Unit 4 Micro biology

List and describe the steps in an infectious disease

1.Entry (transmission)- the microbe gets to human tissue or is already present 2.Attachment- binding to host surfaces via. adhesins. Molecule structures such as fimbriae, and capsules allow for this attachment. 3.Deal With host defenses - a successful parasite must infect, persist long enough to reproduce, then escape. Host defense seeks to kill it. 3 ways that the pathogen does this is by defending, attacking or hiding. It can interfere with phagocytosis by possessing a capsule. It can produce leukocidins (cytotoxin created by some types of bacteria that kill leucocytes) etc. It can also switch the surface antigens and hide inside the white blood cells etc. Quorum sensing keeps bacteria under the radar. 4. Damage- if a disease is involved damage occurs this damage can occur due to enzymes and toxins making nutrients available to support growth and damage can also occur from battling the host defenses the host defenses can produce collateral damage 5.Escape parasite must escape and spread to others

What is the ratio of unique genes? microbiota: human genes

150:1

What percentage of all bacterial emissions come from humans?

18%

Occupancy of a room resulted in lat spikes for what? This is because human occupancy was associated with substantially increased airborne concentrations of the above answer

18% larger-sized fungal particles and medium-sized bacterial particles. bacteria and fungi of various sizes

About how many pounds of bacteria do you carry around with you? kg?

2lbs. ; 1.25kg

A person's mere presence in a room can add ______ million bacteria to the air every hour

37

What is the normal body temperature in celsius?

37

What is the estimated average for the ratio of non-human cells to human cells?

3:1; and or 1:1 ; This can change when you dedicate (poop)

Describe the make up of blood

60% Plasma - water and salts (electrolytes) Proteins- albumin (osmotic control), immunoglobulins (antibodies), fibrinogen (blood clots) and complement proteins (anti microbial) etc. 40% "formed elements" is mostly made of cells but is referred to as elements because platelets are not cells they are fractions of cells. These platelets are involved in clotting and they release prostaglandins (a group of fatty acids that act as hormonal substances) This also contains of Red blood cells known as erythrocytes that carry oxygen and white blood cells called leukocytes that fight infection

Define syndrome

A collection of signs and symptoms

Define Pseudopodium

A membrane covered temporary projection of the cytoplasm that allows the phagocyte to attach to the attractant molecules such as bacterial proteins.

What is the difference between a sign and a symptom?

A sign is observable/measurable and symptoms are experiences by a patient

List the virulence factors

Adhesins and invasins - fimbriae, capsules, and specialized surface proteins Enzymes- for assisting spread; collagenase and other proteases, hyaluronidase, and streptokinase Toxins such as exotoxins (enterotoxins, neurotoxins, and general cytotoxins) produced by both G+ and G-, proteins, heat labile, released and affect different targets; Endotoxins such as LPS especially the lipid A part are super antigens Resistance to antibiotic can sometimes be considered a V factor

What are the three broad ways that microbes and microbiota affect carcinogenesis (in initiation of cancer)?

Alternating the balance of tumor cell proliferation and death; regulating immune system function; influencing metabolism of host produced factors such as foods and pharmaceuticals.

In relationship to the other kingdoms in the normal microbiota what kingdom is the least abundant?

Archaea; The dominate group= methanogens

What types of hepatitis can lead to liver cancer

B and C

What are the three main reasons or ways the bacteria cause diseases?

Bacteria can be invasive/ flesh eating- They spread through tissues, usually using digestive enzymes which damage tissues, and kill cells Bacteria can be toxigenic (produce toxins)- they may not spread but they release soluble toxins which dissolve in body fluids and damage the cells Host processes- host defenses, like inflammation, may over respond, cause significant tissue damage. Bacteria can aid this: gram negative endotoxin (LPS). Basically the bacteria exaggerate the inflammation and cause problems.this chronic inflammation can result in organ failure

Define Opportunistic pathogens

Bacteria which cause a disease in a compromised host which typically would not occur in a healthy host. It can cause disease under the right circumstances. ex. dose in high numbers, host is in a weakened state, organism gets where it doesn't belong (ex. E. coli in the urinary tract) , lack of microbial antagonism (leads to superinfection), host could be in a weakened state due to HIV infection

What do the drug treatments for HIV do?

Basically if you can afford the monthly mediations then you will survive These drugs are reverse transcriptase inhibitors that affect the unique enzyme Protease inhibitors to prevent the processing of the viral proteins. you can still live a normal life span with the HIV meds

Why isn't there an easy way to make one vaccine for viruses such as the common cold etc.

Because RNA polymerase does not proof read so more mutations will occur. When mutations occur the immune system does not recognize the "same" virus intruder so it will not summon the antibodies and even if they did the antibodies would not work. By being vaccinated you are basically being pumped with antibodies but these antibodies will not work if the virus has mutated at all. This is why you must get the flu shot every year because of the numbers mutations.

Why is it sometimes necessary to get booster shots

Because a certain amount of antibodies must be produced to reach threshold and the primary production/ primary response might not produce enough antibodies during the first exposure

Give examples of natural immunity

Breast feeding and becoming sick.

Give examples of artificial immunity

Brought about by non-biologgical means. Using a needle to administer a vaccine which has been prepared in a factory or to inject pre-formed antibodies.

How does the normal microbiota aid in host defense? Also how does it benefit its host?

By competing with pathogens for nutrients- diminishing nutrient sources. Occupying host surfaces- nothing for invaders to attach to Killing invaders with bacteriocins Changing conditions such as pH- acid in vagina Stimulating host defenses by leaking into the body and keeping defenses on alert- training our immune system - prevention of inflammatory disease Producing vitamins (B12 and K) that we need and benefiting overall host health. Sometimes taking antibiotics can be harmful to the host because we can end up killing off some of our normal microbiota. Proper development of lining in the GI tract Digestion of remaining nutrients in colon

Describe the ways that viruses cause direct damage

By consuming host resources and the cell dies- it can do this by redirecting the host resources and taking up its ATP and vitamins. It can block the transcription or translation of the host cell making the host unable to produce the proteins it needs ultimately resulting in cellular death It can also form syncytia- abnormal multi-nucleated cell formed by the fusing of multiple cells which eventually results in the death of all cells involved By activating the immune system both specific and non specific immune system to kill the infected cells (virus causes you to kill part of yourself) They also cause the dysregulation of host cell division resulting in cancer. This is because the virus causes the cell to replicate quickly and when it isn't ready to replicate resulting in multiple mutations.

