Thermoregulation, Chemical Communication, Immune Defense, Reproduction, Comparative Physiology - Arid, Comparative Physiology - Cold

Which Q10 value indicates that a reaction is not temperature sensitive?

1

Classification of Chemical Mediators C2 P7-8

(1) Glandular (Classical) Hormones -The Hormones that we just described ("Classical" Hormones) are just ONE category of what we now recognize to be a Large Family of Chemical Mediators - So, in Addition to the Classical Hormones (Hormones that fit that definition above) we have: —Strictly define subtype of chem messengers (2) Intracellular (Secondary) Messengers —We find Chemical Mediators that act within Individual Cells, so these are Intracellular or Secondary Messengers (like cAMP or divalent ion Calcium) (3) Synaptic Neurotransmitters —These are typically small amines (Modified Amino Acids) —Such as Ac-CoA (Acetyl-Choline), Noradrenaline, Norepinephrine, or Dopamine —These Mediators FAIL the definition of Classical Hormones because they are NOT typically released into the general circulation, they released into a Synaptic Cleft and operate at a very SHORT Distance (4) Neuromodulators —These are chemicals that will modulate or modify the operation of Synapses - they are NOT Synaptic Neurotransmitters themselves but through there actions the efficiency of a Synapse can be modified (perhaps through changing the amount of Synaptic Neurotransmitter contained in the vesicles at the axon terminal or changing the number of receptors to those Neurotransmitters on the Post-Synaptic Cell) (5) Neurohormones (Neurosecretions) —Secretions that are produced by Neurons and they are released at the Axon Terminal but instead of being released at a Synapse, the Axon Terminal releases the molecules into the general circulation (6) Local Hormones and Embryonic Inducing Factors (Paracrine and Autocrine Factors) —These are molecules that are released by cells that have an influence on the cells surrounding them but they typically do NOT travel a far distance within the Circulating System —Various Embryonic Inducing Factors might fall into this category which are called: — Paracrine Factors/Hormones or Local Hormones such as the local release of Histamine — Autocrine Factors which act locally and in this case the released Chemical Messenger acts on the Cell that Secreted it - so in this case, the cell is BOTH the source and the target for the hormone (7) Pheromones and Allelochemics (Ectohormones) —These are molecules that are released outside the organism and have an effect on other organisms - can think of these as also having a coordinating role but a much larger coordinating role among individuals in a species or a community

Elements that contribute to the Total Metabolic Activity in the animal C1 P5-7

(1) The Basal Metabolic Rate - The Metabolic Activity that is associated with Cardiovascular Circulation through the organism —Includes the cost of Osmoregulation, cost of Ion Transport (in the kidney or fish gills etc), and some expense for Thermoregulation (generation of heat to maintain a normal body temperature) —Will consider this to be the Minimum Metabolic Rate that we would see in a mammal at a Neutral Temperature - one that the animal is resting comfortably and a thermally neutral environment —In NON-mammalian organisms this term would be referred to as the Standard Metabolic Rate (2) Activity - Reflects the Activity of the organism (Highly variable) —This involves things like Running, Hunting, etc —Depends on the life history and behaviors of the animals (3) Growth/Synthesis - Significant in a young animal that is growing —Energy invested in growth will figure strongly in the Total Metabolic Activity of that animal (4) Specific Dynamic Action - related to the process of Digestion —see next slide

Inflammation as an Immune Response to Infection (From a physical breach of the skin barrier) C3 P15

(1)Damage Tissues (splinter) attack the Mast Cells which release Histamine and diffuses into the blood vessels and INCREASES Blood Flow (2) We see dilation in the Blood Capillaries - become leaky, Complement Proteins leave and attract Phagocytes (3) Phagocytic Cell leaves the Capillary Lumen and enters the Interstitial Space outside the blood vascular System (Diapedesis) - Migration of cells through the Capillary Wall bringing them into the area where they can participate in the response and healing process

Cellular Immune Response C3 P31

(A) We again see an Antigen entering the system or an infected cell or cancer cell and the presentation of that Antigen to a T cell where in this case now we see (B) Proliferation of T cells and the T cells that were matured in the Thymus Gland now express on there surface a receptor that recognizes the Antigen (C) and now the T cells in circulation attack an infected cell or a cancer cell directly (NOT by way of free antibody as in Humoral) - this is an activated T cell in the Immune system that through its own receptor recognizes that foreign object and attacks it and that attack involves the release of Perforin which act in a similar way to the Complement System - Perforin proteins released perforate the cell membrane and kill it Its the immune cell that attacks and kills an infected cell!!!!!

Heat Transfer C1 P10-12

4 avenues for HT b/w the Organism and the Environment —BOTH Ectotherms and Endotherms influence their body temperatures by altering four avenues of heat exchange b/e their bodies and the environment —The total balance of heat production and exchange can be expressed as an energy budget, based on the fact that if the body temp of an animal is to remain constant, the heat entering must equal heat leaving —Heat leaves the body via these four mechanisms (1) Evaporation - Evaporation of water from the surface of the organism takes with it heat from the body —In other words, heat is transferred away from a surface when water evaporates on that surface (the effect of sweating) —Another avenue for heat LOSS —Particularly important on hot days (2) Convection: Heat can be lost from an the organism by Convection - the sweeping away of heat from the surface of the organism by a stream of air across that body surface —In other words, Heat exchanges with a surrounding medium such as air or water that flows over a surface (the wind chill factor) —EX - on a cold winter day (3) Conduction: Direct transfer of heat when two objects are in contact —In other words, Heat flows directly b/w two objects at different temperatures when they come into contact (ice pack on a sprained ankle) —Organism can also potentially exchange heat with the surroundings —Rock climbers hand is attached to a rock and through that contact there is Conductive heat transfer (here traveling from the warmer body to the cooler rock) (4) Radiation: Objects are capable as well of exchanging heat by radiation —Transfer of heat that does NOT require direct contact —In other words, heat moves from warmer objects to cooler ones via the exchange of infrared radiation (what you feel when you stand in front of a fire) —Radiative heat loss from an organism from the surface of the organism (EX - Placing hand near a hot pan - can feel the heat being radiated by the hand - a transfer of heat WITOUT direct contact in comparison to Conduction) Solar Radiation (Sun) that can impinge directly on the organism or indirectly by reflection (Input of heat to the organism) —Input avenue for Heat Intake into the body

Destructive Permeabilization by membrane attack complex of complement C3 P14

A cascading series of plasma proteins components (C1, C2, .... C9) activated by —Carbohydrate surface coat of microorganims —Antibodies (generated as a part of adaptive immune response) Destructuve permeabilization by membrane attack complex of complement kills pathogenic microorganisms Complement Proteins and the Complement System —Part of the Innate System —Antibodies produced from the Adaptive Immune System are also capable of engaging and activating the Complement System Complement Proteins are a family of Proteins that are present in the Blood Plasma —Such as Complement (C) C1, C2, ..., C9) —These Complement Proteins circulate in the Plasma and in the present of a foreign invader (bacterium with a carbohydrate based cell wall) undergo a Chain Reaction Assembly to form a Membrane Attack Complex (shown) —The Membrane Attack Complex forms a pore in the bacterial cell membrane and this perforation or permeabilization of the cell membrane leads to the DEATH of the microorganism —This Complement System is apart of the Innate System and is poised to attack foreign invades and in this case the stimulus for this aggregation and formation of the pore is the Carbohydrate surface coat of the microorganism —This is a general feature of some bacteria —So the Complement System will engage and attack a large number of different kinds of bacteria based on the general property of a Carbohydrate Cell Wall

High Temperature Isozyme (Summer, Amphibians or Fish) Vs Cold Temperature Isozyme (Winter) C1 P34

Acclimation High Temperature Izyme (Summer) —LOWER Oxygen Consumption/Metabolic Rate —20C Cold Temperature Izyme (Winter) —HIGHER Oxygen Consumption/Metabolic Rate —10C —Acclimation/Acclimatization allows these animals to generate sufficient energy (MORE ATP) in the Winter by having a HIGHER Oxygen Consumption/Metabolic Rate Activation Energy High Temperature Izyme (Summer) —HIGHER energy molecules (HIGHER Temperature) —LOWER effectiveness as a Catalyst/Isozyme (lowers energy Barrier only a little) Cold Temperature Izyme (Winter) —LOWER energy molecules (LOWER Temperature) —HIGHER effectiveness as a Catalyst/Isozyme (lowers energy Barrier the most) —So many of the so called "Cold-Blooded" animals whose body temperatures vary according to environmental temperature use this mechanism on a seasonal basis to maintain a steady metabolic rate in the face of strongly changing temperatures in the outside world that would otherwise influence Metabolic Rate, the availability of ATP for activities such as locomotion and so fourth Enzyme Kinetics (for any substrate conc) High Temperature Izyme —Reaction Velocity is SLOWER/LOWER —LESS Effective & LOWER Affinity —Km Value is HIGHER (takes more substate to get to half-max velocity) Cold Temperature Izyme —Reaction Velocity is FASTER/HIGHER —MORE Effective & HIGHER Affinity —Km Value is LOWER (takes less substate to get to half-max velocity)

Hormone C2 P6

An organic chemical agent liberated in minute amounts by living cells of a restricted area of an organism into tissue fluids or vascular system - generally effective at a distance from its source and resulting in coordination of parts of the organism Breakdown of Definition: Organic Chemical Agent —Hormones are typically synthesized by Endocrine Cells and they fall into a number of categories (Hormone could be a steroid - a molecule derived from cholesterol or a Peptide or Protein or a Modified Amino Acid or Fatty Acid) - these are all Organic Chemical Agents synthesized in a cell and released for the purpose of Signaling Hormones are Typically released in Minute amounts —so if we were to ask "What are the Circulating Concentrations Typically of Hormones" we talking about molecules that circulate at concentrations in the Nanomolar (10^-9 Molar) and Picomolar (10^-12 Molar) concentration ranges which is FAR LESS than the concentrations of Ions or Glucose or other proteins circulating in the Circulation. The release typically occurs from a restricted organ and into the Tissue Fluids or Vascular System, generally effective at distance from its source —and we apply a name (for ex Endocrine Gland) to that Organ and the product is released into the body fluids or the vascular system and it travels in those fluids generally throughout the organism where it can act at various distant sites to regulate biological activity - these are Long Distance Chemical Signaling Molecules in contrast to Neurotransmitters that operate at very short distance across the synaptic cleft The action of the Hormones results in the coordination of the parts of the organism

Immune Defense C3 P1

Another aspect of Chemical Signaling - the recognition of foreign molecules, pathogens, and organisms based on there molecular and structural signals identification and recognition of non self from self is KEY to ID

Anterior Pituitary Hormone Secretion C2 P17-18

Ant P —Within there are a large number of Endocrine Cells of the Anterior Pituitary Gland which synthesize and release Anterior Pituitary Hormones Anterior Pituitary Hormones and their Biological Actions: Thyrotropin or Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - Stimulates the Thyroid Gland to produce its Product (Thyroidal Hormine) —Tropin ("-Tropin") this tells us that the Hormone is a Tropic or or Stimulating Hormone (Thryotropin = Thyroid Stimulating) Gonadotropins Hormones (Stimulate the Gonads) —Pituitary Produces two Gonadotropic Hormones: (1) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) & (2) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone which stimulate the production of Gametes (Egg and Sperm) from the Overus and Testes and they also stimulate the production of Sex-Steroid Hormones (predominately estrogen and progesterone in females and testosterone in males) Growth Hormone (GH) - Stimulates Statural Growth in the organism Adreno-corticotropin (ACTH) - Stimulates the Adrenal Cortex to produce its Hormonal Products which are Steroid Hormones such as Cortisol which is involved in the stress response and regulating Metabolism in the body Prolactin - (Promoting Lactation) Protein Hormone that stimulates the growth of Mammary Glands and the production of Milk Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone - Comes from the Intermediate Lobe of the Pituitary Gland and stimulates Pigment Cells (regs color) These Hormones are regulated by the Hypothalamus through the release of Hypothalamic Hormones —The Neurosecretory Cells / Hypothalamic Neurons release their products at the floor of the brain and following their release these Neurosecretory products (Hormones) are carried by a blood Capillary System from the floor of the Hypothalamus into the Anterior Pituitary Gland —This system of Capillaries that flows from the floor of the Brain to the Anterior Pituitary Gland are referred to as Portal Blood Vessels which carry blood from one set of Capillaries to another set of Capillaries WITHOUT passing through the Heart —This set of Neurosecretory Cells in the Hypothalamus secrete Hormones that affect or control the release of Anterior Pituitary Hormones and these hormones are given the name collectively Releasing Hormones or Release-Inhibiting Hormones and the effects of these Hypothalamic Factors can be either Stimulation or Inhabition of Anterior Pituitary Hormone Release (shown by Green/Red arrows) —So, the Hypothalamus releases a number of Chemical Mediators that control by either Stimulation or Inhabition the release by Anterior Pituitary Cells of there hormones (Specific for each hormone - ex- Growth HormoneReleasing Hormone & Inhibiting Hormones

Posterior Pituitary Neurosecretion C2 P16

Arrangement of the Hypothalamic Neurosecretory Cells (Complete) —Posterior Pituitary Gland and Process of Neurosecretion (which will release the Hormonal Products of the Posterior Pituitary Gland (1) Hypothalamus (on floor of brain) —Within the Hypothalamus we see TWO collections of Hypothalamic Neurons —The cell bodies are located within the substance of the brain —Contains Dendritic Trees (top) which receive nervous input from other cells —The Axons from these Neurosecretory Cells (Green and Purple) in the Hypothalamus extend downwards and end in the substance of the Posterior Pituitary Gland The biosynthesis of the Secreted Posterior Pituitary Hormones occurs in the Cell Bodies —The products of the posterior Pituitary Gland (Oxytocin and Vasopressin) are small peptide hormones where each one is made up of a chain of 9 Amino Acids and these Hormones are Synthesized in the Cell Body on Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum with packaging of the hormone in vesicles at the Golgi Apparatus and transport down the axon by Axonal Transport of these vesicles and they accumulate in the Axon Terminal and are eventually released just as other Synaptic Neurotransmitters are but in this case the released Neurotransmitters are small peptides rather than amines such as Acetyl-Choline or Norepinephrine (2) Once the Hormones are released from the Axon Terminal they enter the bloodstream and enter the Capillaries and the Posterior Pituitary and are carried out for circulation throughout the body —The trigger for release of the Oxytocin and Vasopressin messengers is just like traditional Neurons - an Action Potential traveling down the axon by triggering release through secretion coupling mechanism involving calcium that we considered earlier

