Unit 3: States of Consciousness

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Babies exposed to alcohol in the womb can develop fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs). These disorders include a wide range of physical, behavioral, and learning problems. The most severe type of FASD is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). It is caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy.

Anton Mesmer

Believed that the healing of physical ailments came from manipulation of people's bodily fluids. His technique of mesmerism was used with hypnotism. 1ST HYPNOTIST

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Bright morning light tweaks the circadian clock by activating light-sensitive retinal proteins.These proteins control the circadian clock by triggering signals to the brain's SCN- a pair of grain of rice sized, 10,000-cell clusters in the hypothalamus. The SCN does its job in part by causing the brain's pineal gland to decrease its production of sleep inducing hormone melatonin in the morning. SCN --- Stay awake -pineal gland decreases melatonin -chain reaction triggered by darkness that causes secretion. -sunlight inhibits release of melatonin (SCN stops)

Cognitive Development Theory of Dreams

Dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development-- their knowledge and understanding (Does not address the neuroscience of dreams). See dreams as part of brain maturation and cognitive development. Unlike the idea that dreams arise from bottom-up brain activation, the cognitive perspective emphasizes our mind's top down control of our dream content. Ex: Before 9, dreams are more like slide show and less like an active story in which dreamer is an actor. Dreams overlap with waking cognition and feature coherent speech. they stimulate reality by drawing on our concepts and knowledge.

Information processing theory of dreams

Dreams help us sort the day's events and consolidate our memories. (But why do we sometimes dream about things we have not experienced?) The information-processing perspective proposes that dreams may help sift, sort, and fix the day's experiences in our memory. Some studies support this view. Brain scans confirm the link between REM sleep and memory. A night of solid sleep (and dreaming) has an important place in our lives. To sleep, perchance to remember.

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Pupils dilate, heart and breathing rate increases, and blood sugar levels rise, causing a drop in appetite. Energy and self-confidence also rise. People use stimulants to feel alert, lose weight, or boost mood or athletic performance. Unfortunately, stimulants can be addictive. -increase central nervous system activity and speed up body functions; trigger sympathetic nervous system BOOST MOOD TO SUCH HIGH LEVELS THAT DON'T HAPPEN NATURALLY. LEVELS ARE TOO HIGH THAT THEY STOP TRANSMITTING NEUROTRANSMITTERS LIKE DOPAMINE. THEIR BASELINE NT LEVEL IS LOWER LEADING TO DEPRESSION.

"hypnotically refreshed" memories

Memories that are a combination of fact and suggestion that occur during hypnosis. It's possible to accidentally plant false memories in someone during hypnosis due to the fragility of memory.

Altered states of consciousness (ASC)

Naturally occurring ASC -sleeping -dreaming -daydreaming Artificially induced ASC -hypnosis -meditation -drug-altered consciousness

Why do some people use drugs?

Nature: -hereditary tendencies -dopamine deficiencies may predispose one to use -self-medication of disorders? Nurture: -psychological: life is meaningless, stress, depression -social: peer pressure (aka hooligans), rebellion and thrill-seeking, seeking a clique with similar interests can reinforce drug use or aid in quitting

Novocain

Novocain (procaine) is a local anesthetic. Novocain causes loss of feeling (numbness) of skin and mucous membranes.

Korsakoff's syndrome

Nutritional deficiency of vitamin B1, which results in a deficit in the ability to recall recent events. Often due to severe alcoholism. -created by lack of B1: can't absorb B1 (essential). Can ultimately die as blood vessels continuously expand

Orexin

POSSIBLE CAUSE OF NARCOLEPSY also known as hypocretin, is a neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite. The most common form of narcolepsy, in which the sufferer experiences brief losses of muscle tone (cataplexy), is caused by a lack of orexin in the brain due to destruction of the cells that produce it.

waking consciousness

state in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, organized, and the person feels alert

Posthypnotic amnesia

supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle As morning approaches, body temp rises, then peaks during the day, dips for a time in early afternoon, and begins to drop again in the evening. Thinking is sharpest and memory most accurate when we are at our daily peak (not at all nighter). Age and experience can alter our circadian rhythm. Prefer morning over night as you age. -24 hour cycle of biological functioning -humans naturally wake with sunlight and sleep when it gets dark -stimulation of SCN (pineal gland decreases melatonin) -artificial light: brain can't tell difference

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. The brain's chemistry adapts to offset the drug effect (a process called neuroadaption). To requires same effect user requires larger and larger doses.

Withdrawal symptoms

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus -Our senses are bombarded with stimuli -We only focus on a small number of these stimuli -cocktail party phenomenon -There are thousands of stimuli around us and we have to choose what we pay attention to and what we ignore -multitasking a myth Selective attention and accidents: "Walking Distracted" SELECTIVE INATTENTION -Neisser (1979) -When we focus on one thing we miss out on others. -Inattentional blindness -Choice blindness -Certain stimuli may demand our attention (our name being spoken)

schedule 1 drugs

the highest potential for abuse; no accepted medical use Heroin LSD Marijuana (cannabis, THC) Mescaline MDMA

