announced plans to begin withdrawing troops and negotiating with the North Vietnamese.

Warsaw Pact

In response to NATO, the Soviet Union created its own alliance of collective security, which included the Soviet Union and its satellite states.

The U.S. supports a coup

In the fall of 1963, the Kennedy government quietly agreed to a plan by South Vietnamese generals to overthrow the Diem regime. To the surprise of the United States, the generals not only staged a coup but also assassinated Diem and his brother, an unpopular government official.

Spies in the U.S.

In the mid-1940s, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were members of the American Communist Party. Some acquaintances of the Rosenbergs accused them of providing the Soviet Union with secret information that could help Soviet scientists build an atomic bomb. The federal government charged the Rosenbergs with espionage. Both Julius and Ethel Rosenberg denied the accusations that they were involved in a spy ring, but they were convicted in 1951 and executed in 1953.

Banning Nuclear Testing Aboveground

In the same year, the United States, the Soviet Union, and more than 100 other nations signed a treaty that banned the testing of nuclear weapons, except underground.

First Indochina War

In the spring of 1946, the Vietnamese leader and the French government signed an agreement to share power. The French soon tried to reassert tighter control over Vietnam. That November, a French ship fired on the Vietnamese town of Haiphong, killing about 6,000 Vietnamese citizens. Fighting raged for several years. Members of the Viet Minh, led by General Vo Nguyen Giap, used guerrilla warfare to weaken the French army. The United States gave military aid to the French forces but was not directly involved. In 1954, the Viet Minh won a decisive victory at the battle of Dien Bien Phu and won the war.

SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization)

It was established in 1955 by Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. This organization would protect Southeast Asian countries from being invaded by communist powers. (Also agreed to help Indochina.)

Blockade

JFK decided on a quarantine. The U.S. navy sent submarines and warships to the Caribbean to establish the _____________, cutting off shipments from the Soviet Union to Cuba.

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Johnson asked Congress to give him the power to take all necessary military actions against the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. Congress granted these powers in the ____________________________. Although the resolution did not declare war, it allowed the president to escalate U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. Johnson increased U.S. forces in Vietnam to 180,000 in 1965 and 550,000 by 1968.

McCarthyism

Joseph McCarthy repeatedly accused his opponent of communist ties. Four years later, McCarthy gave a speech during which he claimed that he had a list of 205 "card carrying" communists who were working for the U.S. State Department. He never produced firm evidence or a list of names, but his investigations damaged the accused officials and other witnesses at the trials. Many lost their jobs and reputations. His tactics, which many considered reckless, were called ________________.

"Flexible Response"

Kennedy decided to rely more on conventional weapons instead of stockpiling nuclear weapons. He thought this would give the U.S. military more flexibility in its response to Soviet aggression, meaning it could enter large and small conflicts on the ground, in the air, or at sea.

North Korean Dictator

Kim II Sung

Fear of nuclear attacks in the U.S. caused . . .

Many families built bomb shelters in their homes. Many cities and towns built air-raid warning systems and conducted "bomb drills" in classrooms and businesses.

Viet Cong

Many peasants began to oppose Diem, and a rebel group inside South Vietnam soon formed, aiming to overthrow him. This rebel group was called the ________ __________, which stood for Vietnamese Communists. By the time Kennedy became president, the group had amassed a force of 4,000 troops, but that number grew to nearly 13,000 by the end of 1961.

Local Help in South Vietnam

Much of the communist support in South Vietnam came from _____________ people who supported and sometimes fought alongside the Viet Cong.

South Vietnamese Leader

Ngo Dinh Diem, a corrupt leader who harshly attacked any opposition and failed to provide aid to the many poor farmers in his nation. Diem's government quickly proved to be an oppressive one. He gave members of his own family important government jobs and favored Roman Catholics over the Buddhist majority. His administration was corrupt and ineffective. He arrested thousands of communists in South Vietnam.

Peace Corps

President John F. Kennedy also used charity to gain favor around the world. He realized that many poor countries needed help to raise their standards of living. He established the Peace Corps in 1961, a program that sends thousands of Americans to developing countries to support projects in fields such as education and public health.

