The reproductive system

Weigh gain in pregnancy

25-35 lbs

ejaculation amount

3-5 mL about 300 million sperm

Pregnancy Lasts about

38.5-40 weeks

Which of the following would you expect to see in a cancerous mass?

A cancer is an uncontrolled, quickly dividing cellular mass. Hint #22 / 3 Cellular division is an energy intensive process, and cancer cells tend to use an increased amount of ATP. Hint #33 / 3 Loss of function mutations in the mechanisms that protect the cell, such as the apoptosis mechanisms, are often seen in cancerous masses.

Oogenesis, the process that creates female gametes, is halted at prophase I until puberty. Which of the following describes the DNA content of a female's gametes during her childhood?

A chromatid is a single copy of the genetic information, while chromosomes are counted by the number of centromeres. Hint #33 / 3 In prophase I the cell has undergone DNA replication, but has yet to divide, leaving it with 46 chromosomes and 92 chromatids.

What would be a direct result of an enzymatic deficiency on the acrosome?

Acrosome is formed after differentiation of the primary spermatocyte Hint #22 / 3 Acrosome is formed after differentiation of the secondary spermatocyte Hint #33 / 3 Acrosome is responsible for sperm penetration in the egg, if that does not occur the egg would not complete metaphase II.

secondary oocyte

An oocyte in which the first meiotic division is completed. The second meiotic division usually stops short of completion unless fertilization occurs.

primary oocyte

An oocyte prior to completion of meiosis I.

Colchicine is a drug used to treat gout. It also happens to arrest cells in anaphase. Which cytoskeletal protein does colchicine effect? Choose 1 answer:

Anaphase is the stage where sister chromatids are pulled apart. Hint #22 / 3 Microtubules from centrosomes bind chromosomal kinetochores to separate the genetic material. Hint #33 / 3 Microtubules are made from tubulin, a protein that can be bound by colchicine. By binding the tubulin, colchicine inhibits tubulin polymerization, and so prevents microtubules from being formed.

Which statement best describes chromosomal movement during mitosis?

Centrioles send out microtubules, which bind to kinetochores to pull chromatids apart. The kinetochore is a protein structure centered around a chromosome's centromere. Hint #22 / 3 Centromeres are found on chromosomes, centrosomes are found towards the poles of cells during cell division. Hint #33 / 3 Microtubules sent out by centrioles bind to kinetochores, and microtubule contraction helps pull chromatids apart.

Which structure is likely to be immediately affected due to spread of an infection in the cervical canal?

Clitoris is very distant from cervix Hint #22 / 3 Fimbriae is connected with ovaries, thus distant from cervix Hint #33 / 3 Fornix is immediately adjacent to cervical canal, thus likely to be infected.

areaola

Dark pigmented area surrounds the nipple

Which hormonal change is linked with the menses period of uterine cycle?

During the menses FSH and LH levels are low Hint #22 / 3 During the menses estrogen levels are low Hint #33 / 3 During the menses both progesterone and estrogen levels are decreased

Which impairment in the male reproductive system will NOT necessarily lead to sterility?

Epididymis is essential for sperm maturation Hint #22 / 4 Vas deferens is responsible for conducting the sperm outside during ejaculation Hint #33 / 4 Prostatic cancer may lead to inhibition of secretions of prostate that are essential for sperm activation Hint #44 / 4 Bulbourethral glands produce pre-ejaculatory fluid that aids in lubrication, thus its obstruction does not interfere with sperm production, maturation, or activation

What is the correct trajectory of sperm during ejaculation?

Epididymis, vas deferens, ampulla of vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra is the correct order.

Which hormone is consistently positively correlated with thickening of the endometrium?