Treisman

"Feature integration theory is a theory of attention developed in 1980 by Anne Treisman and Garry Gelade that suggests that when perceiving a stimulus, features are "registered early, automatically, and in parallel, while objects are identified separately" and at a later stage in processing. The theory has been one of the most influential psychological models of human visual attention." -automatic type of attention "Perhaps Anne's central insight in the field of visual attention was that she realized that you could see basic features like color, orientation and shape everywhere in the visual field, but that there was a problem in knowing how those colors, orientations, shapes, etc., were 'bound' together into objects," Jeremy M. Wolfe, director of the Visual Attention Lab of Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, explained in an email. "Her seminal feature integration theory," he continued, "proposed that selective attention to an object or location enabled the binding of those features and, thus, enabled object recognition. Much argument has followed, but her formulation of the problem has shaped the field for almost four decades." Dr. Treisman did not merely theorize about how perception works; she tested her ideas with countless experiments in which subjects were asked, for instance, to pick a particular letter out of a visual field, or to identify black digits and colored letters flashing by. The work showed not only how we perceive, but also how we can sometimes misperceive.

"Paradoxical sleep"

(REM) The body is internally aroused, with waking-like brain activity, yet asleep and externally calm. Brain's motor cortex is active, but your brainstem blocks its messages. This leaves muscles relaxed, except for an occasional finger or toe twitch, you are essentially paralyzed. Moreover, you cannot easily be awakened.

Dissociation theory

(for hypnosis) a split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of the rest of consciousness. Allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. Hilgard felt that when, for example, hypnotized people lower their arm into an ice bath, the hypnosis dissociates the sensation of the pain stimulus (of which the subjects are still aware) from the emotional suffering that defines their experience of pain. The ice water therefore feels very col, but not painful. -dissociation -automatic writing

cocktail party phenomenon

(selective attention example) Your ability to attend to only one voice among many. Let another voice speak your name and your cognitive radar, operating on your mind's other track, will instantly bring that voice into consciousness. (ex: pilots engrossed in conversation did not land a plane. If only they had known they could get their attention by saying one of their names.)

Freud's theory of dreams

(to satisfy own wishes) In 1900, in his landmark book, Sigmeund Freud offered what he thought was "the most valuable of all the discoveries it has been my good fortune to make." He proposed that dreams provide a psychic safety valve that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings. He viewed a dream's manifest content as a censored, symbolic version of its latent content. Believed most adult dreams could be "traced back by analysis to erotic wishes." Freud considered dreams the key to understanding our inner conflict. Critics say it is a scientific nightmare, dreams can be interpreted in many different ways.

Peter Tripp and randy Gardner

-1950s: "The Men Who Didn't Sleep" -Decided to each try and break the world record for the longest time without sleep. Psychologists warned them of the dangers involved. Both achieved goals, but in very different ways. -Peter Tripp: NY disc jockey, decided to raise money for charity by staying awake for 8 days and 8 hours. Mostly a publicity stunt, broadcast is Times Square for people to watch. Third day: abusive and tired. Visual hallucinations. After 100 hours: mental agility tests intolerable. Last few days: speech slurred, paranoid psychosis, further auditory and visual hallucinations. Could not perform simple tasks (reciting alphabet). Convinced doctors were trying to send him to prison. -In Tripp's case, lack of sleep led to development of mental disorder - "nocturnal psychosis." Evidence showed that sleep essential for normal functioning. -Other factors: Used stimulants to stay awake and experience affected bc he was on a public stage. (probably stimulants that led to paranoia - drug induced and not lack of sleep) -Randy Gardner: inspired by Tripp, wanted to beat him by staying awake 11 hours. Studied and supervised by Dement. -During the nights, researchers found it very difficult to keep him awake. Sometimes got angry and forgot he wasn't allowed to sleep. Techniques to keep him awake: physical activity, basketball, driving with music, watched like a hawk. Took no stimulants. -Side effect: Researchers became sleep deprived. -On the last night Dement took Randy to arcade and Randy played games. Showed that he had coped remarkably well without sleep. Press also motivated him to keep going. -Conference on 11th day to say he broke record was spoken eloquently- no sign of sleep deprivation. -Randy did not fully make up for lost sleep in subsequent nights, although he did experience REM rebound. Suggests that REM sleep is particularly important type of sleep. In contrast to previous conclusion from Tripp study, Demend concluded that sleep deprivation does not inevitably lead to psychosis. -However, Garnder did have some symptoms leading coren to believe that "prolonged sleep deprivation does lead to the appearance of serious mental symptoms." However Dement retorts that "I can say with absolute certainty that staying awake for 264 hours did not cause any psychiatric problems whatsoever."

William Dement

-One of the world's leading experts on sleep, involved in both the Peter Tripp and Randy Gardner cases. He reports conflicting results from each and explains the reasons for his conclusions from each. Despite arguing that Gardner suffered few side-effects from his sleep-deprivation marathos, Dement believes that a lack of sleep can have severe consequences. -he was the first to intensively study the connection between rapid eye movement and dreaming. His fellow student Eugene Aserinsky had mentioned to him that "Dr. Kleitman and I think these eye movements might be related to dreaming".[3] Aserinsky, along with his and Dement's adviser Nathaniel Kleitman, had previously noticed the connection but hadn't considered it very interesting. Dement had an interest in psychiatry, which in those days considered dreams to be important, so he was excited by the discovery and was eager to pursue it. He began his work in sleep deprivation at Mount Sinai Hospital in the late 1950s - the early 1960s. He was among the first researchers to study sleeping subjects with the electroencephalogram (EEG), and he wrote "I believe that the study of sleep became a true scientific field in 1953, when I finally was able to make all-night, continuous recordings of brain and eye activity during sleep." Studying these recordings, he discovered and named the five stages of sleep.

