UNG Sociology Test 2

Leadership

Types of Leaders - Instrumental - Expressive Leadership Style - Authoritarian - Democratic - Laissez-faire

Ethnomethodology:

Uncovering Background Assumptions Exploring Background Assumptions a perspective within sociology which focuses on the way people make sense of their everyday life. People are seen as rational actors, but employ practical reasoning rather than formal logic to make sense of and function in society. a theoretical approach in sociology based on the belief that you can discover the normal social order of a society by disrupting it. the study of methods people use for understanding and producing the social order in which they live. It generally seeks to provide an alternative to mainstream sociological approaches All of us have background assumptions, deeply ingrained assumptions of how the world operates. What different background assumptions do you think are operating here? If the annual "No Pants! Subway Ride" gains popularity, will background assumptions for this day change?

Primary Groups

Family and Friends Produce a Mirror Within The outstanding trait that these three people have in common does not make them a group, but a category. Primary groups such as the family play a key role in the development of the self. As a small group, the family also serves as a buffer from the often-threatening larger group known as society. The family has been of primary significance in forming the basic orientations of this couple, as it will be for their son.

Global Stratification and the Status of Females

Gender is Basis of Social Stratification

Global Consequences of Group Dynamics:

Groupthink Collective Tunnel Vision

The Sociological Significance of Social Structure

Guides Our Behavior Behavior Decided by Location in Social Structure

Strain Theory

How Mainstream Values Produce Deviance theory that deviance is more likely to occur when a gap exists between cultural goals and the ability to achieve these goals by legitimate means Merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals

What Is Deviance?

How Norms Make Social Life Possible Sanctions Competing Explanations of Deviance: Sociobiology, Psychology, and Sociology I took this photo on the outskirts of Hyderabad, India. Is this man deviant? If this were a U.S. street, he would be. But here? No houses have running water in his neighborhood, and the men, women, and children bathe at the neighborhood water pump. This man, then, would not be deviant in this culture. And yet, he is actually mugging for my camera, making the three bystanders laugh. Does this additional factor make this a scene of deviance? A Pokot married woman, Kenya. Violating background assumptions is a common form of deviance. Although we have no explicit rule that says, "Do not put snakes through your nose," we all know that it exists (perhaps as a subcategory of "Don't do strange things in public"). Is this act also deviant for this man in Chennai, India?

Thomas Theorem

If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences example - child's perception about existence of ghosts will keep him awake at night even though they don't exist

Social Structure

- Culture - Social Class - Social Status - Roles - Groups - Social Institutions

Goffman's Dramaturgy

-social life is similar to a play - behavior depends on time, place, and audience. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Impression Management Stages Role Performance, Conflict, and Strain Sign-Vehicles Teamwork Becoming the Roles we Play In dramaturgy, a specialty within sociology, social life is viewed as similar to the theater. In our everyday lives, we all are actors. Like those in the cast of The Big Bang Theory, we, too, perform roles, use props, and deliver lines to fellow actors—who, in turn, do the same All of us contrast the reality we see when we look in the mirror with our culture's ideal body types. The thinness craze, discussed in this box, encourages some people to extremes, as with Zoe Saldana. It also makes it difficult for larger people to have positive self-images. Overcoming this difficulty, Rebel Wilson is in the forefront of promoting an alternative image. Both individuals and organizations do impression management, trying to communicate messages about the self (or organization) that best meets their goals. At times, these efforts fail.