Estrogen levels peak twice during the uterine cycle, and changes do not consistently correlate with changes in the endometrium. Hint #22 / 4 Luteinizing hormone levels peak prior to thickening of the endometrium. Hint #33 / 4 Follicle-stimulating hormone levels peak prior to thickening of the endometrium. Hint #44 / 4 Progesterone is a progestational hormone whose peak is correlated with thickening of the endometrium.

scrotum

External sac that contains the testes and keep the temperature cold by lowering it from the body and warm by keeping it closer to the body

An ectopic pregnancy is a pregnancy that occurs outside the womb. Considering the normal trajectory of the egg after ovulation, which structure in the picture below is more likely to undergo zygote implantation in an ectopic pregnancy.

Fertilization normally occurs in the uterine tube, A. but sometimes the zygote fails to complete its journey to the uterus and implants on the walls of the uterine tube.

Which of the following is not a reason cancer is hard to treat?

Increased contact inhibition Cancer is uncontrolled, invasive growth in cells. A higher mutation rate in cancer cells makes it more difficult to design drugs that can target the disease. Contact inhibition in cells is a growth control mechanism that is often damaged or turned off in cancerous growths.

relaxin hormone

Increases flexibility of pubic symphysis joints during pregnancy; helps dilate uterine cervix during labor and delivery.

Anterior Pituitary Glandq

Leutenizing Hormone and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and control males testes and female ovaries

What would NOT be a side effect of a drug that hypo-stimulates the Leydig (interstitial) cells on a pubertal human?

Leydig cells are responsible for production of testosterone Hint #22 / 5 Hypo-stimulation is the opposite of hyper-stimulation. Since stimulation of Leydig cells results in the production of testosterone, hypo-stimulation would result in decreased testosterone levels. Hint #33 / 5 Testosterone is a negative regulator of LH (luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) secretion by the anterior pituitary, as well as a negative regulator of GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) secretion by the hypothalamus. Hint #44 / 5 Low levels of testosterone increase LH, FSH, and GnRH production, indicating that these two conditions could be side-effects of the hypo-stimulating drug. Hint #55 / 5 As low levels of testosterone increase GnRH production, it is unlikely that a side effect of the drug would be to cause decreased GnRH levels. Thus the correct answer is "Decreased secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus."

Testosterone

Male sex hormone responsible for muscle growth, hair growths and deepening of voice.

A karyotype can be used to check for certain chromosomal mutations. In what cell cycle phase can cells be karyotyped?

Metaphase A karyotype is used to visualize separate chromosomes. Hint #22 / 4 Chromosomes do not begin to condense until prophase. Hint #33 / 4 A karyotype shows DNA as pairs of Xs - chromosomes composed of sister chromatids. Hint #44 / 4 Sister chromatids split in anaphase, meaning that a karyotype is taken of cells arrested in metaphase.

Retinoblastoma protein, RB, is an important cell cycle checkpoint protein that prevents the transition from G1 to S phase. The presence of the cyclin/CDK complex releases it from the genes that it binds. Which of the following mutation scenarios is least likely to lead to the formation of a neoplasm? Choose 1 answer:

No RB mutation and CDK that cant bind to cyclin An RB loss of function mutation would result in fewer checkpoints for the cell to pass through in its division cycle. Hint #22 / 3 A neoplasm is an uncontrolled growth. Hint #33 / 3 In a CDK loss of function mutation would be there was no way for the cell to pass through the G1 to S phase checkpoint, and the cell would be stuck. While this could lead to cell death and atrophy, it would not lead to uncontrolled growth.

How many chromatids and chromosomes should one expect to find in a secondary spermatocyte in a human?

Non-gametic cells have 46 chromosomes and 46 chromatids prior to replication. Hint #22 / 4 At the beginning of meiosis, DNA duplication occurs and 92 chromatids are found. Hint #33 / 4 Meiosis I reduces the number of chromosomes by half; meiosis II is responsible for separation of sister chromatids. Hint #44 / 4 A secondary spermatocyte is formed after completion of meiosis I; it has 46 chromatids and 23 chromosomes.