Meditation

-focus attention and promote relaxation -purposeful attempt to alter consciousness -ALPHA WAVES dominate -parasympathetic nervous system

Sufism

-frenzied dancing and chanting

Nicholas Spanos Case Study

-hypnosis is nothing more than an increased state of motivation to perform certain behaviors and can be full explained without resorting to trances or altered states. engaging in voluntary behavior designed to produce a desired consequence. No altered state of consciousness. -most of finding were taken from 16 studies in which Spanos was directly involved. -People believe they are in an altered state of consciousness because: 1. subjects interpret their behavior as being caused by something other than the self, thus making the action seem involuntary 2. hypnosis ritual creates expectation in the subject which in turn motivate the subject to behave in ways that are consistent with the expectation.

Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley

-new theory of dreaming that shook scientific community: dreams are nothing more than your attempt to interpret random electrical impulses produced automatically in brain during REM sleep (against idea that dreams have meaning). The brain becomes activated during REM sleep and generates its own original info. This activation is then compared with stored memories in order to synthesize the activation into some form of dream content. REM sleep causes dreaming, instead of popular theory that dreams produce REM sleep. -2 methods in study: 1 was to review previous research and study it. Second method was to study sleep and dreaming patterns of animals- cats. They stimulated or inhibited certain parts of the animals' brains and recorded the effect on dreaming sleep. -Hobson: dreams are not devoid of meaning, but should be interpreted in more straightforward ways. ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS MODEL

Rosalind Cartwright

-studied ability to control dreams -decided to carry out extensive study involving a very personally relevant suggestion prior to sleep to see if the topic of the suggestion would then appear in the person's dreams that night. -"cognitive inconsistency"- issues most relevant to people are aspects of their personality that they would like to change -sorted card deck to find traits 17 subjects possessed but did not want to have. Came to lab to have their sleep monitored. Before they went to sleep had to constantly think "I wish I were not so _______." Each time they entered REM they were awakened and asked about dream. -had control of other adjectives to make sure the one they were thinking of showed up bc they were thinking about it. -for most subjects the undesirable word could be used to describe themselves in their dream and they would enjoy it. Or another character in dream had ideal trait but it caused problems for the character. -Behavioral scientists will never reach a consensus on the reasons for functions of dreaming. -What we experience as a dream is the result of our brain's effort to match recent, emotion-evoking events to other similar experiences already stored in long-term memory. One purpose of this sleep-related matching process, this putting of similar memory experiences together, is to defuse the impact of those feelings that might otherwise linger and disrupt our moods and behaviors the next day. The various ways in which this extraordinary mind of ours works—the top-level rational thinking and executive deciding functions, the middle management of routine habits of thought, and the emotional relating and updating of the organized schemas of our self-concept—are not isolated from each other. They interact. The emotional aspect, which is often not consciously recognized, drives the not-conscious mental activity of sleep

Why we sleep - theories

1. Sleep protects: When darkness shut down the day's hunting, food gathering, and travel, our distant ancestors were better off asleep in a cave, out of harm's way. More likely to fit descendants. Broader principle-- a species' sleep patter tends to suit its ecological niche. -nocturnal predators 2. Sleep helps us recuperate: Helps restore and repair brain tissue. Sleeping a lot gives resting neurons time to repair themselves, while pruning or weakening unused connections. -restorative value (pruning) -clean up memories not useful for long-term 3. Sleep helps restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day's experiences: Consolidates memories-- it strengthens and stabilizes neural memory traces. Sleep, it seems, strengthens memories in a way that being awake does not. -neural networks break apart and forget unimportant and start new synapses -also reinforces important memories 4. Sleep feeds creative thinking: dreams inspire. More commonplace is the boost that a complete night's sleep gives to our thinking and learning. To think smart and see connections, it often pays to sleep on it. -tend to be more creative with more sleep 5. Sleep supports growth: During deep sleep. the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone. This hormone is necessary for muscle development. -pituitary releases more GH during sleep -less time in deep sleep as we age

Order of brain waves in sleep

1. beta (awake/alert) 2. alpha (awake/relaxed) 3. Theta (stage 1) 4. larger Theta (stage 2) 5. Delta begin (stage 3) 6. Delta (stage 4) 7. beta (REM) Cycle repeats

Why we dream (dream theories)

1. to satisfy our own wishes -wish fulfillment FREUD 2. to file away memories -information processing 3. to develop and preserve neural pathways -physiological processing CRICK AND MITCHISON 4. to make sense of neural static -activation synthesis HOBSON AND MCCARLEY 5. to reflect cognitive development -CARTWRIGHT

Flashbacks

A flashback is the sensation of re-experiencing the effects of a drug after the true effects of the drug have worn off. Most often, flashbacks are used to describe the re-experiencing of the effects of a hallucinogenic drug, such as LSD or magic mushrooms. Flashbacks typically happen in the days or weeks following ingestion of the drug, but can happen months or even years after the drug use has been discontinued.

melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness. SCN DARKNESS

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. People must live with extra caution. Researchers have discovered genes that cause narcolepsy in dogs and humans. One team discovered a relative absence of hypothalamic nerual center that produces orexin, a neurotransmitter linked to alertness. Narcolepsy, it is now clear, is a brain disease; it is not just "in your mind." This gives hope that narcolepsy might be effectively relieved by a drug that mimics the missing orexin and can sneak through the blood-brain barrier. -sudden lapse into sleep -sleep episode is usually brief (~5 minutes) -Cause: correlation with lack of neurotransmitter orexin (produced in hypothalamus). Don't know exact cause, only correlation (not true in everyone, but most) -sleep NOT refreshing -narcolepsy in animals?