Davis and Moore's Explanation

1) society must make certain that its positions are filled. 2)some positions are more important than others. 3)the more important positions must be filled by the more qualified people. 4)to motivate the more qualified people to fill these positions society must offer them greater rewards

Social Institutions

A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose. These institutions are a part of the social order of society and they govern behavior and expectations of individuals. the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs

Through the Author's LensHelping a Stranger

As I was walking in Vienna, a city of almost 2 million people, I heard a crashing noise behind me. I turned, and seeing that a man had fallen to the sidewalk, quickly snapped this picture. You can see strangers beginning to help the man. This photo was taken about three seconds after the man fell. Two strangers are helping the man, with another two ready to pitch in. They have all stopped whatever they were doing to help a man they did not know. The man is now on his feet, but still a bit shaky. The two who have helped him up are still expressing their concern, especially the young woman. By this point, the police officer has noticed that I have been taking photos. You can see him coming toward me, his hand on whatever he is carrying at his hip, his shoulders back, glowering and ready for a confrontation. He asked, "What are you doing?" I said, "I am taking pictures" (as though he couldn't see this). He asked, "Do you have to take pictures of this man?" I said, "Yes," and hoping to defuse the situation, added, "I'm a sociologist, and I'm documenting how people help each other in Vienna." He grunted and turned away. This photo really completes the series, as this individual was acting as the guardian of the community, placing a barrier of protection around the participants in this little drama. Adolf Hitler, shown here in Nuremberg in 1938, was one of the most influential—and evil—persons of the twentieth century. Why did so many people follow Hitler? This question stimulated research by Stanley Milgram (discussed in the text on pages 165-166).

Social Class

Based on income, education, and occupational prestige Interests shared among people of same social class Social class and social status are significant factors in social life. Fundamental to what we become, they affect our orientations to life. Can you see how this photo illustrates this point?

Deviance

Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society the recognized violation of cultural norms

Roles

Behaviors, Obligations, and Privileges Attached to a Status

Macrosociology

Broad features of society emphasizes the analysis of social systems and populations on a large scale, at the level of social structure, and often at a necessarily high level of theoretical abstraction Sociologists use both macro and micro levels of analysis to study social life. Those who use macrosociology to analyze the homeless (or any human behavior) focus on broad aspects of society, such as the economy and social classes.

Goal Displacement and the Perpetuation of Bureaucracies

Bureaucracies may take on a life of their own Goal displacement The March of Dimes was founded by President Franklin Roosevelt in the 1930s to fight polio. When a vaccine for polio was discovered in the 1950s, the organization did not declare victory and disband. Instead, its leaders kept the organization intact by creating new goals—first "fighting birth defects," and now "stronger, healthier babies." Sociologists use the term goal displacement to refer to this process of adopting new goals.

Slavery

Causes Conditions Bonded Labor Slavery in the New World Slavery Today The Mulleta family of Ethiopia, described in the opening vignette. A slave market in Marrakesh, Morocco. This lithograph is from the 1800s.

Class

Class System More Open Social Mobility In early industrialization, children worked alongside adults. They worked 12 hours a day Monday to Friday and 15 hours on Saturday, often in dangerous, filthy conditions. This photo was taken in 1908 at a West Virginia coal mine.

The Conflict Perspective

Class, Crime, and the Criminal Justice System The Criminal Justice System as an Instrument of Oppression looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists don't see these factors as positive functions of society. They see them as evidence of inequality in the system. In early capitalism, children worked alongside adults. At that time, just as today, most street criminals came from the marginal working class, as did the children shown in this 1911 yarn mill in Yazoo City, Mississippi. The cartoonist's hyperbole makes an excellent commentary on the social class disparity of our criminal justice system. Not only are the crimes of the wealthy not as likely to come to the attention of authorities as are the crimes of the poor, but when they do, the wealthy can afford legal expertise that the poor cannot.

How Did the World's Nations Become Stratified?

Colonialism World System Theory Culture of Poverty Evaluating the Theories Homeless people sleeping on the streets is a common sight in India's cities. I took this photo in Chennai (formerly Madras).

Strains in the Global System

Contradictions Threaten Failure or Collapse

The Functionalist View: Motivating Qualified People

Davis and Moore's Explanation Tumin's Critique Venus and Serena Williams at the award ceremony at the Olympic Games in London. To determine the social class of athletes as highly successful as the Williams sisters presents a sociological puzzle. With their high prestige and growing wealth, what do you think their social class is? Why?

