Theories of religion-sociology
What are Substantive definitions of religion?
Substantive definitions are exclusive = they draw clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs. To be a religion, a set of beliefs must include belief in God or the supernatural. These definitions conform to wide spread view of religion as belief in God.
Durkheim- TOTEMISM
The essence of all religion could be located by studying clan society- the simplest type of society. Durkheim study the aboriginal Australian tribe Arunta. The Arunta clans consist of bands of Kin who come together periodically to perform rituals involving worship of sacred totem. Durkheim = when clan members worship their totemic animal they are in reality worshipping society= they are NOT aware of this. The totem inspires feelings of awe in it's clans members because it represents power of the group, which people are utterly dependent on.
Durkheim-COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE
sacred symbols represent society's collective conscience= the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life & cooperation between people possible. -regular shared religious rituals reinforce collective conscience maintaining social integration. Participating in such rituals binds us together, reminds us were apart of single moral community which we owe our loyalty too. - Making us feel apart of something greater than ourselves, religion reinvigorates & strengthens us to face life's trials.
Evaluation of Marxism on Religion
- Marxism shows religion as a tool of oppression, that masks exploitation and creates false consciousness. BUT he ignores positive functions of religion such as psychological adjustment to misfortune. NEO- MARXISTS, see certain forms of religion as assisting not hindering the development of class consciousness. -Althusser 1972, marxist reject the concept of alienation as unscientific & based on romantic idea that humans have of finding their 'true self'. Making the Concept an inadequate basis for theory of religion. - Religion doesn't necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population. Abercrombie, Hill and Turner 2015, argue that pre-capitalist society, while Christianity was a major element of ruling-class ideology , it had limited impact on the peasantry.
Functionalism
Society, a system of interrelated parts or social institutions such as religion or the family. Society is like an organism w/basic needs it must meet in order to survive. Societies most basic need is the need for social order and solidarity so members can cooperate.
Disadvantage's of substantive definitions?
- Using substantive definitions leaves no room for beliefs and practices that perform similar functions but don't include belief in God. - Substantive definitions are accused of WESTERN BIAS because they exclude religions such as BUDDHISM, which do not have a belief in a God.
Criticisms of Durkheim
- Worsley ( 1956) evidence of totemism is UNSOUND. There is no sharp division between the sacred & the profane & that different clans share the same totems. Even if Durkheim is correct about totemism this doesn't prove that he has discovered the essence of all religions. - His theory may apply better to small-scale societies w/single religion. It is hard to apply it to larger scale societies, where there are competing religious communities. Durkheim's theory may explain social integration within communities but not the conflicts between them. - Postmodernists Mestrovic argue that Durkheim's ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society, because increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience = there is no longer singled shared value system that religion can reinforce.
Disadvantages of Functional definitions?
- just because an institution helps integrate individuals into groups, this doesn't make them a religion. For example, collective chanting at football matches might give individuals a sense of integration, but it doesn't mean it is a religion.
Advantages of Functional definitions?
- they are INCLUSIVE allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs & practices that perform functions such as integration. - since they do not specify belief in God or the supernatural no WESTERN BIAS, against non- western religions.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Constructionist definitions.
Advantage- SC don't assume that religion always involves belief a in God or the supernatural, or that it performs similar functions for everyone in all societies = This allows them to get close to the meanings people themselves give to religion. Disadvantage- this also makes it impossible to generalise about the nature of religion, since people may have differing views about what counts as religion.
Feminists on Patriarchy in Religion?
Armstrong argues that early religions often placed women at the center. For example, earth mother goddesses, female priesthoods were found throughout the Middle East until 6,000 years ago. Nawal El Saadawi, argues that it is not the direct cause of their subordination, rather the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence recently = men reinterpreted religious beliefs in ways that favoured patriarchy. Both see the rise of monotheism as legitimating the power of men over women.
Functional alternatives
Bellah argues that some other belief system could perform the same functions. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had secular political beliefs and rituals around which they sought to unite society. However the problem with this is the same as with functional definitions of religion distinctive and different - mainly it's belief in the supernatural.
Durkheim on religion- THE SACRED
Durkheim, key feature of religion not belief in Gods , spirits or the supernatural but FUNDAMENTAL distinction between SACRED and the PROFANE. Sacred- things that are set apart/forbidden = inspire feelings of awe, fear& wonder. Durkheim= sacred evokes such powerful feelings = because they represent something of great power. This thing can only be society itself, since society is the only thing powerful to command such feelings. When people worship sacred symbols they are worshiping society. Although these symbols vary from religion to religion they all perform the same function of uniting believers into a single moral community.
What Functional definitions of religion?
Functional definitions define religion in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society. Durkheim defines religion = in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration, rather than any specific belief in God or the supernatural. Milton Yinger identifies the functions performed by religion= it answers ULTIMATE questions, i.e meaning of life.
Evaluation of functionalism
Functionalism emphasises the social nature of religion and the positive functions it performs, but it neglects negative aspects such as religion being a source of oppression of women and the poor. - functionalism it ignores religion as source of division and conflict esp. in complex modern societies where it is a MULTI-FAITH society. It is hard to see how it can unite people & promote intenrgration. -Idea of civil religion overcomes this by arguing that societies may still have an overarching belief system shared by all.
