Unit 3.2: Carbohydrates
•General Formula of Carbohydrates:
(CH2O) n such as C6H12O 6 or glucose
Amylopectine has both α-(1,4/1,6) links and some α-(1,4/1,6) links, while amylose only has α-(1,4/1,6) links.
1,4 1,6 1,4
•Carbohydrates have three main functions:
1. Chemical energy storage and fuels, such as starch in plants, glycogen in animal 2. Important structural elements of nucleic acids, cell walls, exoskeletons of arthropods, etc 3. Are covalently linked to many proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids (glycolipids) at organelle and cell surfaces - important in cell-cell interactions and cell identity
Amylose accounts for about ..............% of starch and consists of up to ........................ units connected by a -(1,4/1,6) links.
20 1000 a-D-glucose 1,4
A carbohydrate has ............... calories per gram.
4
Amylopectin accounts for about ..............% of starch and is similar to amylose but has much larger molecules and has a -1,6 branches besides a -1,4 links.
80
People with type ........... blood have both A and B molecules on their red cells. Their blood contains no antibodies to A, B, or O, and they can, if necessary, receive blood of all types.
AB
-....................makes chemical energy useful to the cell
ATP
The location of carbonyl group -..................: carbonyl group as aldehyde at end of carbon chain
Aldose
.................... accounts for about 80% of starch and is similar to amylose but has much larger molecules and has a -1,6 branches besides a -1,4 links.
Amylopectin
•.................... accounts for about 20% of starch and consists of up to 1000 a-D-glucose units connected by a -1,4 links. Instead of lying side by side and flat as in cellulose, amylose tends to coil into helices.
Amylose
•......................... (55%) is liquid component of blood, and contains water, salts, enzymes, antibodies and other proteins. It carries blood components throughout the body •..................... for defense & immunity; and ................... (blood clotting) ....................... (45%) containing hemoglobin are used for oxygen transportation. They may contain specific antigen A or B on cell surfaces
Blood plasma White blood cells platelets Red blood cells https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bpVqPFTja4
carries blood components throughout the body as the fluid in which they travel.
Blood plasma https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bpVqPFTja4
•α-1,4-glycosidic linkage and β-1,4- glycosidic linkage -Both linkages are between the .................and ...................carbons
C-1 C-4
•The geometry of glucose molecules is different in α and β structures: -α and β refer to the contrasting orientations of the .................. as compared to .................. -If they are on the same sides of the plane of the glucose rings -> ............... structure -If they are on opposite sides of the plane of the glucose rings ->......................structure
C-1 hydroxyls C2- hydroxyl α β
•Carbohydrates contain a large number of ____________bonds which store chemical energy
C-H
..................: a structural polymer found in plant cell walls
Cellulose
Polymer of b-glucose monomers and b-1,4- glycosidic bonds-found in plant cell walls
Cellulose
................: a polymer found in fungi cell walls, some algae, and animal exoskeletons
Chitin
Comprised of N-acetylglucosamine (NAc) monomers
Chitin
Polymer of b-glucose monomers and b-1,4- glycosidic bonds-found in fungi cell walls, some algae, and animal exoskeletons
Chitin
(Complex/Simple) carbohydrates include beans, whole grains, and many vegetables. (Complex/Simple) carbohydrates tend to have higher amounts of fiber than (Complex/Simple) carbohydrates. They also contain healthy amounts of vitamins and minerals.
Complex Complex Simple
Linear galactose (D/L) form is much more prevalent in nature than the (D/L) form
D L
Different arrangement of the hydroxyl groups of chiral carbons in monosaccharides as .............. and .............. forms; and spartial arrangement of C atoms as ............... and ......................
D L linear ring forms
True or False? Instead of coiling into helices as in cellulose, amylose tends to lay side by side and flat
False, Instead of lying side by side and flat as in cellulose, amylose tends to coil into helices.