How do human oncoviruses drive carcinogenesis?

By integrating oncogenes into host genomes.This viral integration selectively amplifies host genes in pathways with established cancer roles.

What is the CCR5 and CD4 glycoproteins

CCR5- protein on the surface of white blood cells that normally acts as a receptor for signaling molecules CD4- T-lymphocytes (t-cells)

What two things allow for AIDS to be diagnosed

CD4 cell count to below 200 per micro liter - the normal range is 500-1200 per microliter One of several specific opportunistic infections Ex. Pneumoncystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP pneumonia) Kaposi's sarcoma- always involved in the herpes virus; if you don't have herpes you won't have this kind of cancer Tuberculosis - you can get this anyways but it is more common in people with AIDS Once you have AIDS you will always have it because it is a chronic disease

What are some protective measures that microbes can acquire to protect themselves from phagocytosis?

Capsules to prevent being caught or waxy cell walls to protect them from the lysosome known as anti phagocytic coating The Mycobacterium tuberculosis organism can prevent phagosome-lysosome fusion as well as survive in the phago-lysosome. They can hide from the phagocytes by entering non-professional phagocytes. They kill phagocytic cells via leukocidins

Which room would appear to retain especially high amounts of microorganisms a carpeted room or one with wooden floors?

Carpeted rooms

Define sporadic

Causes show up only occasionally

What are the two kinds of targets that Natural killer cells (NK cells) are affective against?

Cells infected by viruses and tumor cells

What are antigen presenting cells and what do they do?

Cells that specialize in antigen presenting are: Follicular dendritic cells, Macrophages, and B cells They initiate phagocytosis and communication by: taking up the antigen and processing it. The antigen presenting cell presents the antigen on its surface. by using MHC molecule These cells then travel to the lymph nodes so that they can notify the B and T cells Here they can contact and activate helper T cells (CD4 cells) These cells do partially break down the antigen

Define Chemotaxis and describe how it is important on this test

Chemotaxis is how the phagocyte moves towards the detected chemical. This is how they move toward the source of the attractant.

What was Snow trying to find the cause up and what was his conclusion?

Cholera and the source of water

Differentiate between chronic and acute disease

Chronic lasts longer same phases though

Define endemic

Continually present in low numbers

Unusual distributions of bacterial and fungal genera in the respiratory tract are observed in people with what kind of hereditary disorder?

Cystic fibrosis; Their bacterial microbiota contains antibiotic-resistant and slow-growing bacteria, and the frequency of these pathogens changes in relation to age Cystic fibrosis -Cystic fibrosis affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat, and digestive juices. It causes these fluids to become thick and sticky. They then plug up tubes, ducts, and passageways.

Define saprotroph

Decompose of dead stuff, this refers to bacteria in the dirt not you

Name some tropical viruses that are spread by arthropods/ are arbovirus

Dengue fever, Yellow fever, other hemorrhagic fevers - These are specifically spread by mosquitos

What are two major dental diseases that the oral microorganisms play a role in?

Dental caries (tooth decay/cavities) and periodontal disease (an inflammatory disease that affects the soft and hard structures that support the teeth).

What can cause the depletion of phagocytic cells and what is the result?

Depletion of phagocytic cells occurs by exposure to high levels of radioactivity. When the phagocytic cells die it results in death in a few days of the host largely due to the death of phagocytes and death of the bone marrow and the stem cells that would replace them.

Describe contact in a transmission sense

Direct contact= touching and endogenous spread (one part of you to the other) Vertical contact (from mother to offspring) Indirect contact via fomites (inanimate objects) such as a door knob Droplet transmission- less than 1 meter through the air such as being in the direct path of a sneeze

Define infectious disease

Disease caused by an infectious agent such as a bacterium, virus, and fungus

What types of viruses are intestinal viruses

Enteroviruses: which are a family of respiratory and GI viruses they come and go from here this includes rhinovirus, and enterovirus 68 (respiratory) Polio- can attack The CNS if expressed in the CNS and it causes paralysis Norovirus: Main cause of viral diarrhea that is found/ common on cruise ships- this is where outbreaks happen Rotavirus (diarrhea in children and infants) causes malnutrition because nutrients are leaving the body

What is the Body's chief defense system against parasites?

Eosinophil- red staining leukocytes ; They gang up and release extracellular lytic enzymes that destroy the invader ; non-specific immune system

True/False: The placenta is considered to be a sterile organ

False

True/False: an antibody can only attach to one antigen at a time

False it has a Y shape with 2 ends allowing it to bind to 2 antigens at a time. This results in the cross linking and clumping of antigens together for easier removal by phagocytes (Agglutination)

True/ False: All foreign molecules are antigens

False, Most are far too small for that

True/False: Antibodies can enter cells to attack intracellular infections

False; Antibodies cannot enter into cells they are too large

True/False: A large proportion of the microorganisms commonly found in doors are infectious

False; Extremely few of the microorganisms commonly found indoors- less than 0.1 percent- are infectious

True/False: A disease that has a 0.1% mortality rate is always the same amount of dangerous no matter the amount of people infected

False; If 10 people are infected there are no deaths but if a ton of people are infected a lot more deaths will occur, this means when looking at mortality rate you must consider how many people are infected.

True/False: Upon entry to the body pathogens cause infections no matter where they enter at

False; Pathogens have favored portals of entry and these portals must provide access to susceptible tissue in order to lead to an infection

True/False: The composition of the human gut microbiota stays constant throughout life?

False; The composition of the human gut microbiota changes over time such as when the diet change, and overall health changes

True/False: The lungs are not well protected from bacteria and they contain large numbers of microorganisms

False; The lungs in the respiratory tract are very well protected and the other areas are colonized

True/False: The microbiota of the uterus is the same of that of the vagina and the gastrointestinal tract

False; The micro biome of the uterus differs significantly from that of the vagina and gastrointestinal tract

True/ False: The only Hepatitis viruses are those we discussed in this class

False; There are many types of hepatitis viruses

True/False: the ureters and kidneys are normally really full of bacteria in their microbiota

False; They are normally sterile

True/False: Different B cells make antibodies with the same variable region and different constant region

False; different B cell make antibodies with the same "constant" region and different variable regions.

True/False: All Hepatitis viruses have the same disease progression and transmission

False; the only reason why they are all named as hepatitis viruses is because they all multiply in liver cells, and generally cause jaundice (buildup of bilirubin and the yellowish color of the skin)- degradation of old hemoglobin is interrupted and the skin and white's of eye turn yellow

True/False: There are tons of vaccines for arboviruses

False; there are generally no vaccines

What is the name for the end of the constant region (furthest away from the variable regions) of an antibody and what is its purpose?