Seasonal Temperature Acclimation C1 P25-27

BOTH cases, the measurements made in the winter and summer frogs observing changes in Metabolic Rate with acute changes in Temp delivered Q10 values of about 2 ——The difference in Oxygen Consumption/Metabolic Rate between Summer frogs at there natural temp and winter frogs at there natural temperature over this 10 degree range was really about 10% —Something is happening here in the way of acclimation that solves for these frogs a very real problem: How can the frog generate sufficient energy in the Winter when the temp becomes very cold - in the Winter frogs we have a measured O2 consumption rate that is MUCH HIGHER than we would expect based on the O2 rate in Summer and a Q10 effect of about 2 Acclimation / Acclimatization - A change in the Physiological Process or this Biochemical Reaction in the Organism within the lifetime of the organism —Compensates for seasonal temperature change, so the fish has a similar metabolic rate in winter and in summer —You can see that this Acclimation SOLVES A PROBLEM - in this case, for the fish, by allowing the fish to have a HIGHER Metabolic Rate than predicted in the summer, this will provide the animal with INCREASED amounts of ATP to power various activities in the Cold Temps of Winter —Without this Acclimation, Metabolic Activity would be very low which can be life threatening

Evolution of the Immune System C3 P33

Bacteria •restriction endonucleases degrade foreign DNA (identified by DNA methylation pattern) —Or by its nucleotide sequence - in the case of bacteria an invading virus for ex can be recognized and the nucleic acids in that virus can be degraded •CRISPR-Cas9 Invertebrates •mark cell surfaces with "self" labels —Early in life - should Invertebrates be invaded with or infected by another organism the cells of the Invertebrate can recognize its own cells that carry this self label from invading cells that lack this label and direct destructing actions •attack and destruction of cells w/o label by phagocytes •no immunological memory (no antibody-based humoral defense mechanisms) —NO Adaptive Systems and NO Antibody based humoral defense mechanisms •invading microorganisms tagged by lectins that recognize and bind to carbohydrates on cell surface —Lectins are molecules that can be recognized and bind to the Carbohydrate surface on cells —So invading bacteria with a Carbohydrate Cell wall can be tagged by these Lectin Molecules and then can be Phagocytized and destroyed by the host organism Vertebrates •jawless fishes (hagfish and lampreys) have innate immune system only; possess lymphocytes but no differentiated T- or B-cells •jawed vertebrates have fully developed immune system See the first appearance of the Adaptive Immune System and we can see that evolutionary change and evolution when we compare jawless fishes —Innate immunity only —Adaptive Immune System evolved during the early evolution of vertebrates during the time of the transition during the transition from Jawless to jawed fishes Not seen in invertebrates

Bee = Countercurrent Pattern of Hemolymph flow in the Insects C1 P55

Countercurrent Heat Exchange takes place in the Petiole (Constriction b/w the Thorax and the Abdomen) —Maintains heat generated by shivering within the Thorax and allows the Abdomen to stay at a much cooler temperature The responses that we saw are possible because of the Countercurrent Pattern of Hemolymph flow in the Insects —Figure shows the Countercurrentive exchange of Heat through closely apposed pathways for Hemolymph movement —During part of its path, the Hemolymph is contained within vessels (BLUE) with the Black Arrows indicating the movement of Hemolymph powered by the heart from abdomen into the Thorax —Blue arrows indicating the movement of Warmed Hemolymph by the shivering action or contraction of flight muscles during flight and goes from the Thorax into the Abdomen and flows through the open Hemocoel

Innate (NON-Specific) Immunity Response to a Breaching Barrier C3 P11-12

Barrier Tissues - If barrier is breached —Leads too: Inflammation, Phagocytosis, Tissue Repeair Conditions in which the barrier is breached in an organism: —Entry into the organism of a pathogen or a toxin or the barrier is breached by some sort of injury (physically) —Organism is then presented as a consequence with situations such as Inflammation, Phagocytosis to resolve that breached barrier, and Tissue Repair (1) Bacterial Invasion or Tissue Damage (2) an Immediate Response of Histamine from Mast Cells (LEFT) (3a) Local Arteriolar Vasodilation caused by the release of Histamine (4a) Histamine has an effect to increase blood flow into that area of damage — There is a local reddening and warming (Inflammation) of the area which is reflective of this Increased Blood Flow (5a) That increased blood flow (which produces the redness and heat of inflammation) serves to bring into that area additional materials that will needed in response to that breach or damage in the tissue —Clotting Factors that limit blood loss (if thats the case) and Increase in Crucial Plasma Proteins (RIGHT) (3b) Increased Capillary Permeability in the Tissue (4b) Local accumulation of Fluid —This is responsible for the Swelling and Pain that is sometimes seen (5b) Phagocytosis - This increased Capillary Permeability also allows the exit from the blood vascular system into the tissue of Phagocytic Cells which occurs through a process of Diapedesis - the cell simply squeezes through an opening in the capillary wall —As a consequence, Phagocytic Cells leave the blood vascular system and enter the tissue where they can perform there functions of clean up of tissue and debris (6) What follows is the process of Tissue Repair to that area where cells of the immune system may clean up any bacteria or foreign agents that were brought in and engage in the Tissue Repair Process - the removal of cellular debris

Behavioral Thermoregulation Ex - C1 P40

Bird (Endothermic Homeotherms) - Capable of generating internal heat to maintain body temp —In this we see a Roadrunner that is using a form of Beh Thermoreg that resembles what we saw above in Lizards —A roadrunner ruffles its feathers to expose its dark skin, which absorbs sunlight to help heat the animal's blood Even though this bird has the potential to generate heat internally there is a Metabolic Cost for that (ATP is consumed in that heat generation) —By using Beh Thermoreg, turning its backside to the sun and raising its feathers to allow solar radiation to shine on the skin this bird achieves a relatively in-expensive uptake of heat saving the animal the expense of Internal Heat Generation

An ectotherm's metabolic rate adjusts to compensate for season changes in temperature. This is most likely made possible by the production of different ... A. thermogenins. B. pyrogens. C. isozymes with temperature optima matching seasonal temperatures. D. countercurrent exchangers to support homeothermy. E. None of the above answer choices correctly completes the sentence.

C. isozymes with temperature optima matching seasonal temperatures.

Specific dynamic action is ... A. is the rebound energy imparted to the body through the hooves of a running horse. B. the particular mechanical ("dynamic") action of moving a body limb. C. the metabolic energy expended on the digestion, absorption and subsequent processing of foodstuffs. D. the movement caused by muscular force application to a lever in the skeletal system. E. the intentional nature of animal movement.

C. the metabolic energy expended on the digestion, absorption and subsequent processing of foodstuffs.

Castrati C2 P3

Castrati - Singers that as young boys would be Castrated in an effect to retain the pleasing qualities of their voices —Could sing without the voice change that typically occurs during adolescence

B and T Cells C3 P 22-23

Cellular Immune System - B and T Cells Begins with Stem Cells which will develop all of the B and T cells of Immune System —During embryological development this common pool of Stem Cells develops in the Bone Marrow from a precursor cell which differentiates into a number of different Lymphocytes and eventually into T and B Cells T and B cells undergo different developmental phases: — B cells : Immune Cells that develop in the Bone Marrow and complete there development and maturation in the Bone Marrow and then depart the Bone Marrow to enter the Circulation will become B cells (B = Bone / Bursa Cells) — T cells : Some of the developing cells such as Lymphocytes will leave the Bone Marrow and will pass through as reside in the Thymus Organ for some period of time and then leave after further differentiation and maturation will become the T cells (T = Thymus or Thymic) So, B and T cells have a common embryological origin but have different developmental paths involving the bone marrow and in some cases the Thymus Once these cells are released and programmed as B cells or T cells they will circulate in the bloodstream and may take up residence in Peripheral Lymphoid Tissues (Lymph Nodes) and whether they are in the Lymph Nodes or circulation they are ready to respond tp foreign invasion of the organism See the activation of B cells and T cells as the last step by the presence of a foreign invader —B cells generate the Antibody Mediated Immune Response (Humoral) —T cells generate the Cell Mediated Immune Response (Cellular)

What the High T Isozyme and Low T izyme have in common —Organisms have BOTH and are just shifting its expression of these two on a seasonal basis C1 P34

Changes in Oxygen Consumption/ Metabolic Rate with Acute Temperature Changes: —BOTH have Q10 Values of 2 —BOTH see a LARGER difference in Oxygen Consumption/ Metabolic Rate Changes in Oxygen Consumption/ Metabolic Rate with NO Acute Temp Change (NOT subjected to Temp Change) —BOTH have a SMALLER Change in Oxygen Consumption/ Metabolic Rate (10% difference over this 10 degree range) BOTH the High Temp Isozyme and Low Temp Isozyme catalyze the SAME reaction (differ in there molecular structure) —Organism is shifting its expression of these two Isozymes on a seasonal basis BOTH have a very similar amount of molecules entering into the reaction (Area under the curve is very similar) BOTH will achieve the same saturation value with sufficiently high substrate concentrations

Types of Integrative Regulation in Complex Multicellular Organisms C2 P6

Classically, we have thought about integrative systems in Multicellular Organisms as falling into Two Categories: (1) Neuronal Signaling - Electrical - but chemical signaling across synapses -Neurophysiology Topics —Recognize in the Nervous System that information is sent by way of Action Potentials and also how individual cells can integrate incoming information such as the Grand Synaptic Potential —In addition to these electrical signaling pathways in the Nervous System there is Chemical Signaling as well, the easiest example being the role of Chemical Neurotransmitters across synapses (2) Endocrine/Immune Signaling - Chemical - but electrical excitability of the cells In both of these Systems, its Chemical Messengers that have been the focus such as the release of hormones from Endocrine Cells or release of various chemicals from Immune Cells —But when we look at Endocrine or Immune Cells, we also find that these cells exhibit some properties of Neuronal Cells, specifically we can reference Endocrine Cells that are electrically excitable - the exhibit Action Potentials just as Neuronal Cells do So when we look at these two categories now of Neuronal and Endocrine and Immune Signaling, we appreciate that they are really ends of a Spectrum of Modes of Integrative Regulation and Signaling in the Organism and that we shouldn't think about these categories as being necessary exclusive Ditchotomous in Nature

Immune Memory C3 P 32

Clonal Activation of T and B cells through an Immune Response generates many cytotoxic T cells and Plasma Cells Some of these clonal cells become memory cells —Remain dominant —Quickly recruited/activated in response to future antigen exposure Have Immune Memory through the Memory Cells and the activation of T cells —These cells persist in the circulation for some time (can be for years) and can remain dormant until the appearance of the Antigen again —Can be quickly recruited which shortens the time of subsequent response to the invader

Behavioral Thermoregulation (Mammals & Birds)

Control of Body Temperature by Behavioral means rather than by the generation of Internal Heat (as we see in Mammals and Birds) —Maintenance of a stable body temp by beh means

Cyclicity and Rhythms in mammalian Reproductive Cycles C4 P8-9

Cyclicity and Rhythms in Mammalian Reproductive Cycles — Mammals (Internal Fertilization) —The Mammalian Species that are listed inhabit many parts of the Globe and those regions include (for ex) the Equatorial Regions where day and night length are relatively steady throughout the year and the environment is relatively livable in terms of temp and as we move away from the Equator toward the poles we go through a temperate region where seasonally there may be periods of warmth separated by periods of cool and according to these habitats, reproduce strategies can vary —We can find species that are continuously active in there reproductive activity and would produce at intervals eggs and sperm for ex throughout the year (humans) —Other organisms have a more seasonal reproductive pattern The first column labeled Cycle Type it shows: —Seasonal (S) and Continuous (C) Reproductive Cycles —Polyestrous (P) and Monoestrous (M) refers to the number of reproductive cycles or number of cycles of egg generation that occur within the breeding period —For example we see that cats reproduce seasonally but during that seasonal period of reproductive activity they may undergo several cycles of ovulation producing eggs for Fertilization —In Humans reproduction is continuous throughout the year and are Polyestrous as well and also exhibit a Menstrual Cycle (Mn) Second Column: Ovulation Type —Two entries: (I) Induced or (Sp) Spontaneous —Information in this column relates to this idea of synchrony in the production of eggs and sperm and the assurance of availability of sperm when eggs are available understanding that eggs are produced at intervals and sperm is produced continuously during the active reproductive period —The species that have Spontaneous Ovulation (Sp) which includes humans, the ovary undergoes a physiological cycle that generates an egg and in the case of humans that egg generated once every 28 days and Ovulation - the release of the mature egg from the ovary is spontaneous - it requires no other action and is coordinated by the endocrine system - the male does NOT have to be present —ES and gonads and production of sperm cells are tightly integrated In other species the release of the egg (Ovulation) event is Induced - it requires the presence of a male and it requires a reproductive act (copulation) —Induced ovulation solves a practical problem for species where the density of individuals is LOW —For species where males and females might not regularly meet there would be a cost to the development and ovulation of an egg if a male were not available to fertilize that egg —EX: Ferrits, cats, rabbits - Ovulation depends on Copulation - the egg may be held in the mature ovary until a mate is found

In physiology, allometry is ... A. never seen. B. the biochemical dependence on aldehyde groups. C. only supported by exponents of numerical value 1. D. the scaling relationship(s) among physiological parameters. E. None of the above answer choices correctly completes the sentence.