Beta waves

AWAKE AND ALERT smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity

Alpha waves

AWAKE BUT RELAXED the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state When you are in bed with your eyes closed, the researcher sees on the EEG slow alpha waves of your awake, but relaxed state.

Sleep stages (1, 2, 3, 4, REM)

About every 90 minutes, we cycle through four distinct sleep stages. Transition is marked by the slowed breathing and the irregular brain waves of non-REM stage 1 sleep. This is NREM-1. During NREM-1 you may experience hallucinations-- sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus. (Sensation of falling). You then relax more deeply and begin about 20 minutes of NREM-2 sleep with its periodic sleep spindles. You could be waken up easily, but still clearly asleep. Then transition to deep sleep of NREM-3. During this slow-wave sleep, which lasts about 30 minutes, your brain emits large, slow delta waves and you are hard to awaken. As the night wears on, deep NREM-3 sleep grows shorter and disappears. The REM and NREM-2 periods get longer. By morning, we spend 20-25% of an average night's sleep in REM. -1 cycle every ~90 minutes -as night progresses, stages 3 and 4 shorten and REM lengthens -As sleep deepens, brain waves increase in amplitude and decrease in frequency. -Some people don't dream (how to remember - 20-25% of our sleep time is spent in REM)

Treisman

According to FIT, human visual perception allows us to encode characteristics such as color, form, and orientation even in the absence of spatial attention. Attention is what allows us to relate these features in a meaningful way and recognize objects. In the absence of spatial attention, Treisman has demonstrated, the features that people perceive can bind randomly and cause perceptional errors. For example, people who are shown an image of a blue triangle and a red circle might report seeing a blue circle and a red triangle if they are not focusing their attention on the shapes and their colors.

Hobson and McCarley

Activation Synthesis Theory "Harvard psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley first proposed their theory in 1977, suggesting that dreaming results from the brain's attempt to make sense of neural activity that takes place during sleep. Even when you are sleeping, your brain is quite active. Hobson and McCarley suggested that during sleep, activity in some of the lower levels of the brain that are primarily responsible for basic biological processes are then interpreted by the parts of the brain responsible for higher-order functions such as thinking and processing information."

Active and Passive Mode

Active mode involves controlled, heightened awareness such as planning and decision making, whereas passive mode involves minimal awareness and includes sleep states. -active mode: actively making decisions for yourself (planning and decision making) -passive mode: brain takes control and chooses and you don't have free will (daydreaming and sleeping)

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. -As sleep deepens, brain waves increase in amplitude and decrease in frequency.

Substance abuse

Any unnecessary or improper use of chemical substances for nonmedical purposes -drug abuse vs recreational use -CULTURAL NORMS: different attitudes of drugs differ depending on culture

Neisser (1979)

At the level of conscious awareness, we are "blind: to all but a tiny sliver of visual stimuli. Demonstrated by Ulric Neisser and Rovert Becklen and Daniel Cervone. Showed people a one minute video in which images of three black shirted men tossing a basketball were superimposed over the images of three white shirted players. The viewers had to press a key everytime to black team passed the ball. Most focused their attention so completely on the game that they failed to notice a young woman carrying an umbrella saunter across the screen midway through the video. This inattentional blindness is a by-product of something we are really good at: focusing attention on some part of our environment.

Sleep Stages outline

Awake and alert: beta waves dominate Awake but relaxed: alpha waves dominate Stage 1 sleep: irregular and larger brain waves (theta waves) Stage 2 sleep: larger theta waves, sleep spindles, sleeptalking Stage 3 sleep: delta waves begin Stage 4 Sleep: delta waves, sleepwalking, bedwetting REM: rapid brain waves, dreaming, "Paradoxial sleep." -beta waves - why dreams feel realistic, brain waves same as awake

Cartwright's Theory of Dreams

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Alcohol

DEPRESSANT Act as a disinhibitor: slow brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions -Slowed neural processing: reactions slow, speech slurs, skilled performance deteriorates -Memory disruption: disrupts memory formation. Why can't recall night before. These blackouts result partly from the way alcohol suppresses REM sleep, which helps fix the day's experiences into permanent memories. Kills brain cells and reduces birth of new nerve cells. Impairs growth of synaptic connections. -Reduced self awareness and self-control -Expectancy effect: expectations influence behavior. Alcohol dependence (prolonged and excessive drinking) can shrink the brain. -increase in mood -lowered inhibitions -slowed neural processing -memory disruption: brain shrinks! -Vogel-Sprott Study -Korsakoff's Syndrome -alcohol and sexual behavior

Barbiturates

DEPRESSANT drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. TRANQUILIZERS such as Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are sometimes prescribes to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. In larger doses, they can impair memory and judgement.