Mechanical Solidarity

Durkheim used the term mechanical solidarity to refer to the shared consciousness that develops among people who perform similar tasks. the social cohesiveness of small, undifferentiated societies based on homogeneity and similarity the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a "collective conscience" that works internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. According to Durkheim, small, early societies are characterized by mechanical solidarity because there is very little division of labor (meaning, there aren't too many different jobs), people rely on kinship networks, and most people kind of do the same job. In other words, these societies are not very complex. Mechanical solidarity holds these societies together, and we are bound by our sameness. Can you see from this photo why this term applies so well to small farming groups, why they share such similar views about life? This photo was taken in Virginia.

Effects of Group Size on Stability and Intimacy

Dyad: Two People Triad: Three People - Stability - Coalitions More Group Members More Stability Group size has a significant influence on how people interact. When a group changes from a dyad (two people) to a triad (three people), the relationships among the participants undergo a shift. How do you think the birth of this child affected the relationship between the mother and father? Dyad - 1 relationship Triad - 3 Four - 6 Five - 10 Six - 15 Seven - 21

Group Dynamics

Effects of Group Size on Stability and Intimacy Effects of Group Size on Attitudes and Behavior Leadership The Power of Peer Pressure: The Asch Experiment The Power of Authority: The Milgram Experiment Global Consequences of Group Dynamics: Groupthink / Tunnel Vision

Reference Groups

Evaluate Ourselves Family, Neighbors, Teachers, Classmates All of us have reference groups—the groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves. How do you think the reference groups of these members of the KKK who are demonstrating in Jaspar, Texas, differ from those of the police officer who is protecting their right of free speech? Although the KKK and this police officer use different groups to evaluate their attitudes and behaviors, the process is the same.

The Need for Both Macrosociology and Microsociology

In order to have full view of social life, we must use both It is important to use both microsociology and macrosociology when studying society because we need to understand both the broader trends of society, and the ways in which individuals interact with one another. If we only use one or the other, we do not get a full picture of what a society is like.

Effects of Group Size on Attitudes and Behavior

Increase in Size Increases Formality Increase in Size Diffuses Responsibility

Caste

India's Religious Caste South Africa U.S. Racial Caste System During my research in India, I interviewed this 8-year-old girl. Mahashury is a bonded laborer who was exchanged by her parents for a 2,000 rupee loan (about $14). To repay the loan, Mahashury must do construction work for one year. She will receive one meal a day and one set of clothing for the year. Because this centuries-old practice is now illegal, the master bribes Indian officials, who inform him when they are going to inspect the construction site. He then hides his bonded laborers. I was able to interview and photograph Mahashury because her master was absent the day I visited the construction site. Table 7.1 India's Caste System In a caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong. At birth, these women received not only membership in a lower caste but also, because of their gender, a predetermined position in that caste. When I photographed these women, they were carrying sand to the second floor of a house being constructed in Andhra Pradesh, India. This woman in New Delhi, India, is protesting the lack of prosecution of rapists.

What Determines Social Class?

Karl Marx: The Means of Production Max Weber: Property, Power, and Prestige

Bureaucracies

Large administrative agencies reflecting a hierarchical authority, job specialization, and rules and regulations that drive them

Secondary Groups

Larger, Formal, and Impersonal May Transform into Primary Groups Secondary groups are larger and more anonymous, formal, and impersonal than primary groups. Why are these cyclists lined up at the start of a race an example of a secondary group? Aggregates are people who happen to be in the same place at the same time. How our participation in social groups shapes our self-concept is a focus of symbolic interactionists. In this process, knowing who we are not is as significant as knowing who we are.