During pregnancy hormones are responsible for maintaining pregnancy. What kind of hormonal imbalances can lead to miscarriages during pregnancy? Choose 1 answer:

Oxytocin is responsible for labor contractions and kept at low levels during pregnancy Hint #22 / 3 Levels of estrogen are kept high during pregnancy Hint #33 / 3 Progesterone secretion has to be kept high during pregnancy. Progesterone is initially secreted by corpus luteum, so early degeneration of corpus luteum may lead to misscarriage.

Testerone

Sex hormone responsible for growth and development of male sex characteristics such as bone growth, hair and deepening of voice it also converts to dihydrotestosterone

Which structure in the figure below sheds during menstruation? What is the name of tissue that creates the menses?

The endometrium sheds during menses Hint #22 / 3 The endometrium is located in the uterus Hint #33 / 3 The uterus is structure C it contains the endometrium that sheds off during menses

Which penile tissues remain pliable during an erection? Which tissues become firm? What is the function of the pliable tissues?

The pliable tissues are not responsible for secretion of seminal fluid Hint #22 / 3 Corpus spongiosum remains pliable during an erection. Hint #33 / 3 During an erection the corpus spongiosum remains pliable, corpora cavernosa becomes firm, and the pliable tissues maintain the urethra open.

Which structures are responsible for maintaining levels of estrogen earlier and later in pregnancy?

Uterus does not secrete estrogen Hint #22 / 3 Umbilical cord does not secrete estrogen Hint #33 / 3 The ovaries hold the corpus luteum that secrete estrogen earlier in the pregnancy and the placenta is responsible for estrogen production later in the pregnancy

Oogenesis and spermatogenesis describe the process of meiosis in females and males respectively. What statement about the two processes is true?

While oogenesis is halted at prophase I until females reach sexual maturity, spermatogenesis is a continuous process in males. Hint #22 / 3 Cytoplasmic division is unequal in oogenesis. Hint #33 / 3 Oogenesis produces one large oocyte and 2 polar bodies, while spermatogenesis produces four sperm cells with equal cytoplasmic volumes.

suspensory ligaments

a fibrous membrane that holds the lens of the eye in place

15-20 eggs go trough

atresia which die off and only only one eggs get ovulated

Breastfeeding process

baby suckle, mechano receptor neuron up to spinal cord, hypothalamus turns on the posterior pituitary gland which releases oxytocin. The anterior pituitary gland turns of the prolactin inhibiting hormone neuron releases prolactin

Ovum (egg)

carries only x chromosomes

sperm

carry either x or y

too much testosterone

causes prostate cancer

first stage

cervical dilation. The cervix needs to dilate 10 cm in diamter and oxytocin from posterior pituitary gland is released to contract and prostaglandin to soften uterus

if baby is coming by the leg buttocks

cesarean surgery is recommended

menopause

cessation of menstruation or ovulation and stop responding to gondatropins which LH and FSH

pectoralis major

chest muscle

no pregnancy

corpus luteum dies off and new cycle starts

scrotum muscles

dartos and cremaster

Estrogen

delays osteoporosis and helps with the growth of external genitals

FSH

developes the follicle and the two cells called theca and granolusa team up and produce estrogen

Ovarian cycle

divided into follcular and lutheal pahse. It included day 7, 14, and 28/0

ejaculation

ejection of sperm and fluid from the male urethra

pregnancy

embryo makes human chorionic gonadotropin to rescue corpus luteum

On day 14

enzyme breaks the wall between the ovary tube and the follicles, and sometimes more than one eggs come which makes it twin

transport of sperm

erection and ejaculation

estrogen responsible for

fat distribution in hip and breast in female and abdomen in male

xx

female

timester

first mester 0-13 weeks, second mester 14-26 weeks, 27-40 weeks

amniotic fluid

fluid within the amniotic sac that surrounds and protects the fetus

Y

hemizygous

Exytocin

increases uterine contraction can cause false labor known as Braxton hick contraction