Fc end- it attaches to molecules on the host cell surface and acts as a handle for the host.

Yeast belong to what kingdom? Where are they present? Do they have the ability to become pathogenic in immunocompromised and even healthy hosts?

Fungi; They are present in the gut and on the skin here they consume oils secreted from the sebaceous glands. Yes

List some mechanical deterrents to remove microbes that are present in both the upper and lower respiratory system

Goblet cells- produce mucous which traps microbes and moves them out of the respiratory system via. continuously moving ciliated epithelial cells. Bactericidal effect is generated by nasal mucus that contains the enzyme lysozyme The upper and lower respiratory tract appears to have their own set of microbiota

Severe or easily caused disease is caused by pathogens with ______ __________

High virulence

Define Epidemic

Higher than normal occurrence

Is the vaginal pH higher or lower in african american women?

Higher, ethnicity influences the vaginal microbiota

The immune system is described as having a dual nature what does this mean? What are the two "parts"

Humoral - This refers to circulating antibodies (from B lymphocytes) protein molecules dissolved in blood, bodily fluids (these antibodies act as opsonin by assisting phagocytes basically tagging the cell for removal) , and secretions. Due to the antibodies being dissolved in the fluid they can bind to viruses between cells. Antibodies generally cannot enter cells because they are too large (they are proteins) so instead they bind to bacteria and viruses outside of the cell that lead to the removal by phagocytes, lysis by complement or simply inactivation by covering important parts of the antigen. The humoral response causes the antigens to agglutinate which promotes both opsonization and destruction by macrophages and prevents the biding of the antigens to the host cell.They activate the complement and mark the intruder for NK cells to recognize. Cell mediated- refers to the direct involvement of cells to attack an infection such as T lymphocytes that will either kill invaded cells directly or recruit macrophages to kill the cells directly. This is important to combat intracellular infections. T cells (T cytotoxic cells) can also release cytokines (signal proteins) that call and activate macrophages which help with the attack. The T cytotoxic cells or the T cells recognize viral antigens on the surface of cells. They prevent amplification of the number of viruses. The T helper cells help B and T cells through direct contact. The T helper cells are need for specific and non specific immunity. Role of the Specific system: certain T cells become activated, and become T-cytotoxic cells (CD8 cells= activated) They attach to infected cells and destroy them (primary role); Their secondary role in the non-specific immune system is to use cytokines to signal and summon macrophages to destroy cells; T memory cells also help with antibodies in the humoral response (B cells) in the blood by activating them

Describe the other 2 not so important antibodies and briefly describe what they do

IgE- is responsible for type 2 Hypersensitivity (allergies); it is located on the surface of mast cells and results in the mast cells releasing their granules of histamine causing signs and symptoms of allergies. IgD- is present in low amounts in the blood stream. It appears to be an antigen receptor molecules from B cells that have come off the cell surface and are loose in the blood.

How many types of antibodies are there? List the 3 most important ones and what they do. What does the Ig in the names stand for?

IgG- the most abundant, present in the blood and most body fluids. They have the characteristic Y shape and structure of an antibody IgM- it is composed of 5 Y shaped sub units so it has 10 sites for combining with an antigen. It is the first antibody produced when the immune system begins to react. It is especially effective at cross linking antigens leading to improved phagocytosis by macrophages IgA- is known as a secretory antibody because it is present in large amounts in body secretions. It is composed of 2 Y-shaped subunits and it is abundant in mucus secretions. They are regularly released in large quantities into the GI tract for our protection All three of these do their jobs simply by attaching to antigens, resulting in agglutination or precipitation, neutralization, opsonization, and complement activation. Ig= Immunoglobulin

Where do germs live

In reservoirs. This indicates where the population of microbes is normally growing NOT where it is acquired from

List and describe the stages of disease

Incubation period- no signs or symptoms Prodromal period- vague, general symptoms Illness (AKA acute)- the most severe signs and symptoms Decline- declining signs and symptoms Convalescence- no signs or symptoms

What determines if we get sick? list the equation and explain the variables

Inf DIs= NxV/HF Inf Dis: the likelihood of contracting an infectious disease N: The numbers of infectious organisms/ how many you are exposed to V: the virulence of the organism HF: Host factors, including overall health, nutritional status, genetic background, age, and the immune system Remember this equation does not have any numbers it is a relationship equation Although this is a helpful relationship equation it is important to note that whether an organism will cause a disease is not always a clear cut thing. There is a gradation from pathogen to opportunist to non-infectious and what happens depends on the balance of these 3 factors

list a two specific triggers for the hypothalamus to raise the temperature of the body

Interleukin-1 it is known as the endogenous pyrogen because it is produced by the body and travels to the hypothalamus to activate the sequence leading to a change in the body's temp. microbial substances such as LPS

What does damage to tissues do?

It activates certain cells including mast cells that responds by producing a number of bioactive compounds including histamine which is a vasodilator. This results in warmer core blood being brought to the area which possibly slows the bacterial growth, speeds up the immune reactions by bringing more oxygen to the area, and brings more defensive cells and compounds to the area. This vasodilation accounts for most of the characteristics of inflammation.

What does the Varicella/Zoster virus cause and what family is it in?

It causes chicken pox and shingles It is a member of the herpes family It produces a distinctive rash Very contagious It has 2 names because if manifests itself in 2 different ways and we originally thought that it was 2 different viruses Shingles is a recurrence of the previous chicken pox. They appear in striped patterns because they are associated with a nerve and it runs down the skin along that nerve. First sign is the bright red rash followed by persistent deep skin pain and sensitivity to touch. Anti-herpes medications can bring shingles to an end sooner. Vaccines are recommended for people 60 or older vaccines and treatments are now available It is spread by contact

Describe the basics of blood clotting

It is a complicated pathway featuring inactive proteins becoming activated in a cascade fashion. Prothrombin is activated and becomes thrombin, and fibrinogen (soluble) becomes fibrin (insoluble) Fibrin cross-linked by Factor XIII Platelets respond to physical roughness (a hole or a buildup) and they release factors that lead to clotting (as described above). A hole will create turbulence initiating signals that cause clotting factors. Clotting can occur during pathological conditions

What is SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Distress syndrome)?