Levels of Sociological Analysis

Macrosociology Microsociology

Karl Marx

Means of Production Bourgeoisie Proletariat Class Consciousness False Class Consciousness These photos illustrate the contrasting worlds of social classes produced by early capitalism. The photo on the left was taken in 1911 at a canning factory in Port Royal, South Carolina. The two girls on the left are 6 years old; the one on the right is 10. They worked full time shucking oysters and did not go to school. The photo on the right was taken in the late 1800s. The children on the right, Cornelius and Gladys Vanderbilt, are shown in front of their parents' estate. They went to school and did not work. You can see how the social locations illustrated in these photos would have produced different orientations to life and, therefore, politics, ideas about marriage, values, and so on—the stuff of which life is made.

What Holds Society Together?

Mechanical and Organic Solidarity Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

The Conflict Perspective: Class Conflict and Scarce Resources

Mosca's Argument Marx's Argument Current Applications of Conflict Theory Table 7.2 Functionalist and Conflict Views of Stratification:

Maintaining Global Stratification

Neocolonialism Multinational Corporations Technology and Global Domination

Culture

Our shared culture makes us similar to one another and makes other people seem "different"

Groups

People who Interact and Share Values and Interests

Groups within Society

Primary Groups Secondary Groups In-Groups and Out-Groups Reference Groups Social Networks

Max Weber

Property Power Prestige Combination Figure 7.2 Weber's Three Components of Social Class Prestige can sometimes be converted into property. Shown here is "Snooki" Polizzi, a reality television star, in one of her attempts to do this.

Dysfunctions of Bureaucracies

Red Tape Lack of Communication Between Units Bureaucratic Alienation Resisting Alienation The Alienated Bureaucrat Bureaucratic Incompetence - Peter Principle Technology has changed our lives fundamentally. The connection to each telephone call used to have to be made by hand. As in this 1939 photo from London, England, these connections were made by women. Long-distance calls, with their numerous hand-made connections, not only were slow, but also expensive. In 1927, a call from New York to London cost $25 a minute. In today's money, this comes to $300 a minute! How is this worker trying to avoid becoming a depersonalized unit in a bureaucratic-economic machine?

The Global Superclass

Richest 1,000 Have More Wealth than the 2.5 Billion Poorest People Figure 7.1 The Distribution of the Earth's Wealth

Self-Fulfilling Stereotypes in the "Hidden" Corporate Culture

Self-Fulfilling Stereotypes and Promotions Bureaucracies have their dysfunctions and can be slow and even stifling. Most, however, are highly functional in uniting people's efforts toward reaching goals.

The Characteristics of Bureaucracies

Separate levels, with assignments flowing downward and accountability flowing upward A division of labor Written rules Written communications and records Impersonality and replacability When people learn of opportunities, they share this information with their networks. Opportunities then flow to people whose characteristics are similar to theirs.

Systems of Social Stratification

Slavery Caste Estate Class Global Stratification and the Status of Females The Global Superclass

Social Networks

Social Network - People Linked to One Another Six Degrees of Separation The smallest part of social networks is our friends and acquaintances, the people we hang out with and do things together. This part of our social networks overlaps with and forms a core part of our reference groups. From these two photos, can you see how the reference groups and social networks of these youths are not likely to lead them to the same social destination?

Comparative Social Stratification

Social Stratification in Great Britain Social Stratification in the Former Soviet Union

Changes in Social Structure

Social Structure is Not Static Social structure changes characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behaviour, social organizations, or value systems.

Microsociology

Social interactions Sociologists use both macro and micro levels of analysis to study social life. Sociologists who use the microsociological approach analyze how people interact with one another. This photo illustrates social structure (the disparities between power and powerlessness are amply evident). It also illustrates the micro level (the isolation of this man).

How Do Elites Maintain Stratification?

Soft Control Versus Force - Controlling People's Ideas - Controlling Information - Stifling Criticism - Big Brother Technology Shown here is Pope Leo III crowning Charlemagne king of the Franks in 800.