Opiates/Narcotics

DEPRESSANT WITH ADDED AFFECT OF NUMBING PAIN opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and activity Pupils constrict, breathing slows, and lethargy sets in as blissful pleasure replaces pain and anxiety. Short-term pleasure pays long-term price: a gnawing craving for another fix, a need for progressively larger doses, and the extreme discomfort of withdrawal. Brain eventually stops producing endorphins, its own opiates. If artificial opiate is withdrawn, the brain lacks the normal level of these painkilling neurotransmitters. -methadone: synthetic opiate prescribed as a substitute for heroin or for relief of common pain. -depressants that relieve pain and induce sleep -opium, morphine, heroin, and laudanum -super-stimulate endorphin receptors -highly addictive -withdrawal: chills, sweating, anxiety, loss of bowel control, spasms -death from overdose is possible -comes from poppy plant, (some people would fail drug test if they ate a poppy seed bagel)

Age regression

During hypnosis, a hypnotized person is given suggestions to re-experience an event that occurred at an earlier age and to act like and feel like a person of that particular age.

"Mental Housekeeping"

During sleep, the brain needs to process all the information from that day. This theory states that dreams are a result of the sorting, scanning and searching through memories. Dreams may actually refine or improve memories, making them more useful for the future, or remove unwanted information from the brain.

To Sleep, No Doubt to Dream Case

Eugene Aserinsky: a pioneer in sleep research, was a graduate student at the University of Chicago in 1953 when he discovered REM sleep. He made the discovery after hours spent studying the eyelids of sleeping subjects. While the phenomenon was in the beginning more interesting for a fellow of PhD student Aserinsky, William Charles Dement, both Aserinsky and their PhD adviser, Nathaniel Kleitman, went on to demonstrate that this "rapid-eye movement" was correlated with dreaming and a general increase in brain activity. Aserinsky and Kleitman pioneered procedures that have now been used with thousands of volunteers using the electroencephalograph. Because of these discoveries, Aserinsky and Kleitman are generally considered the founders of modern sleep research. -started studying sleep on toddlers, moved to adults -would wake them up when he noticed eyes moving to ask of they were dreaming. William Dement: -"Should dreaming be considered necessary in a psychological sense or a physiological sense or both?" -studied subjects who had been somehow deprived of the chance to dream. Started to wake up subject every time they entered REM sleep. Did this in controlled setting and studied results. -From findings concluded that we need to dream. When we are not allowed to dream, there seems to be some kind of pressure to dream that increases over successive dream-deprivation nights. Evident in the increasing number of attempts to dream following deprivation in the increase in dream time. Also notes that this increase continues over several nights so that it appear to make up in quantity the approximate amount of lost dreaming. (this is REM rebound). This study gave insight on importance of dreams and REM sleep.

Zen meditation

Form of meditation that focuses on breathing. Very popular in Buddhism. -controlled breathing

Vogel-Sprott study

Gave experimental group group beer and control nothing but said it was beer. The control acted more drunk. Conclusion: alcohol can have placebo effect (ppl act drunk because that's "supposed" to happen)

PCP

HALLUCINOGEN -loss of contact with reality, aggression, insensitivity to pain -binds to potassium channels in brain and muscle activating neurons -high psychological dependence -Makes person think they are invincible (don't feel pain and super aggressive)

CPAP & BiPAP

Machines used by people who suffer from severe sleep apnea in order to keep them breathing through the night to reduce the symptoms. -continuously pumps air through the nose

LSD

HALLUCINOGEN a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide) Albert Hofmann, a chemist, created and accidentally ingested LSD. The result-- "an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors." The emotions of an LSD trip vary from euphoria to detachment to panic. The user's current mood and expectations color the emotional experience, but the perceptual distortions and hallucination have some commonalities. The experience typically begins with simple geometric forms. The next phase consists of more meaningful images. As the hallucination peaks, people frequently feel separated from their body and experience dream like scene so real that they may become panic-stricken or harm themselves. Sensations are strikingly similar to near-death experiences. -derived from specific fungus -Timothy Leary: American psychologist best known as an advocate of LSD use for personal growth -Euphoria, hallucinations, sensory and mental distortion -lasts for hours -(heavy visual and auditory distortions)

Schedule 2 drugs

High potential for abuse and have medical use with severe restrictions Cocaine Methamphetamine Methadone Adderal

State theory

Hypnosis is a distinct state of consciousness with special changes that affect our mental processes

Sleep spindles

In NREM-2. bursts of rapid, rythmic brain-wave activity.