True or False? The chemical behaviors of the different linear and ring forms of sugars are the same and the polymers that they form are also the same
False, The chemical behaviors of these sugar building block are different, and the polymers that they form are also different..
............. is a fruit sugar, very sweet, occurs in honey and many fruits.
Fructose
is widely distributed in plant gums and pectins, and is a component of the disaccharide lactose.
Galactose
•.................. is an inherited deficiency of any of several enzymes needed to metabolize galactose.
Galactosemia The genetic diagram shows the chances that children whose parents carrying galactosemia gene may inherit the galactosemia disease.
is the most important simple carbohydrate in human metabolism.
Glucose
........................oligosaccharides attach to lipids
Glycolipids
oligosaccharides attach to proteins
Glycoproteins
Cellulose: a structural polymer found in plant cell walls -The ............. bonds link parallel strands of polymers together
H
.....................: low lactase levels in adults. Bacteria in intestine use lactose to produce CO2, H, methane (bloating, diarrhea)
Lactose intolerance
................, often called malt sugar, is present in fermenting grains. •It is used in prepared foods as a sweetener.
Maltose
Glycosidic bond connects 2 glucose molecules to build up long chain carbohyrates and polysaccharides, similar to polypeptide bond that connects two amino acids to build up polypeptide chains or proteins.
Maltose
..........................serves as major fuel for cells
Monosaccharide
serves as major fuel for cells.
Monosaccharide
•Carbohydrates are important polymers composed of ........................
Monosaccharide
- Have molecular formulas as (CH2O)n
Monosaccharides
Most ...........................are sweet-tasting, digestible, and nontoxic.
Monosaccharides
are high-melting, white, crystalline solids that are soluble in water.
Monosaccharides
are the easiest form of carbohydrates for the body to digest.
Monosaccharides
•.......................... are known as simple sugars served as major fuel for cells and raw materials for building molecules
Monosaccharides
Type ............. cell-surface oligosaccharides are similar in composition to those of types A and B. People with blood types A, B, and AB all lack antibodies to type (answer) cells making individuals with type (answer) blood "universal donors."
O
.................... attach to the outer surface of cell membrane for cell recognition as antigens
Oligosaccharides
................... are composed of 3 to 10 monosaccharides, and synthesized (inside/outside) the cells
Oligosaccharides inside So we don't need to take in food to synthesize oligosaccharides
......................... are carbohydrate macromolecules.
Polysaccharides
•................... are polymers of tens, hundreds, or even many thousands of monosaccharides linked together through glycosidic bonds.
Polysaccharides
•.................. and its relative ................. are both five-carbon aldehyde sugars. •These two sugars are most important as parts of larger biomolecules such as coenzyme A, ATP, cyclic AMP. (answer 1) is part of RNA, and (answer 2) is part of DNA.
Ribose 2-deoxyribose
•............... is present only in plant material; major sources are beans, wheat, rice, and potatoes.
Starch
•................... is a glucose polymer in 2 forms: -Mixture of branched (amylopectin) and unbranched (amylose) a-glucose polymer
Starch
•................... is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose.
Sucrose
•Most common purified organic compound in all
Sucrose
•Table sugar, sugar beets, sugar cane
Sucrose
Aldose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
a. monosaccharide
Deoxyribose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
a. monosaccharide
Fructose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
a. monosaccharide
Galactose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
a. monosaccharide
Glucose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
a. monosaccharide
Ketose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
a. monosaccharide
Ribose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
a. monosaccharide
Lactose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
b. disaccharide
Maltose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
b. disaccharide
Sucrose is a a. monosaccharide b. disaccharide c. polysaccharide
b. disaccharide
Among the targets of antibodies are
cell-surface molecules not present on the individual's own cells, thus "foreign blood cells."