Social Status

Status - Position one occupies - Provides guidelines for how to act and feel Status Sets Ascribed and Achieved Statuses Status Symbols Status Inconsistency Master statuses are those that overshadow our other statuses. Shown here is Stephen Hawking, who is severely disabled by Lou Gehrig's disease. For some, his master status is that of a person with disabilities. Because Hawking is one of the greatest physicists who has ever lived, however, his outstanding achievements have given him another master status, that of a world-class physicist in the ranking of Einstein.

Symbolic Interaction

Stereotypes in Everyday Life Personal Space Eye Contact Smiling Body Language Applied Body Language How people use space as they interact is studied by sociologists who have a microsociological focus. What do you seen in common in these two photos? Based on the experiments summarized here, how do you think women would modify their interactions if they were to meet these two men? And if men were to meet these two men, would they modify their interactions in the same way?

Reactions to Deviance

Street Crime and Prisons The Decline in Violent Crime Recidivism The Death Penalty and Bias The Trouble with Official Statistics The Medicalization of Deviance: Mental Illness The Need for a More Humane Approach Figure 6.2 How Much Is Enough? The Explosion in the Number of U.S. Prisoners Table 6.3 Comparing Prison Inmates with the U.S. Population Figure 6.4 Recidivism by Type of Crime Figure 6.5 Executions in the United States Figure 6.6 Who Gets Executed? Gender Bias in Capital Punishment Ted Bundy is shown here on trial in Miami for killing two women, both college students. You can get a glimpse of his charm and wit and how, like most serial killers, he blended in with society. Bundy was executed for his murders. People whose behaviors violate norms are often called mentally ill. "Why else would they do such things?" is a common response to deviant behaviors that we don't understand. Mental illness is a label that contains the assumption that there is something wrong "within" people that "causes" their disapproved behavior. The surprise with this man, who changed his legal name to "Scary Guy," is that he speaks at schools across the country, where he promotes acceptance, awareness, love, and understanding. Mental illness is common among the homeless. This photo was taken in Boston, but it could have been taken in any large city in the United States.

Lenski's Synthesis

Surplus is the Key Functionalism applies to societies that don't accumulate surplus, like hunting and gathering. Conflict applies to societies that accumulate surplus.

The Microsociological Perspective: Social Interaction in Everyday Life

Symbolic Interaction Dramaturgy: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life Ethnomethodology: Uncovering Background Assumptions Social Construction of Reality For Your Consideration: If you had been reared in an Amish family, how would your ideas, attitudes, and behaviors be different? What do you like and dislike about Amish life? Why?

Technology and the Control of Workers: Toward a Maximum-Security Society

Technology allows bosses to monitor millions of workers As part of our developing surveillance society, our government is accumulating images of faces. The goal is to have the faces of all citizens and residents in government computerized files so any person can be identified immediately by face recognition software, even if the individual is just one in a crowd of thousands.

The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life

The American sociologist Erving Goffman presented the dramaturgical perspective in the 1959 book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. In it, Goffman uses the metaphor of theatrical production to offer a way of understanding human interaction and behavior. Within this perspective, social life is a "performance" carried out by "teams" of participants in three places: "front stage," "back stage," and "off stage."

Why Is Social Stratification Universal?

The Functionalist View: Motivating Qualified People The Conflict Perspective: Class Conflict and Scarce Resources Lenski's Synthesis

Global Stratification: Three Worlds

The Most Industrialized Nations The Industrializing Nations The Least Industrialized Nations Modifying the Model Table 7.3 Distribution of the World's Land and Population Figure 7.3 Global Stratification: Income of the World's Nations (1 of 2) Homeless woman with her possessions on a park bench in Beverly Hills, California. The contrast between poverty and wealth is characteristic of all contemporary societies. Table 7.4 An Alternative Model of Global Stratification Four Worlds of Stratification Most Industrialized Nations Industrializing Nations Least Industrialized Nations Oil-rich, nonindustrialized nations

Through the Author's LensThe Dump People: Working and Living and Playing in the City Dump of Phnom Penh, Cambodia (1 of 10)