Marijuana/cannabis THC

MILD HALLUCINOGEN leaves and flowers of hemp plant are sold as marijuana and contain THC. Difficult drug to classify. Whether smoked or eaten, THC produces a mix of effects. Marijuana is a mild hallucinogen, amplifying sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. But like alcohol, marijuana relaxes, disinhibits, and may produce a euphoric high. Both drugs impair the motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time necessary for safely operating an automobile or other machine. Also differ. The body eliminates alcohol within hours, THC stays in body for a week or more. Marijuana also disrupts memory formation and interferes with immediate recall of info learned only minutes before. -Euphoria, relaxation, hallucinations -lasts for hours -low physical addiction, moderate psychological addiction (no insane withdrawals) -impairs motor skills and perception, may trigger paranoia, disrupts memory, shrinks brain, intensifies sensory experiences (like taste) -(schedule 1) -(does have impact on bran - increased rate of neural death - brain shrinks)

Activation synthesis theory of dreams

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories. (the individual's brain is weaving the stories, which still tells us something about the dreamer.) Dreams erupt from from neural activation spreading upward from the brainstem. Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity. These internal stimuli activate the brain areas that process visual images, but not the visual cortex area, which receives raw input from the eyes. PET scans reveal increased activity in emotion-related limbic system (amygdala) during REM sleep and frontal lobe regions (logic) seem to idle. (why dreams are weird.) HOBSON AND MCCARLEY

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. For about 10 minutes, your brain waves become rapid and saw-toothed, more like those of the nearly awake NREM-1 sleep. But unlike NREM-1, during REM sleep your heart rate rises, your breathing becomes rapid and irregular, and every half-minute your eyes dart around in the momentary bursts of activity behind closed lids. These eye movements announce the beginning of a dream. Brain's motor cortex is active, but your brainstem blocks its messages. This leaves muscles relaxed, except for an occasional finger or toe twitch, you are essentially paralyzed. Moreover, you cannot easily be awakened. -muscle paralysis (paralyzed - can't move - no sleep walking) -sleep walking/talking are non-REM -REM decreases with age! (adults are lighter sleepers and less well rested) -As the night goes on, each cycle spends more time in REM

Choice blindness

Refers to ways in which people are blind to their own choices and preferences. When defending the choice we make, we fail to notice choice was changed -Sometimes not aware of choices we just made (mixing faces experiment) -Happens when choices are not a big deal

Physiological functioning theory of dreams

Regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways (does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams). Perhaps dreams, or the brain activity associated with REM sleep, serve a physiological function, providing the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation. This theory makes developmental sense. Stimulating experiences preserve and expand the brain's neural pathways. Infants, whose neural networks are fast developing, spend much of their abundant seep time in REM sleep. Crick and Mitchison -A theory which explains dreams in relation to their physiological benefits; brain stimulation experienced during REM sleep strengthens and advances neural pathways -Supported by the fact that infants spend a great deal of time in REM sleep, where their brains develop a tremendous amount -Gives no explanation to the meaning of dreams -Mental housekeeping is proposed by Crick and Mitchison: dreams are meant to clear out neurological clutter to either reinforce or prune neural pathways -We should not remember our dreams since this function is 'cleaning-out' the brain

Why do we have consciousness?

Reproductive advantage -would not be able to pick partner and "weed" out undesirable traits Long-term planning -The cavemen would have run out of supplies if they didn't know what the future held. Reading behavior of others -Know what others are thinking of you

Delta waves

STAGE 3 AND 4 the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (NREM-3)

Theta waves

STAGES 1 AND 2 brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep (light sleep)

Caffeine

STIMULANT -alertness, increased metabolism -withdrawal: fatigue, headaches

Cocaine

STIMULANT Euphoria and crash. Snorted, injected, or smoked. It enters the bloodstream quickly, producing a rush of euphoria that depletes the brain's supply of the NTs dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. Within the hour, a crash of agitated depression follows as the drug's effect wears off. May also lead to emotional disturbances, suspiciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, or respiratory failure. Crack- smoked. Faster working crystallized form of cocaine produces a briefer but more intense high followed by a more intense crash. -euphoria - crash -dopamine agonist -withdrawal -supper addictive -(short acting - 20 minutes)

Methamphetamine

STIMULANT a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. Parent drug: aphetamine but had greater effects. Triggers the release of the NT dopamine, which stimulates brain cells that enhance energy and mood. The result can include 8 hours of heightened energy and euphoria. Its aftereffects may include irritability, insomnia, hypertensions, seizures, social isolation, depressions, and occasional violent outbursts. Overtime, may reduce baseline dopamine levels, making user depressed. -euphoria - dopamine -withdrawal - psychosis? -(some people experience psychotic break from reality) -SUPER addictive

Nicotine

STIMULANT a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. Very hard to quit. Smokers become dependent, and they develop tolerance. Quitting causes nicotine withdrawal symptoms, including craving, insomnia, anxiety, and distractability. Symptoms go away with a single cigarette. A rush of nicotine signals the CNS to release a flood of NT. Epinephrine and norepinephrine diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency. Dopamine and opioids calm anxiety and reduce sensitivity to pain. -euphoria - epinephrine -hunger and alertness -stimulates release of dopamine (very addictive) -withdrawal: weight gain? -(little bit of dopamine agonist but mostly epinephrine. Dopamine is reward center).