D. the scaling relationship(s) among physiological parameters. —allometry has a substancial consequences on metabolism and thermoregulation esp in mammals —Met Rate depends on size - large mammals have higher MR than small animals, but when we recalculate MR on a mass specific basis we find that on a per mass or per gram basis, small mammals have much HIGHER metabolic rates per body mass than large mammals (Mouse to elephant curve - P14)

The Q10 values for most biochemical reactions are between _____ and _____. A. 10; 20 B. 0; 40 C. 2; 10 D. 0; 1 E. 2; 3

E 2;3

Ectohormones C2 P11

Ectohormones can be divided into two sub categories: Pheromones: —Intraspecific, organism to organism chemical messengers —Intraspecific: The chemical signal that is released travels to and stimulates some kind of response or sends information to a recipient that is a member of the SAME species (Organism to Organism chemical signaling WITHIN a species) —Ex: Sex attractants in animals (Moths) or Behavior Modifying or Alarm Substances in fishes Allelochemics: —Interspecific, organism to organism chemical messengers —In contrast to the Pheromones they are Interspecific - the chemical messenger carries information or signals between or among animals of DIFFERENT Species —Ex: Territory marking substances where an organism marks its territory with a chemical contained in urine which is sensed by an organism of another species - this can serve to organize communities and establishing territories and reducing the likelihood of violent interactions of different species —Ex: There is also evidence that alarm substance produced by one species fish can be received by other species of fish (about a dangerous situation) and lead too avoidance by multiple species

Red Muscle in Pelagic Fishes C1 P56-59

Ectothermic Fish (trout) —In contrast, this Trout, the Trunk Musculature is much more unifomally pale/white in color compared to the Tuna cross-section above —In this Ectothermic Fish (Trout) we DONT see this Regional Heterothermy and spends a lot of its time sitting still in waters and most of its activity is burst-activity The temperature difference b/w the core body and the outside environment in one of the Ectothermic Fishes such as the trout is very SMALL and this is due to the efficient transfer of Heat across the gills —Gills have a very LARGE Surface Area that is terrific for Gas Exchange but that large SA also acts as a very effective transfer surface for Heat (AKA Thermal Window) - Site for effective Heat Transfer Heterothermic Fish (Tuna) —Rete : Network of Capillaries that also run in countercurrent fashion —This mechanism for Heat Transfer is very EFFICIENT (10 degree difference b/w the deep body tissues and the surface tissues of the Tuna If it wasn't for this countercurrent flow much of the heat generated would be lost by this Thermal Window —The elevated Temperature that we see in the Red Muscle is reflective of the constant heat generated by the constant activity of this Muscle —The heat generated in this Red Muscle is maintained in Central locations by the countercurrent flow As venous blood leaves the Red Muscle it passes the Arteriole blood entering the Red Muscle there is Heat Transfer and the Heat generated by the Red Muscles is maintained in that part of the body

Communication Pathways Among Cells C2 P9

Endocrine Communication: —Chemical Mediator is transported in the bloodstream or in the Hemolymph (in an IN-Vertebrate) some distance —Fluid born transport of Chemical Mediators —Ex: Insulin Secretion in the regulation of Glucose Metabolism —Pancreas operates as a Glucose sensor and it releases Insulin when Glucose Concentrations in the bloodstream rise and Insulin has actions elsewhere in the body to promote the uptake and the processing or metabolism of Glucose —So, In this case Insulin would be part of a Homeostatic Mechanism for Glucose concentration in the bloodstream Paracrine Signaling: Local diffusional transport of a Chemical Mediator —Examples include Histamine in the Inflammatory Response —Where chemical messengers are released from a source cell and travel by simple diffusion to nearby cells RATHER THAN entering the bloodstream for widespread distribution - as is the case with Endocrine Hormone Autocrine Signaling: Local action of a Chemical Mediator on its own secretory cell —Examples include Norepinephrine auto regulating further release from the nerve ending Neuroendocrine Signaling: Endocrine-like secretion from a neuron-like secretary cell —Examples include Oxytocin which is a hormone from the Posterior Pituitary Gland in the "milk-let-down" response —Pituitary gland is a compound gland / dual gland derived embryologically from BOTH brain tissue (posterior - represent a downgrowth in brain tissue in development) and the anterior represents a non nervous and develops from the roof of the mouth rathke's pouch and these will come together to form the anterior and posterior pituitary gland

Introduction to Chemical Mediation C2 P4

Endocrinology is something much broader and is included within this bigger topic of Chemical Mediation (1) Life depends on the successful regulation and functional integration of organs, tissues, cells and organelles, and of fluid compartments. —This is one of the themes from early in our course —We identified one of the challenges of increasing size and multicellularity in organisms as the challenge of integrating the parts to become a fully functioning organism (2) Chemical messenger systems evolved as one means to achieve these goals. —These systems have evolved as one means to achieve that goal of integration and regulation of Body Parts (3) The importance of organismal integration (and Regulation) in large, complex multicellular organisms cannot be understated chemical communication is an Integrative System in organisms - just one of two at least classical integrating systems - the other being neuronal/ nervous system these are two extremes on a continuum and there are a number of intermediate integrating sys (neurosecretion) that combine both

Thermoregulation : Endothermic Homeotherm vs Ectothermic Poikilotherm C1 P 42

Endothermic Homeotherm (Mammals such as a mouse and Birds) —See a characteristic U-Shaped As the Environmental Temperature is LOWERED (leftward) —We see that the Metabolic Rate (for the mouse) INCREASES - this is the Metabolic Cost of Heat Generation —So, as the mouse leaves this area for comfort and goes into colder env temperatures, internal heat production INCREASES to maintain a stable body temperature and we see that Cost of Thermoregulation reflected in the Metabolic Rate —The COLDER the temp, the HIGHER the Metabolic Rate goes (left) As the Environmental Temperature is INCREASES (right) —Metabolic Rate also INCREASES - this is the Metabolic Cost of staying COOL —In order to stay cool, when the Env Temp Exceeds the body temp, this mouse relies on (among other things) sweating or perspiration and Evaporative Cooling and there is a cost to that secretion of Sweat —We also see that the mouse may begin to pant (forced exhalation) and this is a mechanism for releasing heat from the body (we exp) —This increase in Metabolic Rate that we see at high temps reflects the Cost of staying cool through panting or Evaporative Cooling Ectothermic Poikilotherm —We see a nice Q10 effect - Metabolic Rate Increasing with Environmental Temperature (what you expect) —Metabolic Rate decreases with decreasing temps —Even though we see this Q10 effect and what looks like a dramatic increase in Metabolic Rate in the SOLID BLUE LINE, when plotted on a similar scale with the Mouse, the Ectothermic Metabolic Rate measured in this Lizard under this chaining temperature regimen is still lower than the Metabolic Rate we see in mammals

Hypothalamo Pituitary Thyroid Axis (Temperature Regulation w/ Feedback Loop) C2 P29-30

Example of Endocrine Signaling that Involves the Anterior Pituitary Gland: Hypothalamo-Pituitary Thyroid Axis (LEFT) —(1) Production and Release of Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH) from the Hypothalamus —(2) Which stimulates the synthesis and release from the Anterior Pituitary Gland the release of its Hormone Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) —(3) Which acts to stimulate Thyroid Gland Production and Release of Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4) Feedback System for the Regulation of Body Temperature in a Mammal ' This Feedback, Both Long Loop and Short Loop to the higher centers moderate the output of TSH and TRH again operating as a Negative Feedback Loop —Top shows the Temperature Sensor which will monitor the Controlled Variable (Body Temperature) —When Body Temperature FALLS below the Set point (for mammals below 37C) that deviation from the setpoint is detected by the Temperature Sensor in the Brain —(1) Signal is sent to the Hypothalamus to release Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH) -Hypothalamic Releasing Hormone - —(2) This stimulates Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) released by the Anterior Pituitary Gland —(3) Which stimulates the release of Thyroid Hormone (TH) Release by the Thyroid Gland —(4) Thyroid Hormone stimulates Heat Production —(5) That Heat Production in response to elevated Thyroid Hormone increases Body Temperature and provides Long Loop Feedback to the Brain (Hypothalamus) and to the Temperature Sensors In the Long Loop Feedback the final product or action of the target cell of the Hormone Feeds back Short Loop Feedback (Blue arrows on the Right) —Here we see an earlier step in the Signaling Cascade (indicated as the Thyroid Hormone itself T3 and T4) feeding back in Short Loop Fashion to INHIBIT further release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) or Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH) from the Hypothalamus —Since this feedback is provided by something shorter than the ultimate product (Heat Production) it is referred to as Short Loop Feedback

Immune and Chemical Defense Systems C3 P4

External Defense Systems —These Chemical Defense Systems kill or repel invaders BEFORE they breach the barrier —Use toxins/irritants/other secretions to protect BARRIER from outside world —Several Layers of Defense that Animals Typically Exhibit: (1) Organisms secrete toxins or irritants into the outside environment with these materials serving to either poison, kill, or to repel potential predators or parasites from the organism (2) There are also other sorts of secretions that act as protective defensive layers for the organism —Mucus Membranes secrete mucus containing solutions that cover surface of the organism (fishes or amphibians) —Lumen of the GI Tract is technically OUTSIDE the organism and we see as well that the Epithelial lining and the surface of the GI Tract is protected by mucous secretions which include additional chemicals such as molecules like Defensions that are effective in protecting or guarding the system from pathogens that are present within the GI Tract (3) General Barrier Function: Skin surface or GI Lining as a Barrier that separates the hazards of the outside world from the internal spaces of the organism Internal Defense Systems - Located WITHIN the organism which respond to the invasion or entry of toxins or pathogens into the organism When that barrier is breached, there are two lines of internal immune defense that come into play (1) Innate — (2) adaptive / acquired Immunity -Immune Defense Systems —Provide protection against pathogens such as Viruses, bacteria, parasites that breach that protective barrier —Involved in responding to trauma and repair of tissue damage after a physical insult or injury to the organism —Act to provide immune surveillance against abnormal cells such as cancerous tissues/cells that have transitioned into a life form that may include uncontrolled growth and possible damage to the organism The Immune Defense System has a rather broad set of protective functions that it serves

Regional Heterothermy in the Arctic Ex C1 P49-52

Gull - In a very cold env, the core body temp is around 30C but as we make those temp measurements in the limbs/feet we find that the temp in the legs DECREASES from the core body temp and that decrease becomes greater as we make our way closer to the feet —The feet where this bird may stand on ice in the winter time is close to 0C Elk - See the same sort of Regional Heterothermy in the limbs of the Elk —Core body temp is around the normal Mammalian body temp of 37C —In cold air we find (again) a DECREASE in the temperature of the limbs as we move further from the body core —We also see some of the exposed structures on the organism (snout) we also see a DECREASE in the measured body temp KEY POINT: In cold env, these Endothermic Homeotherms allow the extremities to fall in temperature —This decreases the Temperature Gradient b/w thew body surface (skin & legs) and the outside air —This Decreased Temperature Gradient will result in decreased heat loss to the outside environment —Allowing the limbs to cool is an adaptive strategy that reduces heat loss or retaining core heat in order to reduce the cost of maintaining a warm core body temperature We see these temperature gradients in the limbs/appendages - this is a consequence of countercurrent flow —In the limbs/appendages we see that the arteries supply blood to the tissues of the appendage pass close to the veins returning blood from the appendages —There of course is Heat Transfer (countercurrent transfer of Heat) in these closely placed vessels —So, blood leaving from the arteries Is transferred to the cooler blood returning from the appendages / limbs

When at Thermalbalance / Thermoregulatory Balance / Stable Temperatrue

Heat Input = Heat Output

Modes of Temperature Regulation C1 P36-37

Homeothermy (Homeotherms, Warm Blooded Animals) — Animals that maintain a steady body temperature in the face of changing environmental temperatures (body temp is constant) Endothermic - Generation of Heat internally in the organism —Heat needed to maintain this steady body temp at lowered env temps is generated internally (through Metabolism) Can therefore refer to the mouse as a Endothermic Homeotherm (Stable body temp derived from internally produced heat) Poikilothermy (Poikilotherms, Cold Blooded Animals) —Body temperature tracts closely to the environmental temperature (body temp fluctuates with env) Ectotherm - Receives heat from the environment (Body heat derived from the environment) Can therefore refer to the Lizard as a Ectothermic Poikilotherm Heterothermy - Variation in Body Temperature at the: —Regional/anatomical level (feet are colder than the body core) OR —Temporal level (changes/differences in body temperature through time such as body temp in the Winter vs body temp in the Summer for a hibernating animal) Homeothermy/Poikilothermy refers to the pattern of temperature regulation Endotherm/Ectotherm refers to the source of heat for the body

Allometric Scaling C1 P14-19

How Thermoregulation & Metabolic Rate (Basal Metabolic Rate in Warm-Blooded animals like Mammals and Birds for EX) relate to Size —relates to the size relationships among animals when we calculate Metabolic Rate The Metabolic Activities of the Organisms can be measured in various ways: LEFT - Oxygen Consumption Rate (by putting an animal in a respiratory chamber and measure O2 consumption) RIGHT - Metabolic Rate expressed as energy usage/expenditure per day (kJ per day) —We can interchange these two values using information about the animals diet - if we know that the animal is feeding on a Carbohydrate or Fat based diet (for EX) or some mixture and we know the caloric value of the food we can interconvert Oxygen Consumption rates in the processing of that food with Metabolic Rate (kJ of Energy Expenditure) Metabolic Rate Scaled with Mass - Shaded Green Area serves as a boundary b/w the upper edge is a line with a Slope of 1 and this line (at the intersection of the yellow and green) shows a direct relationship b/w Oxygen Consumption and Body Mass —The relationship between Metabolic Rate and Mass is NOT LINEAR - That is, the Metabolic Rate does NOT increase as a direct proportion to Mass Metabolic Rate Scaled with Surface Area - Slope of the LOWER line with a slope of 0.67 represents the line we would expect if the Metabolic Rate scaled with the Surface Area of the Organism

Regional Heterothermy C1 P49-52

How some Animals have adapted to Environments where Temperatures may reach High or Low Extremes —Body Temperature differs across the organism - the entire organisms body does NOT exist at a single temperature but there may be regional differences in temperature EX - the Core Temp vs the temp in limbs or temp differences measured b/w continuously active muscles vs muscles that are active infrequently like burst activity or regional heterothermy in flying insets where the thorax (which contains the flight muscles) can be maintained at a temp much higher than the abdomen —Regional Heterothermy is an effective strategy to contain the high cost of thermoregulation in some particularly challenging extreme or hostile env. —According to species and the nature of the Thermoregulatory challenges we will see that Regional Heterothermy depends upon/involves (1) Countercurrent flow of blood or hemolymph in the body (2) Homeoviscous changes in membrane lipid composition - these are changes that maintain the fluidity of membrane systems (3) Regional Heat production (thermogenesis) or Regional cooling

Gonadal Development (Mammal) - Sex Determination - Genetic Mechanism that relies on a single gene - SRY on the Y chromosome) C4 P11-12