The children who live in the dump also play there. These children are riding bicycles on a "road," a packed, leveled area of garbage that leads to their huts. The huge stacks in the background are piled trash. Note the ubiquitous Nike. After the garbage arrives by truck, people stream around it, struggling to be the first to discover something of value. To sift through the trash, the workers use metal picks, like the one this child is holding. Note that children work alongside the adults. This is a typical sight—family and friends working together. The trash, which is constantly burning, contains harmful chemicals. Why do people work under such conditions? Because they have few options. It is either this or starve. One of my many surprises was to find food stands in the dump. Although this one primarily offers drinks and snacks, others serve more substantial food. One even has broken chairs salvaged from the dump for its customers. The people live at the edge of the dump, in homemade huts (visible in the background). This woman, who was on her way home after a day's work, put down her sack of salvaged items to let me take her picture. She still has her pick in her hand. I was surprised to learn that ice is delivered to the dump. This woman is using a hand grinder to crush ice for drinks for her customers. The customers, of course, are other people who also live in the dump. At the day's end, the workers wash at the community pump. This hand pump serves all their water needs—drinking, washing, and cooking. There is no indoor plumbing. The weeds in the background serve that purpose. Can you imagine drinking water that comes from below this garbage dump? Not too many visitors to Phnom Penh tell a cab driver to take them to the city dump. The cabbie looked a bit perplexed, but he did as I asked. Two cabs are shown here because my friends insisted on accompanying me. I know my friends were curious themselves, but they had also discovered that the destinations I want to visit are usually not in the tourist guides, and they wanted to protect me. Note the smoke from the smoldering garbage. A worker at the Delphi Automotive maquiladora in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico. She is assembling a dashboard harness for GM cars. Inside the the home of a maquiladora worker.

Diversity in the Workplace

The cultural and racial-ethnic diversity of today's work force has led to the need for diversity training.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Theory that distinguishes between two groups; communities (Gemeinschaften), which share beliefs, ancestry, or geography; and society (Gesellschaften), which work together toward a common goal. The warm, more intimate relationships of Gemeinschaft society are apparent in the photo taken at this weekly market in Myanmar. The more impersonal relationships of Gesellschaft society are evident in this Internet cafe in Seattle, where customers are ignoring one another.

Examples

This Russian godfather is leaving a Moscow court just after he was acquitted of a double murder. Do you understand how the definitions of deviance that Mafia members use underlie their behavior? The social control of deviance takes many forms, including the actions of the police. Shown here is a tug-of-war between police and sit-down protestors at a rally in Belfast, Ireland. This 19-year-old in Wisconsin was given a reduced jail sentence for holding this sign in front of his former place of work. While most people resist labels of deviance, some embrace them. In what different ways do these photos illustrate the embracement of deviance? Stereotypes, both positive and negative, help to form the perception and reaction of authorities. What stereotypes come to mind when you look at this photo?

When a Tornado Strikes: Social Organization Following a Natural Disaster

To help his students understand the term generalized other, Mead used baseball as an illustration. Why are team sports and organized games excellent examples to use in explaining this concept? For children, family photos are not as important as toys. This girl has managed to salvage a favorite toy, which will help anchor her to her previous life. After making sure that their loved ones are safe, one of the next steps people take is to recover their possessions. The cooperation that emerges among people, as documented in the sociological literature on natural disasters, is illustrated here. In addition to the inquiring sociologist, television teams also were interviewing survivors and photographing the damage. This was the second time in just three years that a tornado had hit this neighborhood. Formal organizations also help the survivors of natural disasters recover. In this neighborhood, I saw representatives of insurance companies, the police, the fi re department, and an electrical co-op. The Salvation Army brought meals to the neighborhood. No building or social institution escapes a tornado as it follows its path of destruction. Just the night before, members of this church had held evening worship service. After the tornado, someone mounted a U.S. flag on top of the cross, symbolic of the church members' patriotism and religiosity—and of their enduring hope. The owners of this house invited me inside to see what the tornado had done to their home. In what had been her dining room, this is trying to salvage whatewomanver she can from the rubble. She and her family survive by taking refuge in the bathroom. They had been there only five seconds, she said, when the tornado struck. Like electricity and gas, communications need to be restored as soon as possible.