MDMA/Ecstasy ("Molly")

STIMULANT a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. MDMA street name. Both a stimulant and mild hallucinogen. As an amphetamine derivative, it triggers dopamine release. But its major effect is releasing stored serotonin and blocking its reuptake, thus prolonging serotonin's feel good flood. For 3 to 4 hours they experience high energy, emotional elevation, and connectedness with those around them ("I love everyone"). "Club drug." Has a dehydrating effects-- which combined with prolonged dancing-- can lead to severe overheating, increased blood pressure, and death. Also, repeated leaching of brain serotonin can damage serotonin producing neurons, leading to decreased output and increased risk of permanently depressed mood. Also suppresses disease fighting immune system, impairs memory, slows thought, and disrupts sleep by interfering with serotonin's control of the circadian clock. -stimulant and mild hallucinogen -triggers release of serotonin and prevents its reuptake -destroys serotonin-producing neurons - permanent depression -suppresses immune system -(lasts longer 8-10 minutes)

Role theory

Social influence theory: The subject is so caught up in the hypnotized role that she ignores the cold -People that are hypnotized begin to feel and behave in ways appropriate for "good hypnotic subjects." The more they like and trust the hypnotists, the more they allow that person to direct their attention and fantasies. "The hypnotist's ideas become the subjects thoughts "and the subject's thought produce the hypnotic experiences and behaviors." If an experimenter eliminates their motivation for acting hypnotizes- by stating that hypnosis reveals their "gullibility"-- subjects become unresponsive. Support the idea that hypnotic phenomena are an extension of normal social and cognitive processes. -hypnotized people are role playing

Albert Hoffman

Swiss scientist known best for being the first person to synthesize, ingest, and learn of the psychedelic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).

Crick and Mitchison's reverse learning theory

The Crick-Mitchison Theory (also known as reverse learning) is a biological theory of how and why dreaming occurs. Crick and Mitchison proposed that dreaming occurs during REM sleep when our brains are turned "off' from perceiving external stimuli. The brain then uses dreaming to go through information it acquired throughout the day and go through a process of reverse learning to forget useless information. So we are dreaming to forget irrelevant information. Our brain cannot handle the vast amount of information in perceives in a day. It would be pointless to store and retain irrelevant information so this theory proposes our brain cleans itself out by dreaming.

Mescaline

The hallucinogen produced by the peyote cactus

Timothy Leary

United States psychologist who experimented with psychoactive drugs (including LSD) and became a well-known advocate of their use (1920-1996) -Harvard professor that did LSD experiments

Sleep walking/talking

Usually childhood disorders, and like narcolepsy, run in families. Sleep talking: usually garbled or nonsensical can occur during any sleep stage. Sleep walking: Usually harmless. Few can recall their trip the next morning. Young children have the deepest and lengthiest NREM-3 sleep, and are the most likely to experience both night terrors and sleep walking. As this stage diminishes with age, so do these disorders. -Individuals walk and talk while asleep and have no recollection of this is the morning -sleep talking - stage 2 (correlation b/w more sleep spindles and sleep talking) -sleep walking - Occurs in stages 3 or 4 of sleep -Genetic component? -more common in children (they stay in stage 4 relatively longer) -usually return to bed

ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VPN)

VPN - Very Very sleepy -located in the hypothalamus - triggers release of melatonin -inhibits the feeling of wakefulness -age

Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales

Who can be hypnotized? -How likely you are to be hypnotized -have to want to be hypnotized

Psychoactive drugs

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. A drug's overall effect depends not only on its biological effects but also on the psychology of the user's expectations, which vary with social contexts and cultures. -chemicals that influence the brain, alter consciousness, and produce psychological changes

Physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued Physical pain and intense cravings indicate this

Psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions Particularly for stress-relieving drugs. -mental not just physical dependence

Amphetamine psychosis

a psychotic state characterized by hallucinations and delusions, induced by ingestion of amphetamines (metaamphetamine too)

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it. Two-track mind is also monitoring our environment while we sleep. Sensory stimuli (phone ringing) cay be instantly and ingeniously woven into the dream story. But anything that happens during the 5 minutes just before we fall asleep is typically lost from memory (why sleep apnea patients don't remember). -occur in REM sleep - ~6 years of an average person's life will be spent dreaming! (if you sleep 8 hours a night) -manifest content -sensory stimuli (smells, sounds, etc.) - can make way in bc body still somewhat conscience -how to remember a dream?

Night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. Target mostly children, who may sit up or walk around, talk incoherently, experience doubled heart and breathing rates, and appear terrified. They seldom wake up fully and recall little or nothing the next morning. Not nightmares (not during REM), usually occur during the first few hours of NREM-3. -uncontrollable arousal and screaming without the ability to be awakened. -Most common in children and adults on drugs -Occur during Stage 3 and 4 (non-REM sleep) -sleep terror vs nightmare? - Not nightmare bc not dream during REM. Wouldn't have night terror in REM bc of paralysis. More/worse than a nightmare -stuck in sleep - mind wakes up, body still asleep

Sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. After an airless minute or so, decreased blood oxygen arouses them and they wake up enough to snort in air for a few seconds, in a process that repeats hundreds of times each night, depriving them of slow-wave sleep. They don't recall these episodes the next day, so many are unaware of their disorder. Associated with obesity. A special mask can effectively relieve symptoms. -daytime symptoms: irritability, fatigue -positive correlation between sleep apnea and obesity (large body weight - football players common) -from 10 seconds to 1 minute -brain does not get oxygen and can't perform normal functions during sleep -Treatments: -CPAP machine -surgery

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Divided-Consciousness Theory: Hypnosis has caused a split in awareness -Hypnosis involves not only social influence but also a special dual processing state of dissociation -may cause AGE REGRESSION (reverting to child like mannerisms and behavior), while maintaining adult abilities -memories that have been HYPNOTICALLY REFRESHED are often a combination of fact and suggestion -Doing things you normally wouldn't? -Don't act against our will because we're hypnotized -Act against our will because an authority figure in instructing us -Spanos case reading -Hypnosis is a systematic procedure used to produce a heightened state of suggestability -"hypnos" = sleep

Posthypnotic suggestions

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. Have helped alleviate headaches, asthma, and stress related skin disorders

Transcendental meditation

a technique derived from Hinduism that promotes deep relaxation through recitation of a mantra -repetition of mantra

Mantra

a word or sound repeated to aid concentration in meditation

Manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) -the storyline the dream follows (often reflects our experiences and worries)

Latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content) The unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly.