U.S. Aid in Greece & Turkey

President Truman argued that the United States had to step in to help drive back the communist rebels, and Congress voted to give $400 million to support Greece and Turkey. By 1949, the communists in Greece were defeated, and the monarchy was restored. Turkey also resisted a communist takeover

MacArthur's criticizes Truman

President Truman decided to limit the war to containment because that was all the UN had authorized. General MacArthur fiercely criticized Truman and his decision, and he was not shy about doing so. Many Americans favored MacArthur's approach to aggressively fighting communism. President Truman was widely criticized when he recalled MacArthur to the United States in April 1951, reprimanded him for insubordination, and removed him from command.

1968: LBJ Chooses not to Run for President

Public support for the war in Vietnam was decreasing, and President Johnson faced troubles at home. Antiwar senators—including Robert F. Kennedy of New York, younger brother of former president John F. Kennedy, and Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota—increasingly criticized the government's handling of the war. President Johnson, facing the loss of his own party's nomination, announced he would not run for another term.

Who created the Marshall Plan?

Secretary of State George Marshall suggested, in a 1947 speech, that the United States offer more than $13 billion in aid to Europe to help it recover from the devastation of World War II. Marshall hoped that the aid would rebuild Europe's economy in the image of the United States and prevent the further spread of communism.

Cuban Relations with the Soviet Union

Shipments of cargo from the Soviet Union to Cuba increased dramatically through the year, from an average of 14 per month to 28 per month in August and then to 46 per month in September. The CIA suspected these shipments included weapons. The numbers of Soviet technicians and military personnel in Cuba also grew. Airstrips were being enlarged, presumably to permit the takeoff and landing of high-performance aircraft.

"Search and Destroy"

Standard military tactics are often ineffective against guerrilla warfare, and this was certainly true in South Vietnam. However, U.S. military leaders thought that the superior U.S. strength and firepower would wear down the communist resistance over time. U.S. troops engaged in "_____________ ________ _____________" missions to search out the Viet Cong and destroy their strongholds.

South Korean Ruler

Syngman Rhee, an exile from North Korea

Dangers of the Berlin Wall

The East German government built crossing points in the wall (Checkpoint Charlie) but rarely allowed East Germans to pass through them into West Berlin. Despite the danger, many East Germans attempted to escape their country by climbing over or digging under the wall. However, the East German guards shot anyone who tried this. During the 38-year life of the wall, more than 260 people were killed attempting to escape to the West.

Spread of Communism by the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union pressed the countries of Eastern Europe to adopt communist governments based on the Soviet model. They did this by supporting each country's Communist Party while the communists seized power, often through violent means. In some countries, such as Poland, Soviet officials even served in government.

Communism in the Soviet Union

The Soviet government took control of all factories, stores, farms, and wealth. The state rationed food. It closed religious institutions because they preached ideas that contradicted those of the Soviet revolution. Books and newspapers were banned or heavily censored unless they supported the communist revolution, and government officials told writers what could or could not be printed. Over time, all media in the Soviet Union became instruments of the Communist Party.

Soviet Blockade of East Germany & Berlin

The Soviets then ____________ land access to West Berlin, which was located deep inside Soviet-controlled East Germany.

The Pentagon Papers Go to Court

The U.S. government ordered the Times to stop publishing the information because it threatened national security. The case quickly came before the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled that the government could not legally censor the newspaper because it could not prove that the publication actually hurt national security. The publication of the Pentagon Papers proved to be a major embarrassment for the federal government that damaged public support for the government and for the war.

Rivalry in the UN

The United States blocked the admission of communist China to the UN from 1950 to 1971. The Soviet Union used its veto 22 times in the 1940s to block membership of such countries as Ireland, Portugal, and Australia.

U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War

The United States supported Diem's government because of its anticommunist policies. The United States began to send military advisers to help train the South Vietnamese army. Viet Minh supporters had managed to gain jobs at all levels of the military, making their actions well known to the communists in the region. Furthermore, U.S. military aid was not especially helpful. U.S. advisers rarely spoke Vietnamese and stayed for only short periods of time. Additionally, American equipment was unsuited for use in the jungles and swamps of South Vietnam.

U.S. Intervention in Korean Affairs

The defending UN force was composed of U.S. troops. They were commanded by Douglas MacArthur, a U.S. Army general who had become famous during World War II. Truman ordered MacArthur to contain fighting below the 38th parallel in South Korea in an effort to prevent North Korean forces from conquering the country. In October 1950, the UN forces pushed the North Koreans back all the way to the border with China. However, as UN forces neared the border, Chinese soldiers launched an attack, catching the UN forces off guard.