Through the Author's LensVienna:Social Structure and Social Interaction

Vienna provides a mixture of the old and the new. Stephan's Dom (Cathedral) dates back to 1230, the carousel to now. And what would Vienna be without its wieners? The word wiener actually comes from the name Vienna, which is Wien in German. Wiener means "from Vienna." The main square in Vienna, Stephan Platz, provides a place to have a cup of coffee, read the newspaper, enjoy the architecture, or just watch the hustle and bustle of the city. Part of the pull of the city is its offering of rich culture. I took this photo at one of the many operas held in Vienna each night. In the appealing street cafes of Vienna, social structure and social interaction are especially evident. Can you see both in this photo? The city offers something for everyone, including unusual places for people to rest and to talk and to flirt with one another And what would Vienna be without its world-famous beers? The city's entrepreneurs make sure that the beer is within easy reach. To be able to hang out with friends, not doing much, but doing it in the midst of stimulating sounds and sights—this is the vibrant city.

Out-groups

We feel antagonism "Them"

In-Groups

We feel loyalty Shape our perception of right and wrong "Us"

The Milgram Experiment

a series of notable social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram in the 1960s. It measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience. The Power of Authority Milgram found that participants would "hurt" strangers by following the authority of the scientist In the 1960s, social psychologists did highly creative but controversial experiments. This photo, taken during Stanley Milgram's experiment, should give you an idea of how convincing the experiment was to the "teacher."

The Asch Experiment

a series of studies published in the 1950s that demonstrated the power of conformity in groups. experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong The Power of Peer Pressure: Conformity Experiment in Which Respondents Often Conformed to a Group of Strangers The cards used by Solomon Asch in his classic experiment on group conformity

Differential Association Theory

a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance theory that individuals learn deviance in proportion to number of deviant acts they are exposed to - Families - Friends, Neighborhoods, and Subcultures - Prison or Freedom?

Peter Principle

an observation that the tendency in most organizational hierarchies, such as that of a corporation, is for every employee to rise in the hierarchy through promotion until they reach the levels of their respective incompetence.

Illegitimate Opportunity Structures

circumstances that provide an opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve through legitimate channels how social class is related to crime the rules that operate within deviant subcultures. Social Class and Crime - Street Crime vs. White-Collar Crime In a criminal subculture, youth learn to use crime for material gain. In a conflict subculture, youth learn to form gangs as a way to express frustration about the lack of normative opportunity structures in their neighborhood

The Functionalist Perspective on Deviance

deviance can be functional for society, Can Deviance Really be Functional for Society? Strain Theory: Illegitimate Opportunity Structures: Every society has boundaries that divide what is considered socially acceptable from what is not acceptable. This woman in Great Britain is challenging those boundaries. Table 6.1 How People Match Their Goals to Their Means For Your Consideration:What functions do gangs fulfill (what needs do they meet)? Suppose that you have been hired as an urban planner for the city of Los Angeles. How could you arrange to meet the needs that gangs fulfill in ways that minimize violence and encourage youth to follow mainstream norms? Figure 6.1 How Safe is Your State? Violent Crime in the United States Note: Violent crimes are murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. I estimated Minnesota's rate, based on earlier data and reduced rates since then. The chance of becoming a victim of a violent crime is five times higher in Tennessee, the most dangerous state, than in Maine, the safest state. Washington, D.C., not a state, is in a class by itself. Its rate of 1,202 is ten times higher than Maine's rate. Table 6.2 Women and Crime: What a Change

three theories of deviance

differential association, control, and labeling

Mosca's Argument

every society will be stratified by power

instrumental leadership

group leadership that focuses on the completion of tasks

Expressive leadership

group leadership that focuses on the group's well-being

Control Theory

in individual's own sense of right and wrong, decrease the likelihood that one will deviate from social norms. Through external means of control, individuals conform because an authority figure threatens sanctions if the individual disobeys. Internal control (self conscious) + external control the view that people refrain from deviant behavior because diverse factors control their impulses to break social norms. A view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society's norms. theory that compliance with social norms requires strong bonds between individuals and society