It is a coronavirus that caused a brief pandemic the reservoir is animals and it is currently under control It caused a huge scare was first found in a cat-like creature in China The whole city of Toronto, Canada had to be shut down and eventually the virus vanished from site

What is Hepatitis A

It is an enteric virus meaning that is is transmitted by the fecal or oral route you get it differently It lasts for weeks and it is not chronic and does not cause cancer

during the human life span, when is the gut microbiota formed? Why is this helpful?

It is established at one to two years of age; This allows for the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes to co-develope in a way that is tolerant to and even supportive of the gut microbiota and that also provides a barrier to pathogenic organisms.

List the 3 qualities that make an organism an antigen (capable of inducing an immune response) Give some examples of antigens: And state where they can be found

It is foreign It is large- Because of this only a portion of that antigen will actually bind to the antibody this portion is called an epitope. and it is molecularly complex (not smooth like a soccer ball) Ex. Bacterial membrane proteins, bacterial capsules, viral capsid proteins, proteins on plant pollen, bee venom and mold spores They can be in a solution or be part of or attached to something particulate like a virus, bacterium, pollen grain, or translated cell.They are polysaccharides made of different sugars. Proteins make the best antigens.

State why the lymph system is important to the internal defense. What specifically carries this process out?

It is important to the internal defense because it filters out microbes. This is because you do not want them to be dumped into the cardiovascular circulation; The lymph nodes filter out the microbes.

What is the Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV)? How is it spread?

It is the cause of AIDS and it requires sex or infection with contaminated blood - it is not easy to acquire The main types of cells infected: T helper cells and dendritic cells (including macrophages, and microglia- these are related to the macrophages and they assist the nervous system) Both of these have CD4 and CCR5 glycoproteins on surface which are essential binding proteins It causes a chronic infection where the t cells are constantly created and then destroyed eventually the host loses. This is because t-helper cells are crucial to the immune system (because they activate B and T cells) and without them the immune system will shut down

List the three R's of the immune system

It recognizes, responds to, and remembers molecules that are antigens

How does the Human Papilloma virus (HPV) spread and what does it cause?

It spreads by sex or blood and it causes genital warts and cervical cancer

Some intestinal bacterial play a role in the synthesis of what vitamins?

K and B12

List and describe the three main types of vaccines

Live attenuated vaccines- contain the actual active pathogens that have been grown in a way that weakens them this provides the strongest immunity out of all vaccines. It is more dangerous for individuals with weak immune systems. Dead/ inactivated contains microbes that are unable to grow or toxins that are no longer harmful these are safer but may not have as strong or lasting effect Portions of pathogens (capsules, proteins) that have been purified and combined or produced as a result of genetic engineering. There should be fewer side effects but sometimes there is a loss of efficacy (the ability to produce wanted results). The effects wear off sooner and booster shots are now known to required.

What type of tissue conducts GI tract surveillance?

MALT (mucous associated lymph node tissue) it does the surveillance by taking samples from the GI tract.

Define Antigenic Shift

Major mixing of RNAs and a whole new virus is created = sudden change

MMR means

Measles, mumps (inflammation of parotid glands), and rubella

List the parts of the GI tract as well as the relative populations of microbiota

Mouth= very full esophagus and stomach= fewer than in the mouth end of the small intestine= number increase dramatically and the rest of the GI tract is really full of bacteria

When an antibody binds to the antigen on the surface of a cell what type of cell may be triggered as a result? What happens after this cell is triggered? What is this process called?

NK cells ; After the antibody is bound to an infected cell it attracts the NK cell which lyses the infected cell. This process is known as Antibody dependent cell cytotoxicity ADCC

There are a variety of white blood cells list them in order from the largest quantity in the blood to the least numerous in the blood. Describe what they do as well as the percentages/ relative amounts of each. We do not need to know the percentages necessarily but we do need to know the relative amounts

Neutrophiles- These are the most abundant and they make up 50-70% of all leukocytes. They have short lives and are phagocytes. Lymphocytes- They consist of T, B and NK cells and they deal with specific immune response, however some are non specific immunity (NK cells). These make up 1/4-1/3 of the leukocytes in the blood (25-33%) Monocytes- 2-8% of total leukocytes they mature to become macrophages which are very important phagocytes Eosinophils- 1-5%; 1/10th the amount of neutrophils they stain red and they attack parasites. They gang up and attack worms that are bigger than itself by ganging up and extracellularly attacking the worms Basophils- 0.1% They stain blue and the release histamine

What types of white blood cells are considered granulocytes and why?

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils; they are considered granulocytes because of the microscopic appearance , presence of granules, and type of stain etc.

Do all infections (think microbiota sense) lead to an infectious disease?

No

In a sprained ankle is there an opportunity for infection?

No because there e is not breach in the skin.

Do antibodies work on viruses?

No because they are not cellular

Is pond water a reservoir for a human disease

No; humans are reservoirs for human diseases

Things to remember about viruses from previous tests

Non-cellular life They consist of a protein shell (capsid) plus nucleic acid Some may have envelopes, spikes, or accessory proteins They are obligate intracellular parasites meaning that they cannot replicate without a host cell thus they cannot survive or spread without a host They have a very simple life style as follows: Transmission to host and entry into host Attachment to host cell, entry into cell (into you) Transcription and translation, replication, assembly - program of procreation Lysis of the cell or budding to release virus from the host cell Then they must exit from the organism so that they can spread to others this is a really important part because they must get out to be successful so that they can enter a new host and begin the whole process again

Define immunity

Not being susceptible to disease

What causes infectious disease?

Pathogens

Define obligate pathogens

Pathogens that do not associate with their host except in the case of disease

What are some processes that the non-specific host defense system uses to protect you dealing with cellular defense:

Phagocytosis, and inflammation

List tactics that the non-specific host defense system uses to protect you

Physical barriers Cellular defense Chemical defense NET (Neutrophil extracellular traps) These occur when the neutrophil releases stringy DNA which acts as a net and has antimicrobial proteins imbedded in them. Together these create a mesh trap that can trap pathogens and assist with their removal. http://study.com/academy/lesson/specific-vs-non-specific-immunity.html

List some ways to prevent yourself from getting HIV

Practice monogamous sex Avoid sharing needles Remember that HIV cannot be spread by casual contact or mosquitos

What is the most abundant type of bacteria found in the air during a study of airborne bacteria?

Propionibacterineae which is common on human skin

Describe the infection process for the Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

RNA is copied into cDNA by reverse transcriptase cDNA inserts into host chromosome and becomes apart of that cell in the nucleus. This makes it hard to get rid of the virus because in order to get rid of the virus you pretty much have to destroy all infected cells. New RNA is made (specifically mRNA) Protein precursor made then process and assembly occurs Virions bud through cell membrane (budding) Note: the virus does not always kill its host because if it kills the host it will not have adequate nutrients.