How the Male and Female Reproductive Systems come to develop Genital Ridge - A ridge of tissue that extends into the abdominal or coelomic cavity of a mammal —Located above the top surface of this Genital Ridge is the the Body Wall and located in this area developing on the Body Wall is the Kidney (beginning of the Mesonephric Tubules of the Kidney here) —Close association b/w Renal Tissue (Kidney Tissue) and Reproductive Tissue (Future Gonads - Ovaries or Testes) at this stage of development During development this Genital Ridge continues to grow and separates from the developing Kidney (Mesonephric Tubules separating) —Up until this stage of dev, the Gonad is Indifferent - that is, in genetic males and females, we see this same indifferent gonad structure —From this point on this Indifferent Gonad develops along either a male path or a female path in development —During the Indifferent Stage Gonad it consists of this outer layer - Germinal Epithelium - at the surface and is In contact with the Coelom and we see deeper within the structures labeled Primary Sex Cord MALES In subsequent development we will see for Males, that these Primary Sex Cords will develop into the Seminiferous Tubules (in which the spermatogonia - stem cells for sperm - will reside here and where sperm will develop) of the testis and its this internal structure containing the Primary Sex Cords that will predominant in development FEMALES In contrast, females its the Germinal Epithelium (outer layer) that predominate in development - the primary Sex Cords will wither (remnant of primary sex cords) and the other structures shown such as the Secondary Sex Chords are derived from proliferation of the Germinal Epithelium —So in Females its the OUTER Layer of the Indifferent Stage Gonad that predominates - The structures you see associated with the Secondary Sex Cords are the Albuginea - the early germ cells that will develop into the eggs This is the pattern for gonadal development and from this embryonic testis and ovary will develop the fully formed glands and organs eventually

Allometric Scaling (cont) C1 P14-19

If we think about the Surface Area to Volume Ratio and what happens when an Animal INCREASES its linear dimension —EX - an animal that is twice as long as another that length (linear dimension) INCREASES proportionally the width and height would increase as well —So the volume of an animal that increases by DOUBLE in length, the volume then would increase by 8 fold (2 cubed = 8) - double the length double the width and double the height (cubed dim) —The Surface Area across which heat would exchange across that animal is a function of the SA - which is a square in the linear dimension (squared dim) —So now as an animal increases in size the mass outstrips the SA in the rate at which the increase and thought they were not measured close enough or with sufficient resolution We now know that the data measurements are CORRECT and the slope is indeed 0.75 and NOT 0.67

Immune Defense Systems —Innate Immune System vs Adaptive / Acquired Immune System C3 P6

Immune Defense System in Animals includes 2 Parts: (1) Innate Immune System - Inherent in the organism (present since the time of birth or hatching) — Non Specific : Recognizes and Responds to foreign invaders and pathogens in a NON-Specific way - that is, based on these Molecular Profiles that we saw above - may respond to some general feature of bacteria (cell wall) — Inherent : Present from birth and doesn't require prior exposure to some sort of pathogen or invading organism/molecule — Rapid Response : Poised and ready to act as soon as a foreign, NON-Self object arrives in the immune system — Widespread in Animals (2) Adaptive / Acquired Immune System - — Specific : Targeting is Specific to a particular organism/species of bacteria or toxin or biochemical agent — Induced Response (Adaptive) : Requires exposure to the foreign material or agent or cell — Slower Development of Active Response Capability: Not poised and immediately ready to respond but it is poised to recognize a foreign material but the development of the response takes much longer — Restricted to Vertebrates generally - Later evolving Immune Defense System

Key Features of the Immune Response System — Self vs NON-Self recognition C3 P5

Immune System responds when it detects the appearance or presence of materials or cells that are NOT part of the organism —Whether it is the Innane or Adaptive Immune Systems, they BOTH depend on the recognition of NON-SELF —Will recognize and bind with NON-Self Mactromolecules —Based on Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPsO Cell (Grey) contains on its surface Protein Receptors which are capable of recognizing molecular patterns/forms/structures that are foreign to the Organism —Based on Macromolecular Structure you see out of this external group of materials circulating around the cell that some of these are recognized by complementarity of fit at the receptors —The receptors have evolved to recognize molecular patterns that are typically associated with pathogens —These NON-Self Macromolecules have particular structures called Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) —So its these generalized patterns in Molecular Structure that are found on Pathogens that these Receptors recognize —Binding of a NON-self molecule to one of these Receptors imitates a Defense Mechanism in the cell or activation of a Immune Cell that responds in a way that protects the organism

Immune System Components C3 P9

Immune Sytem Comprises Diffuse Components - We CANT point to a Single Immune Organ (A) Individual Immune Cells (Leukocyte derivatives) - table shows all the different White Blood Cells - only needed to know a few - SEE NEXT CARD FOR ALL IMMUNE CELLS —Immune Defense Cells may develop or mature in a delimited area in the body, but the functional cells themselves are spread throughout the body (Diffuse System) —Immune Defense Cells are derived from blood cell lines among the blood cells - these represent a relatively small fraction of the total number of blood cells. Most of the cells are Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) with White Blood Cells making up a small percentage of the total blood cell population (B) Immune System includes BOTH Individual Immune Cells circulating widely throughout the body plus the Secreted Protein Products from IC's of these cells which include a number of proteins : (1) Complement Proteins —When activated combine to form a membrane attack complex that serves to perforate the cell membranes in invading bacteria (2) Antibodies —are also secreted protein products from immune cells - these Y shaped antibodies have great diversity and are specific and bind to a specific antigen to mark that foreign object - in some cases this will neutralize that foreign object if it is a toxin for ex - in other cases they mark an invading cell or cancer cells and other immune cells based on that marking will attack that foreign cell and destroy it —Antibodies show almost infinite diversity in epitopes / structures that they bind / recognize as a consequence of rearrangement of the immunoglobin supergene (VDJ in heavy chain and VJ in light chain) V D and J genes Light chain = VJ those these combos there are lots of antibody prodcing cells are generated There are other secreted proteins from the immune system such as Histamine but a number of other proteins that are involved in Signaling among the immune cells and in activating the immune cells triggering them to respond or enhancing the response of immune cells

Dual Embryological origin of the Pituitary Gland C2 P15

In Gold you see the floor of the Diencephalon (base of the brain) and this Invagination or down-growth of Diencephalon which will become the Posterior Pituitary Gland —At the same time this down growth of the brain extends, we see the roof of the mouth (Rathke's Pouch) which is an evagination of the roof of the mouth or the Stomadeum (term applied to Rathke's Pouch during embryological development) So we have an out-pocketing or evagination of Rathke's pouch that is growing upwards to meet the downward growing extension of Diencephalic Floor —These two outgrowths eventually meet where the Posterior Gland develops on a Stalk from from the down-growth of Diencephalon —Anterior Pituitary Gland has developed from Rathke's pouch as this extension grows upward and eventually separates from the roof of the mouth The figure on the right shows the developed Pituitary Gland with its Anterior and Posterior parts that have been closely to one another with the Posterior Gland retaining connection by a stalk The skull in the vertebrate will form and this separates developing Anterior Gland from the roof of the mouth —So at the completion of Development, the Brain and the Posterior Pituitary Gland will be contained within the skull

Heat Balance (Balance Sheet Approach) C1 P9

In Mammals and Birds (Endothermic) - produce heat internally and are generally Homeothermic (warm blooded) —In the homeothermic (Warm-Blooded) animals that maintain a steady core body temp, the Core Temperature becomes a controlled variable In Cold Blooded animals (fishes, amphibians, reptiles) Core Body Temperature is NOT regulated - we can still talk about Core Temp, but it ISNT regulated/controlled Core Temperature in an organ reflects the total body heat content (Found in ALL Animals) —In either case (Warm/Cold Blooded): Total Body Heat Content depends on Heat Input and Heat Output —Heat Input generally comes from Internal Heat Production (mostly in mammals and birds) but even in the Cold Blooded animals there can be some internal heat production through specific dynamic action or the inefficiencies in Metabolic Processes of the body that produce heat as a byproduct —The External Environment - in a Warm external Environment this can lead to Heat Input to the organism and if the Environment is cold, Heat lost can be increased as well —All of these factors come into play in determining the core body temperature of an animal —Some of the avenues for Heat Gain and Heat Loss can be regulated in BOTH cold-blooded and warm-blooded organisms

Time and Place are Important C4 P5

In the beaches of Southern California the Grunion (small fish) spawn seasonally and at intervals according to the Lunar Cycle —Grunion emerge from the ocean and swim onto the beach at high tide associated with the lunar cycle at fuller new moons —The females lay the eggs in the sand at the High Tidal Level and the males fertilize those eggs and then the adults retreat back to the ocean and the eggs are left in the sand to develop —At the next High Tide (roughly 2 weeks later) the eggs hatch and they swim from the High beach area into the ocean - during that period of development at the high beach the eggs are protected from predation in the moist sand —Requires substantial timing so that the males and females are available and swim onto the beach at the same time

Innate immunity vs Adaptive Immunity C3 P7

Innate Immunity Defenses - ALWAYS PRESENT (1) Barrier Functions (previously discussed) —Skin (dryness, low pH, Mucous, Lysozyme, defensins, Second Line: Inflammation, Phagocytosis, Natural Killer Cells, Complement System, Interferons) —Mucous Membranes —Secretions both to the surface of the organism and into the GI Tract (2) Cell Mediated Processes —Phagocytes (Phagocytic Cells) that are capable of scavenging and internalizing and digesting foreign objects such as invading bacterium or cell Debis as a result of physical injury to the organism (3) Humoral / Chemical - Molecules that are produced and secreted into body fluids (Humoral Substances) that act in a way to defend the organism Adaptive Immunity Defenses (1) Cell Mediated Immunity — T-cells ( T cells ) —these cells generate and express antibodies bound to the cell and T-Cells themselves will attack foreign objects or aid in other cells that have been marked (2) Humoral — B cells / antibodies —B cells are the subtype of immune cells that produce and secrete antibodies into the blood plasna B and T cells acquire these different functions as a consequence of there embryological development with all cells passing through the thymus gland and some cells passing through addictionally the Bone marrow (B cells) - two different embryological origins here —Cells that belong two these two branches of Adaptive Immunity are the cells that provide the specificity of the response that characterizes this type of immunity

Specific Dynamic Action (Aspects of Tot. Met.) C1 P7-8

Is the Metabolic Activity related too Digestion (sum of all these Metabolic Activities associated with the Digestive Process) —Is the Metabolic Energy consumed during the process of Digestion —When the food is taken into the digestive tract, immediately the animal will experience an increase in activity related too: (A) the Peristaltic Contractions of the Smooth Muscle (B) the Cost of Enzyme production and Secretion into the GI Tract (C) Expense of Mechanical Digestion (D) Cost of Absorption - Active ion transport and nutrient and water transport across the gut (Process ALL ultimately depend on ATP hydrolysis for energy so that represents an Expenditure of Energy by the Organism)

Coupled Fluxes - Balance Sheet approach C1 P 10-12 *12*

Key point: What happens through the intersections is Important - for ex, temp regulation through cooling by evaporative water loss has effects on water balance. —As Total Metabolic Activity increases in the org (Dry Mass Balance Eq) this will ALSO effect the Heat Balance Equation - EX if more food is taken in, more energy gen —At the intersection at the point of Evaporative Heat Loss we can see that Heat Loss through Evaporation figures in BOTH the Heat Balance Equation AND Water Mass Balance Eq b/c water vapor is lost at the surface of the organism to accomplish that cooling Inputs of Heat to the Organism —(Qsolar) - Energy/Input of Solar Radiation —(Qinfrared) - Infrared radiation from warm objects in the surrounding area of the organism (such as heat radiating off hot asphalt on a hot day) —Metabolic Heat Production - Heat generated by Metabolism in the body Outputs of Heat to the Organism —Heat lost through Evaporative cooling —Heat lost through Convection (sweeping away of heat from surface of body) —Heat lost through Infrared Radiation - if body is warm at its surface it will also radiate infrared to surrounding obj's that might be cooler —Heat lost through Conduction —Heat lost through Storage - any imbalance b/w heat uptake & output Heat (in) = Heat (out) —Metabolism + Rabs (Radiation Absorbed) = Rout (Radiation Emitted) + Convection + Conduction + Evaporation

Regional Heterothermy in Pelagic Fishes - Red Muscle Endothermy theses fishes are cold blooded animals C1 P56-59

Live in the open ocean and swim for there whole life and are generally always active —Animals that fall into the category include Tunas and Large Sharks —Red Muscle Endothermy —Central Area of Trunk Musculature is warmer by 10-15C then the rest of the body including other trunk muscles —The warmer muscles that are located centrally are used in the continuous cruising activity of the Pelagic Fishes —Rely on Aerobic Metabolism to power the nonstop movement and to generate Heat The muscles we see on the Outer-Edge of the Trunk Muscles are generally inactive but are engaged in bouts of high speed swimming such as when the Tuna or Shark is hunting or chasing prey —Glycolytic Muscle located on the outer surface

Behavioral Thermoregulation Ex - Galapagos Marine Iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) - lizard C1 P39

Lives near the sea shore and is capable of swimming so it swims into the ocean and comes out onto the shore and basks in the sun to warm —Here is a cardiovascular response that runs in parallel to the Behavioral Response of Basking in the sun (control blood flow to the skin to alter heating and cooling rates) —These two combine in a way to SLOW temperature loss in the Cold Env and to Increase Temperature gain in the warm environment When the lizard then emerges onto shore it sits in the sun and the body temp comes up (basking in sun) —Can control (to some extent) its body temperature - it cools during the hunting phase in the ocean but on shore it uses Beh Thermoreg to raise the body temp elevating Metabolic Rate for increased levels of activity Heart Rate is LOWER when the animal is in the water compared with the Heart rate when the animal is on shore (HIGHER) —Recall that heat exchange in organisms occurs across the surface so here the Lizard enters the cold ocean waters and responds almost immediately by lowering its heart rate and reducing the amount of blood circulating to the surface and thereby reducing the potential for Heat Transfer from that blood to the outside environment —So, by reducing heart rate during the dive, Heat Transfer to the Environment is Reduced and the Body Temperature Decrease is SLOW —When Lizard emerges on shore, theres a very RAPID increase in heart rate to deliver more blood to surface of the org which warms in the sun

Different Types of Immune Cells C3 P10

Mast Cells (Innate) —Release Histamine when damaged —Part of the allergic response Macrophages (Innate and Adaptive) —enguld and digest microorganisms —Active T cells B Lymphocytes (Adaptive) —Differentiate to form antibody producing cells and memory cells T Lymphocytes (Adaptive) —Kill virus infected cells or cancer cells —Regualte activities of other White Blood Cells