Conflict Theorists / Perspective

interprets society as a struggle for power between groups engaging in conflict for limited resources. Karl Marx is the founder of conflict theory. believe men have historically had access to most of society's material resources and privileges. Therefore, it is in their interest to try to maintain their dominant position. Small Group holds Majority of Wealth Preserve the Status Quo

Gemeinschaft

often translated as community—refers to groupings based on a feeling of togetherness. may by exemplified by a family or a neighborhood community a type of social organization in which people are closely tied by kinship and tradition sociological categories introduced by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies for two types of human association. Gemeinschaft is found in small social structures such as the family, tribe, or village where human relationships are prized and the welfare of the whole has precedence over the individual.

Gesellschaft

often translated as society—on the other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by an instrumental goal. may by exemplified by a business or a nation. a type of society that is dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and self-interest Industrial societies, on the other hand, are characterized by Gesellschaft, where human associations are governed by rationality and self-interest.

Estate

social class synonymous with Feudalism. The feudal estates had three important characteristics .In the first place they were legally defined; each estate had a status with legal rights and duties, privileges and obligations. france under the Ancien Régime (before the French Revolution) divided society into three estates: the First Estate (clergy); the Second Estate (nobility); and the Third Estate (commoners). The king was considered part of no estate.

Organic Solidarity

societies differentiated by a relatively complex division of labour based on interdependence Durkheim argues that societies move from mechanical to organic solidarity through the division of labor. social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one another's services. In a society characterized by organic solidarity, there is relatively greater division of labour, with individuals functioning much like the interdependent but differentiated organs of a living body. Society relies less on imposing uniform rules on everyone and more on regulating the relations between different groups and persons, often through the greater use of contracts and laws. Durkheim comes from a perspective of social theory known as functionalism. This perspective considers how society functions as different parts that make up a whole. In this perspective, society functions like a biological organism. We need order and consensus to maintain this system. social cohesion based on difference and interdependence of the parts a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences social interdependency based on a high degree of specialization in roles

Tumin's Critique of Davis and Moore

stratification is dysfunctional, competitions and tensions 1. How do you judge which jobs are more valuable than others? 2. If it were true then society would be a meritocracy, but money is the biggest determinant. 3. It is dysfunctional for many people

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

the sociological approach that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups

Social Construction of Reality

the use of background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real the process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction Thomas Theorem

group dynamics

the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals

functionalists perspective

theoretical perspective that views society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a stable social system views society as a peaceful unit, Replacing Members Socializing New Members Producing and Distributing Goods and Services Preserving Order Providing a Sense of Purpose have identified functional requisites for the survival of society. One, providing a sense of purpose, is often met through religious groups. To most people, snake handling, as in this church service in Kingston, Georgia, is nonsensical. From a functional perspective, however, it makes a great deal of sense. Can you identify its sociological meanings?

Labeling Theory

theory that society creates deviance by identifying particular members as deviant the idea that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them, and their reactions to those labels over time form the basis of their self-identity

White-collar crime

usually involves only the loss of property, but not always. To save money, Ford executives kept faulty Firestone tires on their Explorers. The cost? The lives of over 200 people. Shown here in Houston is one of their victims. She survived a needless accident, but was left a quadriplegic. Not one Ford executive spent even a single day in jail.

ideal bureaucracy

weber's model that is characterized by a hierarchy of authority and a system of rules and procedures designed to create an optimally effective system for large organizations