Religion as an ideology
IDEOLOGY = a belief system that distorts people's view of reality in ways that serve the ruling classes. Marx = religion operates as an IDEOLOGICAL WEAPON used by ruling classes to justify the suffering of the poor as something inevitable & God-given. - Religion misleads the poor into believing their suffering is virtuous promoting stories like the Rich Man, it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God= creates a FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS. Prevents the poor from acting to change their situation. Lenin= religion is a 'spiritual gin', an intoxicant doled out to the masses by ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place. Religion legitimates the power of the privileged by making their position appear to be divinely ordained, for example in 16th century Divine Right of Kings = the King was the representative of God.
Religious forms of feminism?
Linda Woodhead argues that there are 'religious forms of feminism' ways in which women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect : - Woodhead uses the example of the veil/hijab westerners view this as symbol of oppression BUT the wearer might view it as liberation. The hijab allows Muslim women to enter public spaces w/o feeling immodest. - women use religion to gain respect & status for their roles in private spheres. Elisabeth Brusco, found in Colombia belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for some women. STRONG belief in Pentecostal's is men should have respect for women, giving women power to influence male behaviour by insisting they practice what they preach. -Women take part in activities linked to the church such as Bible study groups to share experiences and support.
Psychological functions of religion
Malinowski (1954) agrees w/ Durkheim that religion promotes solidarity. However in his view it does so by performing psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope w/ emotional stress that UNDERMINE social solidarity. Malinowski two types of situation which religion performs this role: -Where the outcome is important but uncertain= LAGOON FISHING= is safe & uses the predictable & successful method of poisoning. When islanders fish in the lagoon, there is no ritual. OCEAN FISHING= dangerous, uncertain is always accompanied by 'canoe magic'- rituals to ensure safe & successful journey= gives people a sense of control easing tension, gives them confidence to undertake hazardous tasks= REINFORCES GROUP SOLIDARITY. -Times of life crises= events such as birth, puberty, marriage & esp. death disruptive changes in social groups. RELIGION HELPS TO MINIMISE DISRUPTION. Malinowski argues that death is the main reason for the existence of religious belief.
Marxist theories of religion (background)
Marxists view society as divided into two societies= Bourgeoisie and proletariat. In such society there is potential for class conflict= proletariat will overthrow the ruling class (Marx's prediction). Marxism sees religion in the context of general society vs Functionalism views religion as a unifying force that strengthens value consensus. Marxism = religion is a feature of class- divided society, it will eventually disappear.
Parsons: Values & Meaning
Parsons religion= helps people cope w/unforeseen events & uncontrollable outcomes. Parsons identifies two other essential functions that religion performs in modern society; - It creates & legitimates society's central values - It is the primary source of meaning Religion creates & legitimates society's basic norms & values by sacralising them e.g Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of Individualism, meritocracy& self- discipline= serves to promote social stability. Religion provides source of meaning, answering ultimate questions about the human condition such why the good suffer. For example by explaining that a test of faith will be rewarded in heaven.
Durkheim on religion- THE PROFANE
Profane -things that have no special significance= they are ordinary and mundane. Religion is never simply a set of beliefs, it also involves definite rituals or practices in relation to the sacred= these are collective.
Religion and Alienation
Religion is a product of alienation, Marx puts religion as 'the opium of the people'. Religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation, but opium masks the pain rather than treating the cause. Religion masks the underlying problem of exploitation that creates the need for it. Since religion is a distorted view of the world, it can offer no solution to earthly misery, it instead produces comfort in a illusory afterlife. Religion is the product of alienation as it arises out of suffering & acts as a consolation, however it fails to deal with cause.
Durkheim- Cognitive functions of religion
Religion is not only a source of social solidarity but, it is a source of all our intellectual or cognitive capacities= our abilities to reason& think conceptually. - Durkheim= religion is the origin of the concepts & categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world & communicating. - religion provides basic categories such as time, space & causation i.e the ideas of a creator bringing the world into existence. - Durkheim= religion is the origin of human thought, reason & science.
Civil religion
Robert Bellah ( 1991-2013) interested in how religion unifies society esp. multi-faith society. Civil religion integrates society in a way that US' many different churches & denominations cannot. American civil religion involves loyalty to the nation-state & belief in a God, which are equated to being a true American. This is expressed in various rituals symbols& beliefs such as the pledge of allegiance to the flag, singing the national anthem. HOWEVER it is not specifically Catholic or Protestant, it is rather the American God. It sacralises the American way of life & binds Americans together from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds.
What are Constructionist definitions of religion?
Social constructionists take an interpretivist approach= they focus on how members of society themselves define religion. -SC argue it is not possible to produce a SINGLE definition to cover all cases of religion= since in reality different individuals and groups mean very different things by religion. - they are interested in how definitions of religion are constructed, challenged and fought over= Alan Aldridge shows for its followers Scientology is a religion but the government have denied it's legal status, seeking to ban it.
Feminist theories of religion
Society is patriarchal- based on male domination. Many Feminists regard religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects & allows inequality. Religious beliefs function as a patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination.
Evidence of Patriarchy
There is considerable amount of patriarchy within religion ; - RELIGIOUS ORGANISATIONS, many are male-dominated despite the fact that men participate more than men in these organisations i.e Orthodox Judaism, Catholicism forbid women to become priests. Karen Armstrong this is evidence of women's marginalisation. - PLACES OF WORSHIP, generally segregate the sexes & marginalise women for example seating them behind while men occupy the central & more sacred spaces. Women's participation may be restricted for example not being allowed to preach. - SACRED TEXTS, largely feature the doings of Male Gods, Prophets etc they are usually written & interpreted by men, reflecting anti-female stereotypes.