Mechanisms of Hormone Action C2 P32-33

Mechanisms of Hormone Action —Hormones circulate in the bloodstream and all of the cells in the body potentially have access to that Hormone but ONLY those cells that have a Hormone Receptor will be target cells for that Hormone and respond to the presence of that Hormone Figure indicates 2 Mechanisms for Hormone Action (1) Water Soluble Hormones - Hormones by there chemical structure are Hydrophilic (Water Loving) OR Lipophobic (Lipid Hating) —These molecules such as modified Amino Acids and small Peptides/Proteins are quite soluble in the aqueous medium of blood —After release they simply circulate throughout the bloodstream and bind at a Target Cell to a Hormone Receptor which is located at the cell surface —Binding to the Hormone Receptor triggers a Signal Transduction Cascade within the Target Cell that results ultimately in some sort of Response by the target cell (2) Lipid Soluble Hormones - Hormones by there chemical structure and Hydrophobic (Water Hating) OR Lipophilic (Lipid Loving) —These include the Steroid Hormones derived from Cholesterol —These Hormones when produced by Endocrine Cells enter the blood stream and are typically carried by transport protein or a carrier protein which increases the transport of these Lipophilic Hormones - these Transport Proteins/Carrier Proteins typically have a Hydrophobic Face which provides a lower energy environment for the lipid soluble hormones to sit —This is a NON-covalent interaction so we see dissociation of the Hormone from the carrier protein and the translocation of the Hormone into the Cytoplasm of a Target Cell (easily permeable across the cell membrane) and binds to a receptor within the Cytoplasm —This forms a Hormone-Receptor Complex within the Cytoplasm and the entry of this into the Nucleus which imitates a response (expression of some gene in the target cell) which results in some altered Biological Function of the cell In both of these pathways for Hormone Signaling: There is a Receptor: —In the Water Soluble Hormone the receptor is located at the cell surface because the Hormones cant easily penetrate the cell mem —In the Lipid Soluble Hormone the receptor is located in the Cytoplasm because the Hormone CAN cross / partition across the cell membrane

Metabolic Energy Balance Equation —Total Metabolism C1 P5-7

Metabolic Energy Balance Equation - We can pull that Mass and Heat term down to the bottom giving the Total Metabolism in the organism (left) - We can measure this Total Metabolism in a variety of ways: —Can calculate it from Food Consumption or changes in mass (M) following food consumption —Can calculate it as Heat Production by the animal (Q) by placing an animal in a respirometer or a metabolic chamber and measure Heat Production, Oxygen Consumption, or CO2 Production (ALL possible ways to measure Metabolic Activity)

Milk Synthesis and Letdown C2 P22-23

Milk Production Apparatus in the Mammary Gland —The Milk Let-Down Response and the Milk-Synthesis Pathway are DIFFERENT LEFT - Milk Let Down Response —Mammary Gland is composed of a series of ducts that end in the blind ending expansions or Alveoli that are arranged in Lobules —Within each Lobule of the Mammary Gland are many Acini (acinus) which is the site of Milk Synthesis —During Pregnancy and the period of Lactation following the birth of the young, the Epithelial Cells lining the Acini are involved in Active Transport Processes that deliver into the lumen (space w/in the Alveoli Milk, Salts, Protein, Calcium, Fats, etc (all the components of Milk) —Newly synthesized milk accumulates within the Lobules of the Mammary Gland and the Milk is held within the Lobules until the stimulation of Milk Let Down (The beginning of Suckling) and that Suckling reflex triggers then the Contraction of Myoepithelial Cells that surround the Alveoli and the contraction of these cells squeezes or expresses that synthesized Milk into the duct system where the young have access to it RIGHT - Control of Milk Synthesis — The Milk Let-Down Response and the Milk-Synthesis Pathway are DIFFERENT —The Milk Synthesis at the Alveoli of the Mammary Gland is stimulated by an Anterior Pituitary Hormone Prolactin —Prolactin is controlled by the Hypothalamus through BOTH Inhibiting and Releasing Hormones (prev lecture) —This increased Synthesis of Prolactin during Pregnancy promotes Milk Secretion We have a Duel Level of Control —We have Prolactin Stimulating Milk Synthesis with this process progressing Steadily through Pregnancy and Lactation —We have the Intermit-in Milk Let Down which is Stimulated by Suckling

What happens inside the Thermoneutral Zone? C1 P 45-46

ORGANE LINE - Represents the Insulating Quality (resistance to heat transfer) of the surface of the Organism —Insulation is the Inverse of Conductance (Ease at which heat is transferred) We see that the Insulating property or features of the animal change: —HIGHER insulation is seen at the LOWER end of the TNZ —LOWER insulation is seen at the HIGHER end of the TNZ At the Top (Higher) End of the TNZ (near a comfortable range for the organism) we find VERY LITTLE NEED for Insulation —As the Temperature cools through the TNZ we see the Insulating properties of the organism increase and conductance decreases —Can be accomplished through a change in Posture (dog/cat curls up in cold) —Can also achieve a change in insulation or conductance by changes in the elevation of the fur (elevated when hot, flat when cool) and this changes the insulating thickness layer These changes in insulation or conductance by posture or elevation of fur is VERY INEXPENSIVE (aren't reflected in measurements of Metabolic Rate So, across the Thermoneutral Zone, Metabolic Rate is CONSTANT —Its when we leave the TNZ that the Metabolic Costs of Thermoregulation becomes substantial —When we leave the TNZ going to Colder Temperatures we see an increase in Metabolic Rate with Thermogenesis (cost of shivering which generates heat) or Nonshivering Thermogenesis (production of Metabolic Heat) in the body —When we leave the TNZ going to Warmer Temperatures we see an increase in Metabolic Rate with the Cost of Evaporative Heat Lost by Sweating or Panting —Vasoconstriction reduces conductance for heat across the body surface —Piloerection refers elevation of the fur or the hair on the body (humans have this response too, we don't have the hair but we have the muscles that are attached to the hair muscles that elevate and on a cold day we see gooseflesh (goosebumps)

Oxytocin (OT) Effects - Suckling (Milk Let Down) Response and Uterine Contraction C2 P20-21

Oxytocin (OT) is one of the two Nonapeptide Hormones Produced by the Posterior Pituitary Gland —Has two Biological Effects in Mammals (1) Suckling (Milk Let down) Response (2) Stimulation of Uterine Contraction during the process of Child Birth OT Production and Release occurs in the Neurosecretory Cells with cell bodies located in the Hypothalamus where synthesis of OT takes place on Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Hormone is packaged at the Golgi apparatus into Secretory Vesicles which are transported down the Neurosecretory Cell Axon and held in the Axon Terminals pending release —Release from the Posterior Pituitary Gland then delivers the OT into the bloodstream for circulation throughout the body (1) LEFT - Suckling (Milk-Let Down Response) - A neuroendocrine reflex arc (A) —This is a reflex response in Mammals that links the Suckling Stimulus (at breast) to the release of Milk into the duct system for the Nutrition of the young (B) —This reflex network/circuit is well described - Mechanoreceptors located in the Lactating Breast detect the Suckling of young - info sent to brain (hypo) and triggers the release of Oxytocin which is released from the posterior pituitary gland thru bloodstream to Mammary gland where it triggers the release of milk into duct system (C) — Mechanosensory information is transmitted to the brain through Sensory Neurons and through a nerve circuit that involves a few nerve cells and axons deliveries stimulating input to the cells of the Hypothalamus which are located in the Paraventricular and Supraoptic Nuclei and that stimulation of the Neurosecretory Cell in the Hypothalamus Triggers release of Oxytocin and OT has an effect at the gland to cause Milk Ejection (Milk Let down response) We have the elements of a Stimulus and a Response link and a Reflex Action (2) RIGHT - Uterine Contraction Response to Oxytocin —Here, the stimulus for OT release is the stretch of the cervix near the end of Pregnancy —During gestation of the growth of the young, the uterus increases in size and as term approaches in the Gestational Period, pressure is increased on the uterine wall and the cervix —That stretch is detected by mechanoreceptors - this is a stimulus to the Hypothalamus to initiate the release of OT which circulates in the blood stream and acts as a stimulator for Uterine muscle contraction with that contraction expelling the young This again is a kind of reflex circuitry that triggers muscle contraction at the conclusion of term

Hormonal Control of Reproductive Behavior (Parthenogenetic Whiptail Lizard) - Reproduces Asexually through parthenogenesis - all members of this species are female C4 P10

Parthenogenetic Whiptail Lizard (Video) —ALL are FEMALE and do require physical contact/mating behavior for ovulation to occur and the development of egg into a young —Egg is captured in a shell and then a shelled egg will be laid and this is triggered by the mounting of one lizard by another (biting behavior) —Behaviors (male or female) are determined by the Endocrine environment INSIDE the organism —As these female lizards progress through the egg development process through the follicular growth and ovulation processes - the Endocrine profiles inside change Hormone Concentration/Level in the blood as a function of the Ovarian Cycle there are periods when the estrogen level is HIGH and these periods typically occur just prior to ovulation (during the period in which the follicle which contains the egg is developing) —Immediately after Ovulation of the Egg we see that the relative concentrations of Estrogen and Progesterone CHANGE - so that after the Ovulation event Progesterone levels are HIGHER and Estrogen levels are LOWER —The behavior of the Lizard as either a behavioral male or female depends on this ratio of Estrogen to Progesterone When Estrogen levels are HIGH the Lizard behaves as a FEMALE When Progesterone levels HIGHER then the Lizard behaves as a MALE —This behavior depends on the Ovarian Cycle with the behavioral joining being the trigger for the Ovulation Event

Sequential Events in Genetic Sex Determination (Mammals) C4 P13-14

Process of Sex Determination begins in Mammals beginning with Fertilization of the Egg by the Sperm —This Sex Determination process includes a Cascading Series of steps —In almost all cases these steps are consistent with one another, that is female Genetic sex will lead to female Gonadal sex will lead to female Phenotypic Sex —In some rare cases there are errors in transmission of information and there can be a mismatch (1 )Begins with the joining (at fertilization) of a Sperm with an Egg and this joining to become the Zygote establishes the Genetic Sex for the Mammal —XX or XY Chromosomal Complement of the Zygote (This is the Genetic Sex) —XX female and XY the male Genetic Sex (2) Next step in development after determination of the Genetic Sex is the determination of the Gonadal Sex (3) Once the Gonadal Sex has been determined - once the developmental decision for indifferent stage gonads develop into an Ovary or Testis is made — Once that decision has been made, Phenotypic Sex follows —Products of the Gonad, particularly the sex steroids (Estrogen, progesterone, testosterone) plus some other protein and polypeptide hormones will guide the Phenotypic Sex determination of the organism —Those elements of Phenotypic Sex include: (LEFT) External Features that distinguish male and female phenotype such as: —External genitalia —Secondary Sex Characteristics - in chickens roosters will develop a come and waddles on the head which distinguish visually males from females (MIDDLE) Phenotypic Sex Development also progresses internally and to generate the Internal Urogenital System - System of ducts that are appropriate of males or females (in females the development of the uterus or seminal vesicles in a male) —This Internal Urogenital System development is guided by hormones produced by the gonads (RIGHT) These ovarian hormones can also influence the Central Nervous System (CNS) —TO program the CNS to express particular sexual behaviors (male or female) —Also to program the Hypothalamus to produce the Gonadotropin Hormones such as Follicle Stimulating Hormone in patterns that are specific for males or females

Flux Equation for Heat C1 P44

Q (Temperature Flux/Heat Transfer) = C (Thermal Cond) [T1- T2] (Driving Gradient for Heat Transfer, a Temp difference in Heat content b/w two objects) —C (Thermal Conductivity) can be Changed (Marine Iguana) where blood flow to the surface of the organism changed when the organism was in the water compared with when it was basking on the rock and that difference in blood flow to the surface changes the exposure of the organism or the exposure of the heat in the organism to the outside world (A change in Conductance seen through a change in Capillary at the surface of the organism)

Thermal (Heat) Window - Rabbits C1 P67

Rabbits - Another Heat Regulating System —Rabbits also posses a Thermal Window and in this case it is the Ear —The Ear is highly vascularized and contains large amounts of Capillaries that run very close to the skin surface and offer a convent and effective surface for Heat Transfer b/w the blood in the Capillaries and the outside world As the Core Body Temperature of the Rabbit INCREASES (sitting out in sun or active) the Temperature in the Ear INCREASES (b/c blood flow is increased into the ear and more heat from the body core is transferred to the ear) —As blood flow going into the Ear INCREASES, Heat loss from the Ears to the Environment INCREASES as well —Ears are operating as a Thermal Window in Rabbits to rid the body of excess Heat when the core body temp Increases

Regional Heterothermy and Thermogenesis (Heat Production) in Warm-Blooded Animals as well C1 P60

Rat - Shows a second method for Heat Generation —We saw in the Moths Shivering Thermogenesis where muscular contractions will generate heat Here we see NON-Shivering Thermogenesis —In this case Heat is generated by the Metabolic Activity coming from the Mitochondria —During Oxidative Phosphorylation, the capture of Energy and its conversion into ATP is NOT 100% efficient, some of the energy is lost as Heat —It is this Oxidative Activity of Mitochondria in tissues that generates this NON-Shivering Heat Production This NON-Shivering Thermogenesis from Metabolic Activity is REGULATED activity - it is controlled in the animal in part by Thyroid Hormone (T3) which is produced by the Thyroid Gland —So, in response to a detection in fall of Body Temp in a Mammal or Bird for ex, Thyroid Hormone is produced and secreted by the Thyroid Gland and that Thyroid Hormone has an effect on Body Tissues (particularly Fat Reserves - Adipose Tissue) in the body to bring about Heat Production NON-Shivering Thermogenesis is a Regulatory Process called into play when Body Temp FALLS —When body temp rises, this mechanism for Heat Generation is turned down In some animals we see Brown Adipose Tissue - this is a specialized form of Adipose Tissues that are particularly effective in generating Heat —Brown Adipose tissue is more darkly colored than White Adipose Tissue and this reflects a difference in the biological functions of these two tissues —Brown Adipose Tissue is specialized in Fat Storage (as does White) but these cells are invested with LARGE numbers of Mitochondria and they have a larger blood supply and in this way they are suited for increased Metabolic Activity and they use Fat Reserves in the Fat Adipose Cells to fuel this Metabolic Activity which will result in Heat Prouction - Brown Adipose Tissue is located near Body Core (not throughout body —White Adipose Tissue is specialized in Fat Storage - it contains very few Mitochondria and it has consequently has a much lower capacity for Metabolic Activity and Heat production - White Adipose tissues is also distributed throughout the body