Only termites, moths, cows and other grazing animals are able to digest .......................
cellulose
When we eat sugar derived from plants, we transformed the energy stored in the ................... of the sugar into the energy stored in the bond .........................
chemical bonds ATP
Glucose, galactose, and fructose are ...........molecules a. triose b. tetrose c. pentose d. hexose
d. hexose
monosaccharide+monosaccharide=
disaccharide
Disaccharides (di- means two) are
double sugars, yielded from 2 monosaccharides.
True or False? Trans fats are a type of saturated fat
false, unsaturated
•Starch is (fully/only partially) digestible and is an essential part of the human diet.
fully
•The buildup of ...............or ................... in infants can cause vomiting, liver failure, mental retardation, and development of cataracts.
galactose galactose-1-phosphate The genetic diagram shows the chances that children whose parents carrying galactosemia gene may inherit the galactosemia disease.
•In the body, galactose is converted to .......... to provide energy and is synthesized from (answer) as needed.
glucose
•Maintenance of an appropriate blood .............. level is essential to human health.
glucose
•When a cell needs energy -Reactions lead to the breakdown of the ......................... -They also capture released energy through synthesis of the nucleotide ............................
glucose adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Animals store sugar as .........................:
glycogen
Similar to amylopectin in being a long polymer of highly branched a-glucose. - Having many more branches than amylopectin and is larger, with up to 1 million glucose units per molecule.
glycogen
What type of bond makes up the linkages between the monosaccharides that make up sucrose, lactose, and maltose
glycosidic
•The ...................linkages between 2 monosaccharides can form between any two hydroxyl (-OH) group.
glycosidic
Ted Talk (good overview)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxzc_2c6GMg
L form: -OH group on the (right/left side of farthest chiral C from C=O
left
What does it meant when an "L" or "D" is included when specifying ring molecule types. For example: alpha-D-galactose
means it is made from either the L or D linear molecule
The suffix -................ is added to a molecule that is a carbohydrate, and prefixes tri-, tert-, and pent- are used to indicate ..........................
ose the number of carbons. -Ex: triose (3C), tetrose (4C), pentose(5C), hexose (6C)
D form: -OH group on the (right/left) side of the farthest chiral C from C=O
right
Processed foods such as candy, cakes, and cookies are usually high in ................... carbohydrates. These types of carbohydrates often lead to weight gain if eaten too often, because the body stores the extra carbohydrates as fats.
simple
Plants store sugar as ..................
starch
•In the body, Maltose is produced during .............. digestion by .................. in the (large/small) intestine and then hydrolyzed to (glucose/galactose).
starch a-amylase small glucose
Some important polysaccharides are
starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin and peptidoglycan. Some great cells choose peptidoglycan
Fructose is one of the two monosaccharides combined in the disaccharide .............................
sucrose
•Chiral C:
the C that has 4 different groups or atoms around it
The reason we detect sucrose that is very sweet because
this compound can interact with the "sweet" receptor and enzyme on our tongue that can break it down to detect it. The other disaccharide has different chemical properties to interact with the receptor on our tongue, so we may not taste it sweet.
Sugars Exist in Linear and Ring Forms. Its forms are interchangeable between linear and ring forms. If -OH and C6 on opposite sides of C1, pointing down -> .............-glucose If -OH and C6 on the same sides, above C1 -> ............... -glucose
α β
•α and β fructose: -The ................ position is defined as the C-1 hydroxyls on the opposite side of the ring as the C # 6. -The ................. position is defined as the C-1 hydroxyls on the same side of the ring as the C # 6.
α β
The location of carbonyl group -.....................: carbonyl group as ketone in the middle of carbon chain
Ketose
..................... is an enzyme that helps to digest lactose. The lactose absorbed by persons lack of (answer) is fermented by bacteria in the large intestine to produce gas, organic acids and other molecules that cause lactose intolerance symptoms.
Lactase
...................... (milk sugar) is a disaccharide composed of galactose and glucose. The two monosaccharides are connected by a ......................... link.
Lactose glycosidic