List the five characteristics of inflammation (a response to tissue injury)

Redness, swelling, local heat, pain, and loss of function.

Describe Rhabdovirus (rabies)

Reservoir and means of transmission: Order carnivora (skunks, foxes, dogs and cats) Main carriers Raccoons: mid-Atlantic, and the Northeast Skunks and bats in the Midwest The virus multiplies in the salivary glands and the virus is in the saliva which means it facilitates its own spread A Bite inoculates (helps the spread of the virus) the virus travels slowly to the brain where the damage occurs The damage to the brain is what causes the animal to become crazy and bite you. It is fatal unless vaccinated (you can be vaccinated after infection because it moves so slowly to your brain)

Describe the common cold

Reservoir in humans and is spread by contact It causes inflammation to the sinuses and causes symptoms Many different types : Rhinoviruses, Adenovirus, Coronavirus, Parainfluenza A vaccine is not possible because of the different viruses and mutations in Rhinovirus an RNA virus

Which is the quicker response of the immune system the primary response or the secondary response?

Secondary response

What are the two chemical defenses discussed in this class? How do they work

Secretions- Fatty acids in the sebum on the skin causes low pH and they are toxic to bacteria. Lysozyme in tears, saliva and other fluids causes peptidoglycan destruction of G+ bacteria

Define morbidity rate

Sickness per total population over a given period of time

What is the major physical barrier of the body that covers the majority of the body's surface? and what characteristics allow it to carry out this function? Describe the characteristics as well.

Skin! It is layered tissue which makes it puncture resistant (stratified squamous epithelium) - when the outer layers slough off it takes microorganisms with is reducing the microbial load It is high in keratin making it water repellant (water is a good environment for bacteria so having this drier surface resists the abundant growth of bacteria) Its secretions (such as fatty acids) keep the pH low - most bacteria that live in this low pH are not very harmful - it is self repairing meaning that we do not walk around with huge holes in our skin that make our insides super vulnerable to bacteria

Define Antigenic drift

Small mutations, making the host susceptible this is why new vaccines are required each year= gradual change

Other than the lymph nodes where else are lymphoid tissues found?

Spleen, thymus, and tonsils

What is the Orthomyxovirus?

The Flu/ influenza: a Very serious separator disease The virus has a segmented genome it has 8 different RNA molecules Spread by contact Attacks your respiratory tract - it kills ciliated epithelial cells and allows for bacterial infections Causes the release of interferon from cells and causes symptoms this is what makes you feel bad It uses the H antigen (Hemagglutinin) for attachment (what does the binding)- This causes the agglutination of Red blood cells this is an artifact though because it is only present in the lab not in the normal environment because in the normal environment it does not have contact with blood N antigen (Neuraminidase)- enzyme that cuts off the sugar on the glycoprotein receptor an allow new virions to escape from the cell without getting stuck; Allows a new cell to become infected/ allows the virus to move to another cell. Major changes happen in the H and N antigens because of Antigenic shift meaning that it has more potential for spread and more drastic than a drift this is because influenza can mix with viruses that infect birds, pigs, and foul birds producing new strains that are able to jump to humans. Has a history of epidemics Asia is the start of many of these diseases flu vaccines are made from deactivated viruses - you cannot get the flu from the flu shot. If you start to feel bad after the shot that means that your interferons have been released causing you to feel bad... not because you are sick The vac ine is made in eggs

What is the result of the absence of MHC proteins on a cellular membrane?

The NK cells kill it

List some indirect effects of viruses

The T cell of the immune system kill the infected viral cells to block the replication of viruses The damage from the viruses results in activation of non-specific defenses such as phagocytic cells, and natural killer cells that kill the infected host cells. The complement interferon result in host cell death. Basically if the virus itself is not killing your cells the immune system is.

Define Pathogenicity

The ability of a microorganism to cause disease in another organism, namely the host for the pathogen.

What happens at the end of inflammation?

The accumulation of pus that is either released or absorbed and the connective tissue cells (fibroblasts) lay down a "patch" which can direct continued healing of the damaged area.

Define parasitism / parasitic relationship

The existence of a parasite implies that the parasite is capable of causing damage to the host. The parasite may become pathogenic if the damage to the host results in disease. ex. virus. One organism is benefiting at the cost of the host

What is the/ what was the Human Microbiome Project?

The goal was to sequence the genome of the human microbiota focusing particularly on the normal microbiota of the skin, mouth, nose, digestive tract, and vagina; The problem of elucidating the human microbiota is essentially identifying the members of a microbial community which includes bacteria, eukaryotes, and viruses. This is done primarily by using DNA-based studies, though RNA, protein and metabolite based studies can also be performed. Another challenge is the presence of the human/ host DNA this DNA needs to be excluded from the study. One of the major questions we are trying study is what is the "core", that is what is the sub set of the community that is shared among most humans (if there is one). If this core does exist then it would be possible to associate certain community compositions with disease states. The microbial genome data that were extracted by identifying the bacterial specific ribosomal RNA, 16S rRNA.

What area of the body has the greatest number of species in its microbiota compared to other areas of the body?

The gut

What identifies you as being a biochemically unique individual?

The labels on the cell membranes that are composed of MHC proteins.

How does the eye protect itself from possible bacteria infections?

The lacrimal glands continuously secrete, keeping the conjunctiva moist. Blinking lubricates the conjunctiva and washes away foreign material. Tears contain bactericides such as lysozyme, so that microorganisms have difficulty in surviving the lysozyme and settling on the epithelial surfaces.

What is the result of chronic inflammation that might be caused by Hepatitis B and C?

The liver cells can be replaced by connective tissue (fibroblast cells) and the organ fails because fibroblast cells cannot perform liver cell functions

What is a critical step in the development of some tumors?

The loss of appropriate boundaries and barrier maintenance between host and microbe.

What areas of the body shows the greatest diversity for microbiota make up?

The mouth and the gut; With skin and the vagina sites showing smaller diversity.

List an important physical barrier that lines openings that connect to the outside such as that found in the mouth, feint-urnary tract, respiratory tract etc. Why do the openings have this lining? How does the lining do this?

