Theories of human motivation and behavior

Attribution theory - CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Attribution theorists look at learners' beliefs about why various things happen to them—for instance, about why they do well or poorly on academic tasks. These beliefs, known as attributions, influence learners' optimism about future success and about the actions they take (or perhaps don't take) to bring about such success. For instance, learners are more likely to work hard on classroom tasks if they believe that their ultimate success depends on something they themselves do—that is, if they attribute classroom success to internal and controllable factors.

Behaviorism - EARLY PERSPECTIVE

Behaviorist perspectives on motivation are largely influenced by the work of B. F. Skinner, who was himself influenced by John Watson and Edward Thorndike. From a behaviorist perspective, motivation is often the result of drives, internal states caused by a lack of something necessary for optimal functioning. Consequences of behavior (reinforcement, punishment) are effective only to the extent that they either increase or decrease a learner's drive state. In recent years, some behaviorists have added a purposeful element to the behaviorist perspective: They suggest that learners intentionally behave in order to achieve certain end results.

Expectancy-value theory - CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Expectancy-value theorists propose that motivation for performing a particular task is a function of two variables. First, learners must believe they can succeed. In other words, they must have a high expectation, or expectancy, for their task performance. Second, learners must believe that they will gain direct or indirect benefits for performing a task. In other words, they must place value on the task itself or on the outcomes that are likely to result

Humanism - EARLY PERSPECTIVE

Historically, humanists have objected to behaviorists' depiction of people's behaviors as being largely the result of external environmental factors. In the humanist view, people have within themselves a tremendous potential for psychological growth, and they continually strive to fulfill that potential. When given a caring and supportive environment, human beings strive to understand themselves, to enhance their abilities, and to behave in ways that benefit both themselves and others. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs is most commonly associated with the humanistic perspective on motivation. Unfortunately, early humanist ideas were grounded more in philosophy than in research findings, so many contemporary motivation theorists have largely left them by the wayside. However, one contemporary perspective, positive psychology (see the final row of this table), has some roots in the humanist perspective.

Encouraging Students to Become Self-Motivated

Ideally, teachers should encourage students to find their own motivation to complete tasks and meet their goals to the best of their abilities. Educators sometimes use Erik Erikson's framework for psychosocial development as a guide to understanding students' needs at particular ages. Central to Erikson's theory of personality development is the idea that people pass through eight stages, each of which is centered on a psychological conflict that causes tension until it is resolved. During the preschool years, for example, children begin to assert control over their environments and must balance their drive toward initiative with some way to curb those tendencies to assert power when it is inappropriate; that is, they must also develop a sense of guilt. Note that successful resolutions of Erikson's conflicts require a balance — children who never feel guilty and children who always feel guilty will continue to have problems later in life. Erikson's theory postulates that children face the conflict between industry and inferiority during the grade school years and the conflict between ego identity and role confusion during adolescence. Motivating students in grade school, then, often requires encouraging their feelings of pride and competence; motivation during middle school often requires helping students develop independence and a strong sense of self.

Positive psychology - CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Positive psychology embraces early humanists' belief that people have many uniquely human qualities propelling them to engage in productive, worthwhile activities. But like other contemporary motivation theories, it bases its views on research findings rather than philosophical speculations. As a distinct perspective of motivation, positive psychology emerged on the scene only in the late 1990s, and in its current form it is better characterized as a collection of ideas rather than as a full-fledged, well-integrated theory.

Self-determination theory - CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Self-determination theorists propose that human beings have three basic needs: a need to be effective in dealing with the environment (competence), a need to control the course of their lives (autonomy), and a need to have close, affectionate relationships with others (relatedness). Learners are more effectively motivated to learn school subject matter when these three needs are met.

Self-worth theory - CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Self-worth theorists believe that protecting one's own sense of competence—that is, one's sense of self-worth—is a high priority for human beings. One way to maintain and possibly enhance self-worth, of course, is to be successful in daily activities. But curiously, when learners suspect that they may fail at an activity, they sometimes do things (e.g., procrastinating until the last minute) that make failure even more likely. Although such self-handicapping decreases the probability of success, it also enables people to justify their failure, both to themselves and to others, and so enables them to maintain their self-worth.

Goal theory - CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Social cognitive theory is a contemporary, cognitively oriented version of social learning theory, including that of Albert Bandura. Social cognitive theorists emphasize the importance of self-efficacy—believing oneself capable of successfully performing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals—in motivation. Social cognitive theorists also point out that human behavior is typically goal directed, thereby providing a foundation for goal theory (described separately below).

Social cognitive theory - CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE

Social cognitive theory is a contemporary, cognitively oriented version of social learning theory, including that of Albert Bandura. Social cognitive theorists emphasize the importance of self-efficacy—believing oneself capable of successfully performing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals—in motivation. Social cognitive theorists also point out that human behavior is typically goal directed, thereby providing a foundation for goal theory (described separately below).