The Split of Berlin

The former capital of Nazi Germany, Berlin, was about 100 miles inside East Germany. However, it was also split into a western part controlled by the Allies and an eastern part controlled by the Soviet Union. Thus, West Berlin was an isolated outpost of free-market democracy surrounded by communism. All that connected West Berlin to the rest of West Germany was a single heavily guarded road.

The Marshall Plan

The goal was to contain Soviet expansion by developing the economies of Western and Southern Europe. Much of Europe's economy was destroyed by World War II. Unemployment and poverty were high. The United States worried that Europeans would turn to communism as a solution to their problems.

"Massive Retaliation"

The idea was that if communists attacked the United States or a close ally, the United States might retaliate with a nuclear attack on Soviet cities such as Moscow or Leningrad (Saint Petersburg). U.S. leaders believed that if Soviet leaders thought they might be subjected to a devastating nuclear attack, they would be reluctant to challenge U.S. interests.

Iron Curtain

The political and military barrier the Soviet Union had formed by taking control of countries in Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union had set up a wall of countries that protected the country from invasion from Western Europe or other noncommunist countries.

The Truce of the Korean War

The truce created a 2.5-mile-wide demilitarized zone crossing the Korean Peninsula near the 38th parallel. Both North and South Korean forces had to stay out of this zone.

Napalm

U.S. forces also extensively used ______________. Initially developed for flamethrowers, it was adapted for use in bombs dropped by U.S. planes and helicopters. It is a jelly that sticks to its target and burns at incredibly high temperatures. These attacks, carried out on suspected Viet Cong troops or positions often injured or killed South Vietnamese civilians

Guerrilla Warfare

U.S. forces faced an enemy that very effectively used _______________ _______________ techniques. These tactics included small-scale but devastating bombings, raids, and armed attacks against larger professional military units. The Viet Cong kept their fighters in small groups, avoiding large-scale battles in which they would be overpowered. They used well-concealed traps and quick ambushes to inflict heavy losses on enemy troops without being detected. When not in battle, Viet Cong fighters could blend in with the local population.

The Bay of Pigs

Under the Eisenhower administration, the CIA had developed a plan to support an invasion of Cuba carried out by a group of Cuban refugees. Beginning in March 1960, the CIA trained people who opposed Castro for the assault. The entire operation was to be highly secret, but the secret was poorly kept. Stories about it appeared in Cuban newspapers. On April 17, 1961, the CIA-backed force of 1,400 Cuban refugees landed at the swampy Bay of Pigs on Cuba's southern coast. A Cuban force of 20,000 easily overwhelmed the invaders, capturing about 1,100 men and imprisoning them. Eventually, the U.S. government secured the release of these prisoners by paying a ransom of $53 million in medicine and food.

Containment Policy

Was first developed by George F. Kennan, a career U.S. diplomat who was stationed twice in Moscow, the Soviet capital, during the 1930s and 1940s. Kennan had grown convinced that the Soviet Union would avoid all-out war. However, Kennan thought that the Soviet Union would become continually bolder in attempting to expand until it perceived a serious threat. He believed that if U.S. foreign policy presented firm challenges to the spread of communism, the Soviets would compromise or back down. *The idea was to not challenge communism where it already existed but to prevent its spread.*

West Berlin vs. East Berlin

West Berlin had been experiencing a period of prosperity with the help of its occupying powers, which gave it funding through the Marshall Plan. On the other hand, the Soviets imposed reparations on East Germany for helping to start World War II while denying it access to Marshall Plan funds.

Propaganda in the Soviet Union

While the communist system created a difficult life for many in the Soviet Union, the government worked hard to convince the people that it was still better than the United States and other capitalist countries. The government-controlled newspapers published reports of poverty, racism, and greed in the United States. ______________________, in the form of movies, books, and posters, celebrated the Soviet Union as a vision of the future—fair, equal, and prosperous.

Robert F. Kennedy's Assassination

With Johnson out of the race, Robert F. Kennedy immediately became the front-runner. However, Kennedy was ________________ the night he won the California Democratic Primary in June.

The Berlin Airlift

With West Berlin cut off from food and supply shipments from the West, the Soviets pressured the city to join with the rest of East Germany and become communist. *The U.S. Air Force began to fly planes filled with supplies into West Berlin for eleven tense months, and the Allies kept West Berlin supplied by air until the Soviet Union ended the blockade in June 1949.*