The mucous membranes; They have this lining because these openings are easier for microbes to invade but when they are costed with mucus that traps the microbes and movement from the ciliated (mainly in the respiratory tract) cells removes the microbes from the area. Some of these mucous membranes have additional protection from flushing action ex. tears, urine, saliva, and other secretions. These secretions wash them from one area to another that allows us to get rid of them. The mucus traps microbes. The action of cilia propels the mucus and microbes toward the GI tract where they can be flushed/pooped out out/ removed from the body.

Define incidence

The number of new cases during a period of time; This is an epidemiology term

The most common infectious disease effect what tracts? Why?

The respiratory tract and the GI tract; Easy in and easy out; They have the greatest frequency of exposure

What plays a role in determining the outcome of an infection?

The route of the entry, the number of infectious bacteria, the status of the host defenses

Define Parasitology

The scientific study of parasitism that deals with eukaryotic parasites exclusively

define Epidemiology

The study of disease. and the factors involved in the frequency and spread of disease.

Define Etiology

The study of the cause of diseases

Define determinate of virulence

The sum of the characteristics that allow a given bacterium to produce disease.

Activation and response of the immune system

The t helper cell is activated by the Antigen presenting cell and it sends signals to B and T cells. These independantly contact the antigen and produces a response They first expand in numbers by clonal expansion (some of the B cells become B memory cells to be able to produce a quicker response the next time the antigen is present) so that they will have an army to attack with. When they are activated the T cells mature into CD8 cells and the B cells become plasma cells and they make antibodies. In short: antigen presenting cell- lymph nodes- T-helper cell- T and B cells specific for that antigen (CD8 cells plasma cells T memory and B memory cells)

What section of an antibody actually binds to an antigen?

The variable region

What is transmission

The way that a microbe travels from the reservoir to you; can be by contact, vehicle, or vector

what is the systemic importance of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and other compounds gut microbiota produce?

They act like hormones and the gut microbiota acts as the endocrine organ.

describe ways that the microbes affect you in a negative way

They affect genomic stability, resistance to cell death and proliferative signaling (speed up cell signaling) , they can damage DNA, These contribute to carcinogenesis (cancer formation)

Define resident microbiota

They are always found on human tissues; part of the normal microbiota

What features of the lymph nodes allow them to filter microbes?

They are filed with macrophages and lymphocytes. (98% of the lymphocytes in the body are in the lymph system) The fluid in the lymph nodes flow slowly to maximize contact.

Describe and define Antibodies

They are protein molecules produced by activated B cells. They belong to a class of proteins called immunoglobulins (a sub class of globulins) They are Y-shaped molecule with hinges. The ends include variable regions where the antigen binding occurs. The antibodies made by a single B cell are all the same. They are specific for different antigens

what are pattern recognition receptors?What do they do?

They are proteins in the membranes that detect specific bacterial infections. They recognize, and bind to different pathogens they can affect genetics/ gene regulation. They activate cascades leading to up regulation of the immune activating proteins. They assist in non-specific and specific immunity. They deal with MHC proteins on the surface of cellular membranes. These receptors recognizes what is you and what is normally not there. It is an antibacterial defense system.

Define and describe Natural killer cells (NK cells)

They are technically lymphocytes but they are not T or B cells. They do not have specificity and are an important part of the non-specific part of the host defenses. They work by binding to the target cell and releasing perforin (a pore forming cytolytic protein) which allow transport of destructive proteases (breaks down proteins and peptides) into the target cell resulting in its destruction. They detect the absence of MHC proteins due to viral infection (the absence of the MHC proteins is one tactic that the virus tries so that it will not be "seen" by the immune system). It also sees when an antibody is bound to an infected host cell and it will aid in the killing of the cell

How do antibodies help

They attach to antigens. Can cause agglutination making it easier for virus removal by macrophages Precipitation- toxin molecules come out of solution and can be cleared out. soluble to insoluble; This helps because the toxin needs to be soluble to cause effects. This solubility change is caused by clumping. Neutralization- toxins, viruses no longer active. (the covering of critical binding site known as the epitope) Keeping them from being able to bind to host cells

How can small foreign molecules be recognized by the immune system as an antigen? In that case what is the small foreign molecule known as

They can bind to another larger molecule which causes them to appear bigger and now they can be recognized by the immune system as an antigen. The small foreign molecule is now known as a hapten

How do resident microbes exist in the mouth and why?

They exist by adhering to the teeth and gums to resist the mechanical flushing from the mouth to the stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.

What does human papillomaviruses (HPV) do?

They express oncoproteins. This viral integration selectively amplifies host genes in pathways with established cancer roles.

What do perturbations (anxiety; mental uneasiness) to a host immune system coupled with inflammatory stimulus do?

They may enrich bacterial clades that attach to host surface, invade host site, or trigger host inflammatory mediators.

What qualities in pathogenic bacteria cause them to produce disease?

They possess certain structural, biochemical, or genetic traits that render them pathogenic or virulent.

How does the vaginal microbiota play an important role in fighting infections and maintaining vaginal health?

They suppress pathogens by producing hydrogen peroxide and lactic acid. Lactobacillus is helpful to the female reproductive system. Yeast = sometimes harmful

Describe super antigens

This is an endotoxin that causes toxic shock syndrome toxin. Endotoxin mostly released upon G-cell death. This causes massive over-response of white blood cells followed by decreased responsiveness. Resulting in fever, shock and intravascular coagulation

What is Hepatitis C

This is not as common as A or B It is transmitted by blood contact It quietly destroys the liver, it is chronic and cancer is possible

Define Arbovirus

This is when the arthropod is the vector for the virus/ the virus is transmitted by an arthropod such as a mosquito, tick, etc.

Define symbiosis

This means "life together" that two organisms live in association with one another.

Define Acquired/specific immunity

This requires exposure to microbe/ allergen (you are not born with it) this includes your T cell, B cell and antibodies. With this immunity your body responds to and remembers specific invaders. Think about on demand you can download a move but first it has to be downloaded.

Define normal microbiota

Those that are expected to be present and that under normal circumstances do not cause disease. Microbes that are normally found on the body.

Why should you get the rubella vaccine?