Q10 C1 P22-24

Ratio of a Reaction Rate/ Reaction Velocity at some Temperature relative to the rate of that reaction at a Temperature 10 degrees cooler —Describes the Temperature Sensitivity of a process —For most biochemical reactions and physiological processes the Q10 is 2-3 —For reactions that are NOT sensitive to temperature the value is 1 Blue and Green lines show what happens in a chemical rxn which is sensitive to temp. —As Temperature INCREASES the Energy in the molecules engaged in some biological reaction INCREASES (Higher Temp = More Kinetic Energy (KE) = More Motion) = better changes that molecule combines with another substrate molecule —As Temperature INCREASES, Reaction Rate INCREASES (see figure) For a Q10 of 3 —The reactions rate triples with each 10C rise in temp For a Q10 of 2 —The reactions rate doubles with each 10C rise in the temp Can use the Vant Hoff Equation as a generalized form of this relationship where the Q10 is = to the Rate of the Reaction at one Temp divided by the Rate of Reaction at a second temperature raised to the exponent of that difference in temperature —The Van't Hoff Equation allows you to calculate a Q10 for data collected at any number of degrees of temperature difference —Can use this as a quantitative measure of the sensitivity of a rxn or whole body Metabolism to Temperature

Why is Short Loop Feedback Important? - C2 P31

Short Loop Feedback reduces overshoot and leads to tighter regulation around a setpoint GOLD - Long Loop Feedback — On the Y Axis is the value of some controlled variable (Temperature) (1)As the Body Temperature falls BELOW the Setpoint the organism will respond in a way that increases Heat Production and Body Temperature —As we saw in the previous slide, this involves the release of TRH, TSH, TH, and Thyroid Hormone Production of Heat (2)The body temperature will then rise and go back up toward the set point (3) Once the Temperature reaches the Setpoint, the Temperature Sensor will detect little if any deviation from the setpoint and the Hypothalamus will respond with a REDUCTION or moderation of TRH and then TSH and so on (4)The problem is that at the point where the Temperature reaches the Setpoint (3) although the Hypothalamus might detect that the Setpoint has been achieved, there is still in-circulation of TRH, TSH, and TH that yet to have there effect and are in the circulation and continue there signaling and to reach their target tissues and to generate even more Heat Production driving the Controlled Variable (temp) ABOVE the setpoint (5) Now the temp is too High and by the Feedback Loop TRH, TSH and TH fall even more and this reduces Heat Production and it begins an Oscillation around the Set Point Short Loop Feedback: Provides an avenue for Feedback that moderates the corrective response in the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland to a lowered temperature —In this way, once the system is activated and the Thyroid Hormone is produced the Brain receives a signal that a response is underway and lets moderate further release of Hormone —The introduction of the Short Feedback System tends to moderate the system in a way that reduces these Oscillations around the Setpoint and the result is tighter/more careful regulation and maintenance of a Controlled Variable at its Setpoint

Regional Heterothermy via Countercurrent (Regional) Cooling in the Snout of a-Mammal (Sheep) C1 P69-70

Recall that animals with long snouts the temperature of the snout can be substantially less than the core body temperature —This is a consequence of Evaporative Cooling by the surfaces of the mouth and the moist passage ways of the Nasal Cavity —In the ordinary inspiration and expiration of air through the Nasal Cavity or the Mouth, Evaporative Cooling lowers the Temperature in the Snout —This cooling of the snout can be put to good use by some animals in Hot environments In this case, Evaporative Cooling is used to keep the Brain cool and protect the Brain from overheating on a hot day when body temperature may begin to rise —We see countercurrent exchange of Heat in this Capillary Network (Nete) beneath the Brain —Blue Vessels represent cold blood that is returning from the veins from the snout —Red Vessels represent warm blood that is being brought into the Head to the Brain by the Carotid Artery So, in the area of this Rete, the warm blood in the external Carotid Artery (entering the head region) exchanges/transfers heat to the cooler blood coming from the Snout and the blood then that continues to the Brian has a reduced Heat Content and Cooler Blood that is being provided to the brain to protect it from overheating So these Regional Heterothermy Systems and Countercurrent Systems that we have been describing can be used to both Maintain elevated Core Body Temperature as we saw in the Pelagic Fishes OR it can be applied in this way to protect parts of the organism from Overheating This mechanism is supported by Strong Breathing - if the temperature challenge becomes greater, enhanced or exagerated or pronounced breathing can increase the cooling of the Snout and increase the efficiency and Gradient for Heat Exchange and Protection of the Brain

Regional Heterothermy Ex : Preflight Thermogenesis in Insects C1 P53-54

Reg Hethrmy allows the Animal to bare the cost of Warming the flight muscles without adding additional cost of warming parts of the body that are NOT engaged in Flight —Flight is an expensive means of locomotion and animals that fly must be able to generate sufficient amounts of ATP to power the light muscles and wing flapping —Generally think of Insects as Poikilothermic Insects where the body temp typically follows the env temp Data taken from a Moth - Eupsilia Transversa - THORAX What happens in a fly insect that attempts to begin flight in the Cold Temperatures? (1) Animals that begin this preparation of flight at a temp of about 18C —When these animals prepare for flight they will go through Pre-Flight Warmup which brings the body temp to about 30C - this is the temp at which the Metabolic Reactions of the body (in the thorax in particular) will generate sufficient ATP to power flight —Remember that Moths are Poikilothermic and Ectothermic and will exhibit a Q10 effect —What we will see is an increase in Thoracic Temperature to about 30C and through a Q10 effect an increase in metabolic Activity and ATP production —This Pre-Flight Warmup which involves a change in Thoracic Temp (increase from 18 to 30C) occurs as a consequence of shivering —The flight muscles in the Thorax begin a process of shivering and its the activity of this muscle contraction that generates this Heat and that Heat generated by muscle shivering raises Thoracic Body Temp to about 30C - At this point the animal will begin flight and will maintain this temp during flight by the continuous contraction that is powering wing movement —When the animal ceases flight and the wing motion stops the body tempin the thorax will return slowly to the env temp (Passive-Cooling - Post-flight (post flight) Phase of 20C —Notice during this same period of Pre Flight Warmup Body flight and cooling the Abdominal temperature changes very little —This warming that we see is REGIONAL it occurs only in the Thorax (2) Animals that begin this flight preparation where the environmental and body temperature is at a much lower temperature (close to 0C) —When starting at 0C we see the same sort of Pre-Flight Warmup Shivering to raise the body temperature and it is extended to more than 20 minutes with this additional time being required to raise the body temperature from 0C to 30C where flight is attempted —At the completion of flight we see that Post-Flight Cooling and Passive Cooling of Thoracic Body Temperature back towards 0C —Again, during this stage of Pre-Flight Warmup - Flight and Post-Flight Cooling - the Abdominal Temperature changes VERY LITTLE

Immunoglobin structure - structure of an Antibody (immunoglobin is one class of antibodies) C3 P24-25

See in this figure the Y-Shape of the Immunoglobulin Antibody which is comprised of 4 Protein Strands —2 Light Chains (Green) and 2 Heavy Chains (Blue) and thee are Cross-Linked or Coupled covalently by Disulfide bonds Variable Region - Specificity -Within this Antibody are Antigen binding sites or domains which are located at the ENDS of the Y-Branches (V = Variable) —This is the part of the Antibody molecule that recognizes specifically the molecular structure of the foreign object / toxin / invader —The Molecular Structure that is recognized is referred to as the Antigen and the structure of this Antigen matches in Complementary the structure of the Variable Region which will vary among different Antibodies —There will be generated in the Organism typically a number of different Antibodies each one is specific to a particular Antigen based on its structure Constant Region —of the Antibody are IDENTICAL in structure for ALL of the Antibodies that are produced —Will allow the Phagocyte or Complement System to be engaged in a more general way to the attack on any number of Bacteria

Acquired / Adaptive Immune Response C3 P17-19

Selective attack on foreign agent (Protein, virus or cell, for ex) following earlier exposure Two Classes of Acquired / Adaptive Immunity : Two Classes (1) Antibody Mediated (Humoral) Immunity —Response involves the production of Antibody Molecules (Proteins) that recognize and bind to specific foreign agents —These antibodies are produced by Plasma Cells which are derived from B lympocytes (2) Cellular (Cell Mediated Immunity) —Direct attack on a foreign or diseased cell by T lymphocytes - Here, it is the cell itself that is active and attacks the foreign agent or cell

Boltzmann Energy Distribution - Explanation for the Q10 Effect or the Temperature Sensitivity of that Biological reaction C1 P24

So the Q10 effect that is being described has underlying it this shift in the Energy of molecules according too Temperature —Even a modest increase in Temperature and lead to a dramatic increase in the number of molecules capable of entering into the reaction BLUE LINE - Represents the energy profile for that population at a LOW Temp —In this case, if we ask how many molec at the lower temp will have sufficient energy (Energy that exceeds the activation energy) will be able to enter into the reaction is represented by the small tail after the gray line under the curve RED LINE - As the temp increases, the curve shifts to the right — the average energy of the pop of molec increases, if we ask how many molec will have sufficient energy to exceed that activation energy barrier - and we see there are far more molecules have sufficient energy to enter into the reaction These molecules are in motion continuously at any temperature above absolute 0 and as the molecules collide into one another they will exchange energy and that energy exchange may NOT be equal - that is, after the collision, one molecule may leave that collision with more energy than the other molecule in the collision

review

So-called "cold-blooded" animals can acclimate to different environmental temperatures through expression of different isozymes (Summer/Winter Frogs and Fishes) So-called "warm-blooded" animals keep the body at a regulated set-point temperature to support stable production of ATP, but there is a metabolic cost at environmental temperatures far from the set-point temperature. —Warm blooded Animals DONT necessarily rely on isozymes but instead they make a contribution to the maintenance of body temperature through variability in Metabolic Rate and the production of heat (U-Shaped Graph)

ADH Stimulation of Collecting Duct Water Permeability - SUMMARY C2 P26-27

Summary of the Events: —Bottom Panel shows the Collecting Duct Cell and the Antidiuretic Hormone binding to its receptor and the migration and installation of Aquaporin Water Channels and we see the absorption of water from the forming urine Effects of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) on the Collecting Duct in the context of a Feedback Loop or Regulatory Scheme for Water Homeostasis in the Organism (1) Process begins with an INCREASE in the Blood Solute Concentration (Osmolarity) of the Blood —That increase in Osmolarity is detected at Osmosensors located within the Hypothalamus of the Brain (2 and 3) Show the Hypothalamus with its Osmosensors which will detect the Osmotic Pressure of the Blood Plasma with increases in Osmotic Pressure leading to the secretion by the Posterior Pituitary of Antidiuretic Hormone —From the Posterior Pituitary, the Antidiuretic Hormone that enters the blood stream and passes to the Kidney where it stimulates this reabsorption of water and increase in blood volume which correlates with less water being excreted by the urine and the urine becomes more concentrated (4 and 5) These actions of water reabsorption and the dilution of the blood (the reduction in the Osmotic Pressure) Feedback to the Hypothalamus and a return to the Setpoint for Osmotic Pressure and a reduction in the secretion by the Posterior Pituitary as a response Have all the parts of a Negative Feedback Loop: Controlled Variable = Blood Solute Concentration Sensor = Osmosensor located in the Hypothalamus and the integrating circuitry to compare the actual Osmotic Pressure with the Setpoint and we see the Release of a Hormone upon deviation (specifically increase in Osmotic Pressure above the set point) Effector = Collecting Duct —Return to Setpoint

Vertebrate Neurosecretion (Chemical mediator secretion from nerve cells) C2 P13-14

System of Neurosecretion in Vertebrates - Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Axis —Axis: A cascading scheme of Chemical Signaling where the secretion of one hormone leads to a response by another cell and in turn another cell through these Cascading Signaling Systems —The Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Axis is a cascading scheme of signaling that runs from the Hypothalamus in the Brain to the Hypophyseal (Pituitary Gland) - Communication between the Hypothalamus (Brain) and the Pituitary Gland Hypothalamus —Located in the floor of the Diencephalon (2nd segment in the developing Vertebrate Brain) —Rich location for Neurosecretory Cells Pituitary Gland (Two Parts) (1) Anterior Pituitary Gland —Derived from embryonic development fro the roof of the mouth and is derived from a structure called Rathke's pouch (2) Posterior Pituitary Gland —Derived from nervous tissue - derived from an extension of the floor of the Diencephalic Segment of the Brain (p 983) The Pituitary Gland is the source of a large number of hormones and is generally referred to as the Master Gland which reflects that a large number of hormones are secreted by the gland and those hormones control a large and diverse number of physiological processes in the body —Although the Pituitary Gland has some autonomous regulatory function, its activity is largely controlled by the Hypothalamus

Feedback Regulation Via Hypothalamo-Pituitary Axis —A Cascading System of Signaling C2 P28

TOP - External or Internal Conditions which represents Controlled Variables that are sensed by the body —This may be the Osmotic Pressure of the Blood Plasma or Blood Fluid OR Glucose Conc in the bloodstream OR Body Temp OR Nutritional Store Shows Conditions that might be sensed in the Brain and then a decision being made that is routed through the Hypothalamus and Pituitary and Endocrine Gland for the regulation of that Controlled Variable —Shows the release of release inhabiting hormone from the Hypothalamus which influences Anterior Pituitary Hormone Release such as the Tropic Hormones which include : (A) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) —Stimulates the release by the Adrenal Cortex of adrenocorticosteroids that are involved in carbohydrate metabolism among others (B) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) —Controls the activity of Thyroid Hormone (C) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (D) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) —BOTH FSH and LH regulate the Ovary and production of Sex Steroids Thse Tropic Hormones control (in cascading fashion) Endocrine Glands —These Hormones produced by the Endocrine Gland have actions on Target Tissues which Feedback through an effect on the Controlled Variable to close the Feedback Loop —This is referred to as Long Loop Negative Feedback - which is feedback by a change in the Controlled Variable on some sensor system (in this case sensory functions located within the brain) Short Loop Negative Feedback: —Intermediates along this cascading system of signaling feedback also to moderate this response or to provide information to the feedback circuit