Laudanum

an alcoholic solution containing morphine, prepared from opium and formerly used as a narcotic painkiller. -popular drink in 1800s of alcohol with opium mixed in

Near death experiences

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations -altered state of consciousness Possible explanations -temporal lobe seizures -oxygen deprivation -hallucinations?

Sleep deprivation

any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability Brain: Diminished attentional focus and memory consolidation, and increased risk of depression. Immune system: Suppression of immune cell production and increased risk of viral infections, such as colds. Fat cells: Increased production and greater risk of obesity. Joints: Increased inflammation and arthritis Heart: Increased risk of high blood pressure Stomach: Increased hunger-arousing ghrelin and decreased hunger-suppressing leptin Muscles: Reduced strength, and slower reaction time and motor learning -The condition of chronically getting inadequate amounts of sleep -Difficulty concentrating, fatigue, irritability, unhappiness, obesity, high blood pressure, poor motor performance - ~50% of American are sleep deprived! -William Dement's studies - up 11 days straight -more sleep correlates with greater life satisfaction

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences. -Results when continued use is necessary to prevent withdrawal

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce (calm) neural activity and slow body functions. -Depress CNS - slows neural activity and body functions -Does not make you sad, can actually make you happy. Just slows (depresses) down body. -barbituates and tranquilizers

Hypersomnia

excessive daytime sleepiness

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment By selectively riveting our attention on a magician's left hand's dramatic act, we fail to notice changes made with their other hand. In an experiment, they changed the environment when their focus was on something else and they didn't notice.

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. At the level of conscious awareness, we are "blind: to all but a tiny sliver of visual stimuli. Demonstrated by Ulric Neisser and Rovert Becklen and Daniel Cervone. Attention is powerfully selective. Your conscious mind is in one place at a time. Ex: magicians use this to direct audience's attention away from slipping card in their pocket.

Concentrative mediation

form of meditation in which a person focuses the mind on some repetitive or unchanging stimulus so that the mind can be cleared of disturbing thoughts and the body can experience relaxation -zen -transcendental -sufi

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment Every science has concepts so fundamental they are nearly impossible to define. To psychologists, consciousness is a fundamental yet slippery concept. Psychology was "the description and explanation of states of consciousness." But this led to difficulty in studying and led some (behaviorists) to turn to direct observations of behavior. Consciousness was likened to a car's speedometer: "It doesn't make the car go, it just reflects what's happening." Later psychology started to look back into consciousness. Most psychologists now define consciousness as our awareness of ourselves and our environment. This awareness allows us to assemble info from many sources as we reflect on our past and plan for our future. And it focuses our attention when we learn a complex concept or behavior. When learning to drive, we focus on the car and traffic. With practice, driving becomes semi-automatic, freeing us to focus our attention on other things. Over time, we flit between various states of consciousness, including sleeping, waking, and various altered states. -debate amongst schools of thought -ex: behaviorists -new technology is reviving this subject

Sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation While sleeping you may feel "dead to the world," but you are not. Even when you are deeply asleep, your perceptual window is open a crack. You move around on your bed but you manage not to fall out. When your asleep, as when you are awake, you process most info outside your conscience awareness. -We are unconscious, but our brain is still active -We keep processing info while we are asleep

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input -Drugs that alter perceptions of reality and distort sensory and perceptual experiences DISTORTS AT LEAST 1 OF 5 SENSES

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep Insomnia is worsened by fretting about one's insomnia. The most common quick fixes for true insomnia-- sleeping pills and alcohol-- can aggravate the problem, reducing REM sleep and leaving the person with next day blahs. Such aids can also lead to tolerance-- a state in which increasing doses are needed to produce an effect. -inability to fall asleep or remain asleep -prevalence (common) -cause: VPN -treatments -insomnia leads to hypersomnia

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) "The mind is what the brain does." We just don't know HOW it does it. Even with all the world's chemicals, computer chips, and energy, we still don't know how to make a conscious robot. Yet today's cognitive neuroscience is taking the first small step by relating specific brain states to conscious experiences. Many cognitive neuroscientists are exploring and mapping the conscious functions of the cortex. But disagreement still remains. -relationship between brain and cognitive processes -brain imaging (fMRI in particular) -Which neural patterns correspond with which conscious processes?

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Automatic writing

the process or product of writing without using the conscious mind. The technique is often practiced while the person writing is in a trance state; others are fully awake, alert, and aware of their surroundings, but not of the actions of their writing hand.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep) -the less time spent in REM recently the faster you'll get to it when you go to sleep

Hypnotherapy

the use of hypnosis to produce an altered state of focused attention in which the patient may be more willing to believe and act on suggestions FOCUS SUGGESTION ON PREVENTING BEHAVIOR