To prevent child defects; if you get it when you are pregnant your child will experience deformities

True/False: Although most of the microbes known to cause cancer by the international agency for research on cancer are present on healthy individuals in large amounts they only seemed to cause a problem (such as cancer) in genetically susceptible individuals

True

True/False: Certain commercially available strains of probiotic bacteria when taken by the mouth daily for 1-2 months possess treatment efficacy (improved behavioral outcomes) in certain central nervous system disorders. These disorders include anxiety, depression, autisms spectrum disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and improved certain aspects of memory

True

True/False: Deification temporarily decreases the microbial population

True

True/False: Diabetic foot ulcers develop their own distinctive microbiota

True

True/False: Feces consist largely of bacteria

True

True/False: Intestinal viruses are common like the cold and there are many different types so it is hard to form a vaccine

True

True/False: Poor oral health and the resulting ability of the oral microbiota to invade the body affects cardiac health as well as cognitive function

True

True/False: The antibody undergoes a shape change upon binding with an antigen

True

True/False: The blood and the cerebral spinal fluid should be sterile

True

True/False: The blood is a cellular defense

True

True/False: When vaginal microbiota is disturbed it can cause bacterial vaginosis or candidiasis (yeast infection)

True

True/False: compromised host or microbiota resiliency also reduce the resistance to malignancy. This may cause cancer and inflammatory disorders

True

True/False: some non-pathogenic microbiota can harm human hosts via the metabolites (a substance formed in or necessary for metabolism) they produce

True

True/False: some viruses can be spread by vectors

True

Describe vectors in terms of transmission

Typically arthropods (insects and ticks) They can be mechanical vectors- they simply spread the disease ex. houseflies walking on feces and spread germs to humans Biological: Pathogen goes through part of the life cycle in vector. Ex. viruses or protozoa that reproduce within the mosquito.

What viruses are spread by mosquitos in North America

Viral encephalitis- inflammation of the brain (reservoir includes horses) including the west nile virus - The symptoms are so minor that the host might not even know they are sick/ infected; Reservoir= birds

What are some of the consequences for damage to ciliated cells within the respiratory system? What can cause damage to these cells?

Viral infections (such as the influenza virus) kills the ciliated cells, cigarette smoke causes their replacement with other non ciliated cells. This causes the mucus to accumulate and act as a nutrient source for bacteria.

What is responsible for most infectious diseases?

Viruses 70%-80% of infectious diseases of the respiratory tract 50% infections for GI tract

List some direct effects of viruses

Viruses multiply inside the host cell by using its resources often resulting in the death of that cell They can also alter the cell cycle regulation to promote their own replication AKA forcing the cell to replicate even when it is not ready to. This might lead to cancer because the cell is being pushed to regulate so it is not proof reading as well.

List the benefits (especially for those in the gut) for the microbe in the mutualistic relationship between humans and their microbiota

Warm, wet place to live and there is plenty to eat

Describe and list vehicles in a transmission sense

Water- mostly ones that cause diarrhea enter water supply Food- unpasteurized or contaminated food due to it being improperly grown, processed or prepared. Airborne- microbes attached to dust, skin flakes, dried mucus allowing them to become aerosols, and travel through the air.

Define endogenous bacterial disease

When a member of the normal microbiota causes an infectious disease

give an example of passive immunity

When you are given temporary protection to an antigen due to the antibodies you need being made elsewhere and being given to you. Eventually this antibodies will be cleared from you and you will once again be without protection

Is a small number of bacteria and fungi normally present in the conjunctiva (mucus membranes on the eye and eyelid) ?

Yes

Do we benefit from some of the gut microbiota?

Yes, all of the gut microbiota does not have merely a commensal relationship with the organism (us humans). Some have a mutualistic relationship with us. We can benefit from the bacterial because they metabolize dietary fiber into short- chain fatty acids. These fatty acids (such as acetic acid and butyric acid) can then be absorbed by the host.

Does sexual intercourse have an effect on the vaginal microbiota?

Yes; also antibiotics

Can infectious disease be non- communicable?

Yes; ex. an infected appendix that burst it is all contained and can't really spread it to someone else.

What virus is spread by mosquitos in south america and now showing up in Florida thanks to global warming?

Zika virus

define virulence

a degree of how nasty a disease is ex. high virulence flu virus= possibly fatal

Define pyrogen

a substance that triggers fever

List some advantages of having a low grade fever Note: too high of a fever is dangerous

activation of sickness behavior which allows you to rest and eat and heal raises the temperature of the body above normal body temperature which stresses infectious microbes giving the host an advantage Fever triggers the sequestration of iron. Iron is a critical element for microbes and the body works hard to hide the Fe from the microbes.

Define Human microbiota AKA indigenous microbiota

aggregate of microorganisms (including bacteria, archaea, protists, fungi and viruses) that resides on or within any of a number of human tissues and biofluids, including the skin, mammary glands, placenta, seminal fluid, uterus, ovarian follicles, lung, saliva, oral mucosa, conjunctiva, and gastrointestinal tracts. This refers specifically to the collective genomes of resident microorganisms. This is highly variable in a single subject and between different individuals. These have a full range of symbiotic interactions with the host. The blood and internal tissues are sterile.

Define Opsonims and Opsonization

an antibody or other substance that binds to an antigen and makes it more susceptible to phagocytosis. Any process that improves the ability of phagocytic cells to phagocytize their targets. the phagocytes have cell surface receptors for the Fc ends of antibodies that are bound to antigens.

List some specific things that intestinal bacteria play a role in metabolizing?

bile acids, sterols, and xenobiotics.

What are complement proteins and how do they work?

blood / Fluid proteins within the blood- complement- collection of 20+ blood proteins that work in a cascade fashion. They complement the activities of antibodies meaning they are activated by an antibody or by an alternative pathway. They ultimately result in the lysis of the infected cells due to increased phagocytosis and inflamm (heat, inflammation, etc.) They do this by stimulating inflammation, acting as opsonins (increasing phagocytosis), and lyse cells. innate immune system. they are activated when the antigen binds to the antibody and this initiates the binding of the C1 to the antibody, the first step in the complement cascade. The cascade assembles on the surface of the bacterial cell forming a membrane attack complex. This results in holes being punched through the membrane of the bacterial cell causing lysis to occur. This is an example how specific (antibodies) and non specific immune system (complement) work together. Interferon- there are several types that warn neighboring cells (signaling molecule) of local viral infections and they include the anti-viral states (telling them not to replicate/ shuts down the nearby cells to hopefully reduce infection). It also functions as an interleukin. Shuts down host translation and destroys all mRNA in hopes of destroying the virus. This makes protein synthesis for the virus very difficult as well as protein synthesis for the host cell. This is activated by pattern recognition.