Gene Rearrangement Allows for Diversity of Immune Recognition C3 P26-27

TOP - Shows location of the Original Supergene (here its located on Chromosome 14) for the Heavy Chain —There are 44 different Variable genes, 27 different D genes, and 6 different J genes within this original Supergene Here is the Selection Process where one of each of the gens will be combined or rearranged to form (in this case) an mRNA that contains one V, D, and J —This will be the messenger RNA (mRNA) that will be transcribed and translated in the production of an Antibody In another cell, the rearrangement and selection process may yield instead a mRNA that contains V1 D6 J2 for example - it will be different and the resulting Antibody will have a different Amino Acid Sequence and consequently a slightly different Molecular Structure in the Variable Region

Adaptive Immune Response : Two Branches C3 P17-19

The Adaptive Immune System : Two Branches STEP 1- The capture or presentation of the foreign agent or object to the Immune System —Will begin the Response in the Active Immune System with the arrival in the organism of the foreign agent (Could be a free a Free Antigen as shown or a bacterium with the specific surface markers that it carries - NOT the Carbohydrate Cell wall but the specific proteins for example that might be present on the surface of the bacterium —Could be a cell with a particular surface antigen (non bacterial cell with a surface antigen or a cancer cell) See the interaction of the cells of the Immune System with the foreign agent to present the foreign agent to the Immune System (Have either a cell with the antigen or a Phagocyte that ingests a bacterium for example and processes the digested parts of that Bacterium and presents it on its surface —We see at the Antigen Presenting Cell that at the surface is a small fragment of this foreign agent (or it could be an abnormal cell that on its surface has an abnormal form of protein such as a cancer cell) —Protein is presented to the T Helper (T-helper) cell through an interaction b/w these two cells (Antigen Presenting Cell and T-Helper Cell) STEP 2 - Following this interaction, the T Helper cell will Stimulate the B cells and the T cells to begin their active response —In the B cell - Humoral Immunity Response - the cell will respond by producing Antibodies that recognize and bind to the foreign agent or to the cell and those Antibodies are secreted into the bloodstream —In the T cell - Cellular Immunity Response - the presentation of the Antigen stimulates the production of T cells - Cytotoxic T Cells and these cells themselves will attack the foreign agent (Here a Cell with a Surface Antigen) - it specifically attacks this invading/foreign cell and kills it

Immunoglobin Supergene C3 P24-25

The Variability or Specificity of Antibodies is determined by a Reassortment Process in the Immunoglobin Supergene Along this DNA we see the Immunoglobin Supergene —See a number of coding sequences / segments for different parts of the Antibody Molecule —What will happen in this process is the selection of different of these coding sequences and there combination or selection and incorporation into a gene or Messenger RNA (mRNA) that will code for a specific Antibody —We see these genes contained within the Supergene grouped above (A series of V genes, a series of D genes, and a series of J genes - Variable, Diversity, and Joining Genes) —We also see on the right a collection of genes that will encode the Constant Region

Challenges of Sexual Reproduction C4 P 4-5

There is a cost to achieving that variability in the gene pool in which Natural Selection Acts Sexual reproduction confers evolutionary advantage through chromosome mixing and recombination to provide variation in the phenotypes on which natural selection will act Challenges: (1) Locating a Mate —Can be easy or difficult depending on the species (2) Timing and Synchrony —Eggs and Sperm must be available at the same time and develop in synchrony —Can be seasonal (3) Energetics and Cost —Differences in the costs of producing Germ Cells - Egg cells are much larger than sperm cells and the cost of generating and producing that egg cell are far greater then producing a sperm cell —Protection and rearing the young - various among species - some may produce many offspring or many eggs that are fertilized by sperm and very little parental protection is given and many of those eggs may never succeed to adulthood compared to a situation where fewer eggs are produced and better protection is required

Mass Specific Metabolic Rate (AKA Metabolic Rate per Unit of Body Mass) C1 P14-19

This is an Allometric Equation - It relates Met Rate to the Mass of the Organism MR = aM^b where: —MR = Met Rate —M = Body Mass —b = the mass exponent Mass Specific Met Rate MR/M = aM^(-.025) or MR = aM^(0.75)

Regulation in Body Temperature when it exists, or in Poikilotherms where body temp is NOT regulated we see that....

Those temperature relations have effects on Metabolic Reaction Rates - Which are sensitive to BOTH (A) Temp through the Kinetic Energy of the Reactant Molecules and are sensitive to (B) Enzyme Effectiveness

Heavy and Light Chain C3 P26-27

Through this Process of Selection — of Recomination among these various classes of genes we see that an extremely large number of Antibodies can be generated in the different immune cells —One cell might recombine in one way , another cell will recombine in a different way and produce a slightly different shaped antibody molecule —In this way, a number of different immune cells are generated each recognizing a different molecular target or Antigen Target —Heavy Chain (Left) where we see V J and D segments —Light Chain (Right) contains only V and J segments When we combine all these different Recombination possibilities in the Heavy and Light Chain you can understand how the resulting structures can provide incredibly large numbers of different antigens

Internal and External Fertilization Methods Among Animals are Varied C4 P6-7

Top Figures: (1) Broad Cast Spawning —See this in Corals or other simple Multicellular organisms in Aquatic or Marine environments —Here in Reproduction, the males or females simply release into the water large numbers of gametes (eggs and sperm) and are mixed by the water current —Of those large numbers of eggs some will be fertilized and some smaller number of them will succeed to adulthood (3) Broad Cast Spawning - but here the Organism is much more complex and it includes specialized organs for the generation of the germ cells and may include also a system of ducts and glands and so fourth that convey and manage the germ cells that are produced prior to expulsion and Broad Cast Spawning Bottom two Figrues: Internal Fertilization - where the uncertainty of the egg and sperm mixing after release into the external environment is reduced by the deposition of sperm into the female body —Specialized Gonads (2) Internal Fertilization : Gametes DONT leave the body cavity fluid —Eggs and Sperm are released into the general body cavity of the female (4) Internal Fertilization : Gametes DO leave the body cavity via Specialized Reproductive Ducts —Rather than being simply released into the body cavity fluids (Coelomic Cavity of the organism) —We seen NOT ONLY the development of germ cells (Testes and Ovaries) but we also see a set of ducts for the conveyance of the Germ Cells to improve the delivery of those germ cells to a member of the opposite sex

Pathways C2 P10

Transient Direct Linkup of Cells - Juxtacrine Communication —Particularly in the Immune System where we have situations where Chemical molecules on one cell enter interact with a receptor on a Target Cell directly —There is Chemical Communication WITHOUT the secretion process Paracrine Secretion —Shows Secreting Cell and the LOCAL diffusional movement of the Chemical Mediator/Messenger to a Target Cell locally —Again, this target cell has receptors on the cell membrane Hormone Secretion: —Shows the Endocrine Cell releasing its product into the bloodstream and traveling to a distant target cell —As you can see in the figure, potentially all cells in the body have access to the hormone that has been delivered into the bloodstream, but NOT all cells in the body respond to that hormone —Only some cells respond and those are the cells that contain receptors on the cell surface (shown in Target Cell on the right) —There is a Non-Target cell on the left and this Cell does NOT express on its cell surface receptors for the Hormone and this tells us that this cell does not receive that Hormonal Signal Pheromonal Communication —Volatile Chemical Mediator is released by one individual and received by another —Reception would be through the Olfactory Epithelium where the chemical mediator binds to a specific receptor and that Olfactory Receptor in the Nasal System would transmit through Sensory Nerves that information to the Brain Neurohormone Secretion: —Have a Secreting Cell (in this case a Neuron) which has all of the Hallmarks of a typical Neuron (Cell body with a Dendritic Tree, Axon, Axon Terminal, Release of chemical messenger at the Axon Terminal) but Instead of a Synapse, that Hormone enters the bloodstream just as a typical Hormone would and circulate throughout the body and creating actions at target cells

Heat Exchange from the Tucan Bill Reveals a Controllable Vascualr Thermal Radiator C1 P67-68

Tucan - Shows a similar kind of System as the Rabbit does, but here it is referred to as a Thermal Radiator Cold Env = blood flow to beak is REDUCED and the temperature of the beak becomes similar to the Cold Env Temp to reduce heat loss from the body Warm End = More blood flow to the beak and beak discharges heat out to prevent overheating —This bird has a very large and highly vascularized Bill The set of Thermal Images below shows the Temp of the Bill in the Tucan's as a function of External Temperature (Temp Gradient b/w inside & outside) TOP —When the env temp is COLD (15C) whereas the birds temperature is about 40C) —In order to reduce heat loss from the warm body of the bird to the cold environment, blood flow to the beak is reduced —The adult beak is almost invisible when the outside temp is cold (15C) showing the LOW amounts of blood flow and the temp of the beak is reduced and comes very close to environmental temperature in the absence of blood flow BOTTOM - As the environmental temperature increases and the temperature Gradient b/w the outside world and the core body temp is reduced, the Tucan allows more blood to enter the Beak and we see that the beak temperature increases and at High env temps, the Beak now becomes a radiator for the loss or discharge of body heat So, the Beak can be used to retain body heat at LOW environmental temperatures, and become a Radiator or Discharge site for body heat at high environmental temperatures when the bird might be subjected to overheating

Billfish Heater Tissue - Regional Heterothermy Ex C1 P64-65

We see several avenues for Heat Production and thats exactly what this Billfish Heater Tissue does, generates heat locally in the eye socket to warm the eye Another Example of a Heat Generating Tissue —Billfishes include Sword Fishes and Marlin - these are Pelagic Fishes (open ocean fishes) —These predators hunt at depth so they may spend some of their time in surface waters and other time in deep cold waters for hunting - cold blooded animals In order to maintain visual acuity (have very large eyes that assist in light gathering and image formation in the deep ocean where light is limited) - diving in these deep depth waters require a large amount of ATP and energy to provision these eyes to function and at depth water is cold (Q10 effect on Metabolism at depth) —The solution for these billfish is to Warm the Eyes (Regional Heterothermy) - quite separate from the other body tissues, the eyes are Warmed to maintain their functional activity at depths of the Cold Ocean —The eyes are maintained by these Heater Organs/Tissues - modified muscle tissue located around the Eye (around the eye ball/within the eye socket) Figure above shows one cell of a Billfish Heater Tissue —Heater Tissues are modified muscle cells —Many of the same features - Ryanodine Receptor and Dihydropyridine Receptor that are important In translating an Action Potential in the Cell Membrane into the release of Calcium from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (2) —Although these Billfish Heater Tissues are derived from Muscle Tissue LACK the Actin and Myosin contractile apparatus Instead, what we see in these cells is that the stimulated release of Calcium is followed simply by the Sequestration or Reaccumulation of that Calcium into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum - then we see again through continued activity of this motor nerve the release of more Calcium and then the Sequestration - so we see a Cycling of Calcium release and Sequestration powered by the Calcium ATPase —This continuous cycling of calcium does nothing more than consume ATP and generate Heat (3) So, we see Heat Generation by this Calcium Pumping acitivity —We also see Heat production from the Mitochondria that constantly generates new ATP to power the Calcium transport

Humoral Immunity via B-Cells C3 P28-30

What Happens in Humoral Immunity via B cells (1) Begin with a population of B cells (cells that are developed in the bone without passage through the Thymus gland) and each of these B cells has selected and rearranged its Antibody Supergene in different ways so each of these specific B cells produces and delivers to its surface an Antibody with a different variable region and will recognize a different specific Antigen (2) Binding of the Antigen to the specific B cell activates the B cell and it proliferates and undergoes a transformation into a plasma cell (So from the B cells are derived these mature plasma cells that are proliferated from B cells) —The jobs of these plasma cells is to produce and secrete antibodies and the antibodies that are secreted are identical in stricture to that original antibody that recognized the Antigen (3) These Antibodies that are secreted form the Humoral Immunity Response and circulate In the bloodstream and are able to bind to Antigens present in the organism marking them for Destruction by Phagocytosis or if its a toxin these Antibodies will neutralize that toxin A few of the proliferated B cells become Memory Cells and they don't transform into plasma cells but persist in the body as Memory Cells and these cells give the Immune System Memory —In the case of a subsequent exposure to an Antigen these Memory Cells are available immediately to recognize the Antigen and begin production or transformation into plasma cells and production of Antibodies —This shortens the time to a specific Humoral Response upon subsequent exposure —The Memory Cells represent a clone of the Cell that initially stimulated at the beginning (first one) Summary See the presentation of an Antigen by its exposure to a Macrophage and the presentation of the digested parts of that Bacterium or Antigen to the T Helper cell with the T Helper cell then engaging in Activation of the B cell (the Helper cell presenting to the B cell) a part of that invading antigen or the B cell responding directly (previous slide) but by either mechanism we see Plasma Cell Formation and the Humoral Response and the Memory Cells

Brown Fat Thermogenesis C1 P61-63

White Adipose Tissue is specialized in Fat Storage - —it contains very few Mitochondria and it has consequently has a much lower capacity for Metabolic Activity and Heat production —White Adipose tissues is also distributed throughout the body and can act as an Insulating layer if located near the surface Brown Adipose Tissue - this is a specialized form of Adipose Tissues that are particularly effective in generating Heat —Brown Adipose Tissue is specialized in Fat Storage (as does White) —These cells are invested with LARGE numbers of Mitochondria and they have a larger blood supply and in this way they are suited for increased Metabolic Activity and they use Fat Reserves in the Fat Adipose Cells to fuel this Metabolic Activity which will result in Heat Production —Brown Adipose Tissue is located near Body Core (not throughout body —Brown Adipose tissue is more darkly colored than White Adipose Tissue and this reflects a difference in the biological functions of these two tissues (B) Humans Contain Brown Adipose Tissue as well —This is seen in infants and young humans this Brown Adipose Tissue is important in generating Heat and warming the body core —As the human grows in size the importance of the Brown Adipose Tissue ( iBAT ) is reduced (C) Brown Fat Cell Contains 1 Mitochondrion (out of many) —Indicated Fat Stores within the cell (Triglyceride) which is broken down into free Fatty Acids - this is the mobilization of stored fat and those Free FAs are Metabolized to generate the energy for ATP production —We see the process of Oxidative Phosphorylation and the Respiratory Chain and the energy in the proton gradient being used to generate ATP —This is the typical function of Mitochondria in generating ATP for the cell, in the case of Brown Fat Cells we see that this process is short-circuited by the action of a Protein called Thermogenin (UCP, Uncoupling Protein) —The function of the uncoupling protein is to dissipate the proton gradient that would normally be engaged to synthesize ATP and the dissipation of this proton gradient results in the production of Heat at the expense of ATP synthesis —So, Thyroid hormone stimulates the expression of this Thermogenin Uncoupling Protein, Oxidative Phosphorylation is uncoupled and energy is released largely as Heat rather than being captured as ATP —Brown Fat Cells can also be stimulated to produce Heat by nervous innervation - Sympathetic Nerve acting Brown Fat Cells - in fact represent a modified form of muscle cell —figure shows Embrological Origin —precursor cell on right develops into two muscle cells highly invested with Mitochondria (right) and another lineage that develops into brown fat (right) sharing with muscle cells this large composition of Mitochondria for the provision of Heat

Thermoregulation - Endothermic Homeotherm and the Thermoneutral Zone C1 P41

Within the Thermoneutral Zone, body temperature is regulated by low energetic cost mechanisms, such as changes in blood flow to the skin and changes in posture —This is the MINIMUM Metabolic Rate measured and this value that we measure corresponds to the Basal Metabolic Rate Within a narrow range of env temperatures called the Thermoneutral Zone, the Metabolic rates of Endotherms (birds and mammals) are at LOW levels and INDEPENDENT of environmental temperature —The metabolic rate of a RESTING Endotherm at a temperature within its Thermoneutral is its Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) —Below the lower critical temperature, the animal expends energy to produce metabolic heat —Above the upper critical temperature the animal expends energy to lose heat by panting or sweating At VERY COLD (LOW) Temps, Metabolic Rate falls and the animal will eventually freeze and die of Hypothermia b/c the cost of staying warm exceeds the capacity of the animal to generate heat —Body temp FALLS as a result At VERY HIGH Temps - the animals will begin to experience denaturation of proteins in the body (which include enzymes) —See a breakdown in the Biochemical System in the body in consequent to Denaturation of the proteins —Body temp RISES as a result

Animals that depend largely on external sources of heat to maintain body temperature are described ...

ectothermic.