Cholesterol

lipid and precursor of sex hormones such estrogen. Carried in blood by High density lipoprotein (HDL, good cholesterol) and low density lipoprotein (LDL, bad cholesterol).

estrogen

made by ovaries mostly but a little by breasts, adrenal gland, placenta and fat cells

Testesterone

makes testes in leydig cell

xy

male

Oogenesis

maturation of eggs in overaies while in gestation

Circulatory blood changes during pregnancy

moms blood level increases 1-2 L, which increases BP and pulse

Placenta

nourishes the baby and gives oxygen to the growing baby and removes the waster co2 from babys blood

primordial follicle

one layer of cells around oocyte.Day 15-28

Centrioles can be found in:

only In Eukaryotic Cells Centrioles help organize the mitotic spindle. Hint #22 / 3 Centrioles are found in centrosomes, which are organelles. Hint #33 / 3 Only eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles, so only eukaryotes can have membrane-associated structures such as centrioles.

Mammary gland

produce and eject milk and it expands during pregnancy

granolas cells

produce hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin

Testies

produce millions of sperm in one day

testes

produce sperm and testosterone

Sperm

produced in the testes specifically in seminiferous tubules and matures in epididymis

Hypothalamus

produces Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

bulbourethral glands

produces a lubricating mucus that cleanses the urethra

ovary

produces only one egg in a month

prostate

produces pro-static fluid that increases the mobility of the sperm

Parturation (birth)

progesterone drops to decreases the prevention of contraction.

During which phase does the nuclear envelope begin to disappear? Choose 1 answer:

prometaphase The nuclear envelope is responsible for protecting the genetic material from the rest of the cellular contents. Hint #22 / 3 In anaphase, chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell. Hint #33 / 3 In order to allow for proper metaphase alignment and chromosomal division, the nuclear envelope dissolves in prometaphase.

In humans, which meiotic phase has the longest duration? Choose 1 answer:

prophase 1 in females In males meiosis starts at puberty and it never stops until the end of life. Hint #22 / 4 Meiosis in males takes 74 days Hint #33 / 4 Female gamete formation starts at birth, but the gametes remain arrested in meiosis I until ovulation occurs. Hint #44 / 4 From birth to beginning of ovulation at puberty eggs are locked in prophase I

ovaries

responsible for estrogen(breast) and progesterone

ovarian cycle

responsible for menstrual cycle

female reproductive system

secretes sex hormones such as estrogen, progesteron and inhibin

feedback loop

self regulation

zona pellucida

separating eggs from granolas cells and the actual egg

X

sex linked

What is spermatogenesis?

shedding of unnecessary cytoplasm Meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis Hint #22 / 4 Spermiogenesis occurs in epididymis Hint #33 / 4 Spermiogenesis is not selection of spermatogonia Hint #44 / 4 During spermiogenesis, maturation of the sperm, unnecessary cytoplasm is shed off

semen

sperm plus fluid

oogenia

stem or gem cells that divide through mitosis and become primary oocytes

anterior pituitary

stimulates Thyriod gland which increases metabolism and apetite

Epididymis

stores sperm

Skin changes during pregnancy

striae or stretched skin is seen on abdomen, breast and below the abdomin

Estrogen

suppresses FSH +LH from pituitary gland and help with fetus and maternal growth

ejucatulation

the discharge of semen from penis

Erection

the first step is with out blood (flaccidity) and the second step is filled with blood.

gap junctions

the gap between cells where nutrition is exchanged

Uterus

the room where the baby lives during pregnancy

vas deferens

tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra

seminal vesicles

two small glands that secrete a fluid rich in sugar that nourishes and helps sperm move and alkaline the acidic environment

After birth

uterus continue to contract untill the placenta is out and after that uterus goes back to normal called involution

Birth process

uterus drops in fetus stretch cervix and uterus contracts 1 cervical dilation 2 expulsion 3 after birth and it takes 7-20 hours

Pregnancy

zygote, implant to uterus, gestation and labor