How is the Human herpes Virus 2 (HHV2) spread and list a common infection in the herpes family

blood or sex It is a member of the large herpes virus family (the chicken pox is also in this family)

Define mutualistic relationship/ mutualism. Give an example from class.

both organisms benefit; ex. lactic acid bacteria that live on the vaginal epithelium. The bacteria are provided a habitat with a constant temperature and supply of nutrients (glycogen) in exchange for the production of lactic acid, which protects the vagina from colonization and disease caused by yeast and other potentially harmful microbes. Ex. our microbiota is more like a mutualism.

How is hepatitis B spread?

by blood and sex it is the most abundant type of hepatitis this is why they worry about blood at basketball games.

Define mortality

death per total population over a given period of time

Define Pandemic

epidemic spreads world wide

Explain examples of how microorganisms are implicated to ~20% of human malignancies (such as cancer)

ex. mucosal microbes can become part of the tumor microenvironment (TME) of aerodigestive tract malignancies. Intramural (microbes from yourself?) microbes can affect cancer growth and spread. Gut microbiota can detoxify dietary components reduction inflammation and balancing host cell growth and proliferation. Coley's toxins were one of the earliest forms of cancer bacteriotherapy. Synthetic biology employs designer microbes and microbiota transplants against tumors.

Because people are re-supending what's been deposited before ... what turns out to be the major source of the bacteria that we breath?

floor dust

What is Hepatitis B

has worse symptoms than A Those that get it from shooting drugs in their arms are going to have less chronic cases than children who get it from their mother; This can also be transmitted by sex and infected blood It can cause cancer and can become chronic depending on how old you are

Define infection in the microbiota sense

if a bacterium breaches one of the surfaces that is normally sterile such as the blood or internal tissues

where is the body's temperature control located

in the hypothalamus

What does a change in the normal, healthy vaginal microbiota indicate?

infections

List some diseases or results of the dysregulation of the gut microbiota.

inflammatory and autoimmune conditions

What is the result of cytolysis of the host cells?

inflammatory compounds are released such as cytokines which are protein messenger molecules. the dead cell also attracts neutrophils and macrophages

What does it mean when it says an infectious disease is communicable

it can be spread from one person to another by some means ex. herpes Contagious: not rigorously defined can easily be spread from one person to another usually by contact ex. genital herpes, measles

Describe the lymph system

it is a series of vessels and nodes and it is an important part of the internal defense. It drains off excess body fluids from tissues and returns the fluids to the cardiovascular system

Define Phagocytosis

it is an important process in which cells such as macrophages or neutrophils attach to and ingest microbial invaders. This results in death of the microbe. Identify, ingest and destroy foreign ivaders and debris.

Define Serum

it is plasma without the clotting factors. It is created by allowing the blood to clot it contains all the other blood proteins.

Explain why herd immunity is important. Also explain mathematically why it is important.

it provides indirect protection from disease due to there being a high number of immune individuals in the population. The more immune individuals there are the harder it is for the disease to be spread around many people. The cycle of transmission is broken. By being vaccinated you are protecting the weaker population that cannot be immunized themselves. Without herd immunity after 3 rounds of contact (with 10 people) starting with one infected individual ends with 1000 infected individuals with herd immunity and 80%+ is vaccinated after 3 rounds of contact with 10 people each time only 8 people end up being infected *Look up herd immunity math

Non-infectous bacteria have _________ Pathogenicity

low

Define disease

malfunction in or damage to the host; Disease is a condition of the host NOT an infectious microbe. Bacteria causes the disease it is not the disease.

Define pathogen

microorganism or virus that is able to produce a disease

Where does the majority of the microbes on the skin (largest organ of the body) reside?

on the superficial cells on the skin or associate with glands; These glands provide the microbes with water, amino acids, and fatty acids. These resident bacteria that associate with oil glands are often Gram-positive and can be pathogenic

Define notifiable disease

potentially harmful diseases which must be reported to the CDC or other Health Unit by physicians this allow the CDC or the WHO to keep track and intervene

Because mucosal surface barriers are subject to environmental influences they must ______________ to maintain homeostasis.

rapidly repair

Define Plaque

sticky substance that grows on the surfaces within the mouth, if it is not removed by brushing it hardens into a calculus AKA tartar. This substance is composed of bacteria. This bacteria secretes acids that dissolve tooth enamel that causes tooth decay.

Define Virulence

the degree of pathogenicity

If you have measles where does it first show up? what are these spots called? What happens later on?

the mouth; koplik spots; rash on the skin

Define the epidemiology term prevalence

the number of ongoing cases at any one time

What does Pro-inflammaotry factors such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen do?

these can drive tumor growth and spread. The tumors can up-regulate and activate pattern recognition receptors driving feedforward loops of activation of cancer-associated inflammation regulator.

What is the effect of global warming on arboviruses?

they are moving more north

Once the barriers of the mucosal surface are breached what occurs?

they can activate pro inflammatory or immunosuppressive programs

Define transient microbiota

they come and go they can include potential pathogens these are part of the normal microbiota

The way an infection enters your body; Describe

through the portal of entry; Glands, follicles, anything that opens to the outside. respiratory system, digestive system, genito-urinary tract. cuts bites burns and surgical incisions Crossing the placenta infecting the fetus

The way an infection exits your body; Describe

through the portal of exit; often the same or connected to a portal of entry

What are the functions of the Non-specific host defenses

to keep microbes "out"/ keep them from penetrating surfaces Minimize microbial load= prevent the build up of microbes in any area Internal, non-specific line of defense by destroying microbes that penetrate boundaries

How does destruction of the microbe occur in the phagocytic process?

when the phagosome fuses with a lysosome that is generally capable of producing highly oxidizing substances such as bleach, peroxide, and superoxide which are very destructive to the microbes. . The lysosome contains an acidic environment that contains a variety of hydrolytic enzymes which degrade the molecules of the microbe. What is really cool is after the microbe is destroyed the useful small molecules remaining from the phagocytic process can be transported to the cytoplasm for use. The other useless material is transported out of the cell by exocytosis.

Descrive the endocytosis process used in the phagocytosis process

when the pseudopodium draws the object into the cytoplasm. It is contained in a vesicle known as the phagosome

define commensal/ commensalism

when two organisms can co exist without harm to one or the other; This works best when the relationship between two organisms is unknown and not obvious. When two organisms coexist and neither is benefited or harmed

Define innate immunity

you are born with it This refers to non-specific defense such as: external barriers, internal blood cells, complement, interferon etc. This also refers to genetic resistance such as species, individual variations in presence/ structure of receptors. Naturally immune

If the ______________ signaling pathway that regulates the cells' polarity, growth and differentiation is influenced by cancer-associated bacteria what happens?

β-catenin; they influence the β-catenin signaling