Neatsfoot Oil C1 P 52

is a product from the Calves and Shines of the legs of Cattle —The oil that is collected from those extremities of the limbs contain Fatty Acids with HIGHER degrees of unsaturation —This Neatsfoot Oil remains a liquid at LOW Temperatures and it functions nicely in the oil treatment of leather products keeping them supple in the cold Temperatures

Two key functions of Vertebrate Gonads

— Germ Cell production (eggs and sperm) — Sex Steroid Production (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone This supports the development of reproductive tract and secondary sex characteristics - markings on the exterior of the organism that can serve in mate attraction

Androgen Signaling Pathway - An example of a Lipid Soluble Hormone Signaling Mechanism C2 P34-35

—(1) See on the left the Translocation of Testosterone across the Cell Membrane —(2) Once in the Interstitial Fluid there is a Molecular Transformation of the hormone and there is a reduction reaction that occurs to convert Testosterone into Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) —(3) The hormone then binds to its receptor in the Cytoplasm - the Androgen Receptor - and the formation of a Hormone-Receptor Complex —(4) We then see the Hormone Receptor Complex Translocated into the Nucleus where it interacts with the DNA to trigger gene Transcription which leads to the production of Messenger RNA (mRNA) and then Translation of that mRNA to a Protein and that Protein bringing about altered Cell function The specificity of the response is determined by the interaction of the Hormone-Receptor Complex with specific binding sites on the DNA which are referred to as Hormone Response Element (HRE) —It is this specific interaction of Hormone Receptor Complex with Hormone Response Element that targets the Hormones action to a Gene or a subset of Genes within the cell —These sorts of Mechanisms of Action that involve changes in Gene Expression are relatively SLOW in Onset - that is, after delivery of the hormone messenger, the time required for the Transcription, Translation, and Expression process could be 10s of minutes after the arrival of the hormone at the cell —Responses are also generally Sustained - that is, the newly synthesized protein will persist in the cell for some time before that protein is turned over or degraded So, the responses of cells to Lipid Soluble Hormones like Steroids are SLOWER in Onset and generally seen to be SUSTAINED in time Whereas the responses of the cells to Water Soluble Hormones (Epinephrine) are FASTER in Onset and response is TRANSIENT

ADH Stimulation of Collecting Duct Water Permeability C2 P24-25

—ADH = Antidiuretic Hormone (SAME AS Posterior Pituitary Nonapeptide Arginine vasopressin, AVP) —ADQ = Aquaporin water channel ADH Stimulation of Collecting Duct Water Permeability - Another example of Posterior Pituitary Hormone Action (ADH = AVP) Collecting Duct water Permeability Control by ADH and how this Effect of ADH on Water Permeability at Collecting Duct fits into a larger scheme of Hydromineral Regulation and the Homeostatic Control of Plasma Osmotic Pressure —Right - Collecting Duct —Blood Side of CD: Right of the figure shows some Red Blood Cells which are located within the Vasa Reca (capillary network) —Lumen: Left is the Lumen of the CD —Center Structure: One of the Epithelial Cells forming the wall of the collecting duct and are joined by tight junctions - this is a tight structure with limited/variable water permeability Permeability of the Collecting Duct Epithelium is determined by Antidiuretic Hormone and its action on the placement of Aquaporin Water Channels —Within the Epithelial Cell of the Collecting Duct are a number of vesicles and these contain Aquaporin Water Channels —We see many Aquaporin Water Channels on the blood side of the Epithelium in the Basolateral Membrane —Shows the Constitutive Synthesis and Deployment of Water Channels across the Basal Lateral Membrane —The Aquaporin Water Channels are always present in the Basal Lateral Membrane and form a pathway for water diffusion b/w the Interstitial Fluid on the Blood Side of the Epithelium with the Cytoplasmic Space of the Epithlia What controls water permeability across the Epithelium is the permeability to water of the Apical or Lumenal Membrane (Contains NO Aquaporin Water Channels) —In this situation the water permeability across the Collecting Duct will be LOW In the presence of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) it will bind to its receptor ( V2 Receptor ) on the Collecting Duct Target Cell triggers the migration of these vesicles containing Aquaporin Water Channels to the Luminal or Apical Membrane —The vesicles fuse with the Apical Membrane and that brings into the membrane the Aquaporin Water Channels contained within the vesicles (2) Shows the process of Migration and the installation of Water Channels (3) We see the installed Water Channels providing a pathway for the Osmotic Movement of Water from the Lumen of the renal tubule (location of the forming urine) into the Epithelial Cell then out the Epithelial Cell across the Basal Lateral Membrane —The movement of water Osmotically from the Lumen and the interstitial fluid on the blood side is driven by the Osmotic Gradient espiecailly the strong Osmotic Concentration and Gradient in the depths of the Medulla of the Kidney —This results in water being retrieved from the forming urine and inc the conc of the formed urine which increases blood volume

Behavioral Thermoregulation Ex - Lizard (amblyrhynchus cristatus) C1 P38

—An example of an organism for much of the day regulates its body temperature at a very stable temperature (35-40C) during the day —Often think of Lizards as Poikilotherms (Cold Blooded Animal) —Lizard spends nighttime in its burrow (for protection) and since its under-ground it has a stable temp of 15C —Exhibits this shuttling behavior to maintain this stable body temp and then at night time it returns to its burrow and body goes back down to 15C (protected from cold temps of night air) —Lizard leaves burrow in morning and when it gets to the surface it might find a warm rock to sit on or in the sun and that solar heat plus whatever heat is radiated/conducted from substrate will warm lizards body temp to about 35C and during the day the lizard will shuttle from shade and sun keeping its temp around the value of 35C - LIZARD IS NOT USING INTERNAL HEAT PRODUCTION TO DO THIS - Relying entirely on Solar Radiation or Radiation from objects around it and conduction from the warm ground and so-fourth —By elevating body temp through that exposure of the sun/sub bathing behavior - the Metabolic Reaction Rates in this Lizard will INCREASE by the Q10 effect and this lizard during the daytime hours can generate LARGE amount of ATP to fuel hunting and daytime activities

Examples of Chemical Communication and Endocrine Singaling C2 P1

—Castrated Singers (below) —Birth Control Pills can be applied to the Control of Ovulation and treatment of Acne —Pattern Baldness treatments for men and this product relies on a chemical reagent that interferes with normal testosterone signaling in this case in the body —Tear open cologne scent sampler cards in magazines such as ones that include Human Pheromone Component (one type of chemical messenger) Chemical Messengers act through receptors on target cells to alter functions of those target tissues (ex water permeability of renal collecting duct by ADH or Vasopressin from posterior pituitary gland - feedback) - interaction based on complementary structure of the ligand (binding hormone) and receptor and binding of ligand to receptor activates the response in target cell Renal ex - Osmotic pressure receptors in the hypothalamus sense the OP of the body fluids of blood and blood plasma if OP increases it is detected by the hypothalamus and antidiuretic hormone ADH is released and this increases water permeability in the renal duct and water is recovered from the forming urine and that water returning to the blood stream restores the Osmotic pressure to setpoint Our knowledge of Chem Com and End Sig has moved from the purely academic center into popular life

A problem that arises when the appendages/limbs are allowing to cool is that the cell membranes can become stiff (the fluidity of the membrane is reduced) C1 P49-52

—EX - Olive Oil which is fluid at room temperature but when placed in the cold it goes through a transformation and becomes a gel - a stiff material —See that same sort of challenges to cell membranes in the Cold - can experience difficulty in the cold (the opening / closing of ion channels is reduced and impair action potential conduction) —We see in the Cell Membranes or Nerve Cells and other cells in the legs that there is this Homeoviscous Membrane Adaptation - The composition of the lipids of the Fatty Acid Tails in the Membrane Lipids is changed - there are introduced double bonds or unsaturations in those Fatty-Acid Tails through synthesis of Membrane Lipids in the cold temperature —These unsaturations or Double Bonds of FA Tails introduce kinks in the structure of FA Tails and makes it more difficult for them to become aligned and gel or undergo that gel transition in the cold and this results in a more fluid membrane at colder temperatures

Epinephrine Signaling Pathway —An Example of a Water-Soluble Hormone Signaling Mechanism C2 P36-37

—Looking at the effect of Epinephrine (an Amine Hormone) —(1) Here we see the Receptor for Epinephrine located at the Cell Surface where it has easy access to Epinephrine in the Extracellular Fluid —(2) What we see in these Signaling Systems is that the Membrane Receptor and associated Proteins in the plasma membrane operate as a Transduction Mechanism to carry the Hormone Signal into the cell and to stimulate an Intracellular Cascade of response —There are a number of Proteins that couple the Extracellular Hormonal Signal Epinephrine from this internal chemical messenger Cyclic-AMP (cAMP) —(3) What we see happening in the cell following the production of Cyclic-AMP in response to Epinephrine binding to its receptor is the initiation of a signaling cascade that involves Protein Kinases —So the Cyclic AMP cAMP as a second or Intracellular Messenger will activate a Particular Kinase (here Protein Kinase A) where A is for cyclic -AMP cAMP —the activated Protein Kinase A will Phosphorylate substate proteins which can produce downstream effects —With the activated Protein, if the Phosphorylated Protein is for example a Metabolic Enzyme, we could have a change or activation of a Metabolic Pathway (such as Glycogen Breakdown) leading to altered Cell Function in the target cell In this sort of Signaling System the receptor is located at the cell surface and the cell is activated or responds through a Cascade of Kinase Enzymes we generally see that responses: —Are FASTER in Onset then we saw with the Genomic Expression Mechanism (Lipid Soluble Hormones) because this entire Transduction System is poised and ready to act as soon as Epinephrine Binds to its Receptor so the latency in this case isn't 10s of minutes but is only SECONDS (So Epinephrine binding can initiate in a target cell Glycogen Breakdown and the liberation of Glucose in a matter of Seconds!!! —Response is Transient - the Response can be terminated very quickly as well (Can be turned on and turned off quickly and very suited for dynamic regulation of Metabolic Pathways and other cellular Processes)

Mammal Sex Chromosomes C4 P15

—That early decision - the determination of Genetic Sex when the X and Y chromosomes meet or X and X meet, that decision is determined by the presence or absence of a particular Gene (SRY Gene) —The SRY Gene is the sex determining region on the Y chromosome and Is responsible for establishing the genetic sense —Males - X and Y join in the zygote and the SRY gene is on the Y chromosome —SRY Gene is PRESENT in MALES and ABSENT in FEMALES!!!! Shown is a picture of an X chromosome (LARGE) and a Y chromosome (SMALL) and carries a small number gene including the SRY gene including in some cases some other genes that will support or promote male features

Antibody Action (Humoral Response) C3 P20-21

—There are many branches in the Immune Response System and all of these involve Antibodies and Antibody Production in some way to specifically identify the foreign cell or object and then engage the Immune System in the destruction or Neutralization of that agent or cell Neutralization (TOP LEFT) —The binding reaction b/w the protein domains that provide the specificity for binding to a toxin and that binding reaction will neutralize the Toxin (loses its pathogenicity) Activation of Complement System (BOTTOM LEFT) - How an Antibody can Activate the Complement System —The foreign cell shown in yellow which presents on a surface some specific Molecular Marker that will be recognized by an Antibody specifically —The tail of the Antibody (constant region) interacts with Complement (C1 Complement Protein) and this interaction begins the aggregation of the various Complement Proteins to form a Membrane Attack Complex at this bacterium —Here is a case where Complement is engaged in response to a Antibody recognizing a foreign cell Agglutination (TOP RIGHT) —Antibodies can cause Agglutination - Clumping of foreign cells —Antibodies are Y shaped and contain 2 Antigen binding sites - the Y-shaped branching can couple one foreign cell to another by binding an Antigen to each of the cells —With a large number of Antibodies we get this Agglutination or Clumping reaction by the foreign cells Enhancement of Phagocytes - Opsonization (MIDDLE RIGHT) —How Phagocytes can recognize and find Bacteria that have been marked with Antibodies —The Phagocyte in turn recognizes the stem or tail - the Constant Region - of the Antibody and sees that as a target and attacks the entire bacterial cell plus antibody complex —In this way the Antibody marks the foreign cell for attack by the Phagocyte Stimulation of Killer Cells - BOTTOM RIGHT —A Killer Cell is a particular type of Immune Cell that expresses an Antibody and locates and kills a bacterium directly