Unit 6: Imperialism World History II

Nationalism, Imperialism, and Industrialization: United States

After independence, the United States incrementally expanded its territory, pushing the indigenous populations to the margins. The map below shows how the US expanded through purchase and treaty over the course of the 19th century. Frederick Jackson Turner, an eminent historian at the turn of the 20th century, argued that the frontier—the areas at the edges of US Government control impacted how US national identity was expressed. He argued in his frontier thesis that the ability for American citizens to distinguish themselves from others and their abilities to 'conquer' the land added to the conception of American strength and democracy, even as politics were increasingly divisive and unstable during the 19th century. The concept of conquering land for the United States hinged on its ability to utilize the land. For much of what Americans today call the Midwest, the Ohio River Valley, the conquest of this territory was not only accomplished militarily, but also industrially. The map below shows the growth of roads, canals, and rivers in the 19th century. Just as was discussed in Unit 5, initial industrial growth required water for power and transportation. In the US, industrialization began with textile production, but also incorporated agricultural production, particularly cattle. Chicago became a key destination for cattle and the stockyards became a focus for social campaigns in the early 20th century. Nonetheless, these stockyards industrialized the slaughter, butchering, and with the railroads, transportation of the meat from the processing plant to market. Below you can see the growth of railroads by 1870 in the US; many connect producers, manufacturers, and consumers in a single network. However, US national identity was not only shaped by the physical expansion of territory. This identity was shaped through the US relationships with Latin America and the Caribbean. The Latin American and Caribbean revolutions for independence from Spain created unstable countries that were internally divided and lacked external sources of support. In 1823 US President James Monroe characterized their instability as a danger to US national interests and argued that the US had a responsibility to protect the freedom and independence of the western hemisphere from European imperial interference. This statement, the Monroe Doctrine, governed US relationships with Latin America and the Caribbean for the next two decades. By limiting European interference, the US Government did secure independence for many of the unstable states in Latin America and the Caribbean, but it also served as an important point of US national identity—it advanced the US Government's belief that it was the protector of independence and freedom.

the ottoman empire

Although Japan successfully staved off imperial power and became an imperial power itself in the 19th century, other empires worked to maintain their authority through modernization. The Ottoman Empire (13th century-1922) controlled much of the Middle East, but from 1798 its power waned. This map shows the growth of the Ottoman Empire from 1300-1699. Growth of the Ottoman Empire In 1798, Napoleon invaded one of the most profitable and prosperous Ottoman provinces, Egypt. Although his invasion was unsuccessful, the challenge shook the Ottoman government to its core. From about 1789, the Ottoman Sultan Selim III tried to reform the government by creating a new military and a diplomatic corps to facilitate communications between the Ottoman governments and the rulers of other countries in Europe. His reforms were met with resistance and he was assassinated in 1807. His successor continued his efforts at reform and issued the 1839 and 1856 decrees. Reading these two documents illustrates the commitment of the Ottoman sultans to Enlightenment-style reforms. Many of these reforms deal with creating equality under the law and for tax purposes. Although occasionally referred to as a "sick man of Europe" in the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire did not begin the 1900s as that. Indeed, industrialization was forestalled by foreign interference and despite the external pressures managed to industrialize some sectors of their economy. In the early 19th century, the province of Egypt within the Ottoman Empire worked to industrialize. It was already a cotton-producing region of the empire and its governor, Mehmet Ali, wanted to expand industrial production so that Egypt and the Ottoman Empire could rival Europe. He imported factories and set about spinning and weaving cotton into cloth that could be exported to Europe. In 1838, the Ottoman Sultan signed a treaty with the British Government called the Treaty of Balta-Liman. This treaty eliminated trade tariffs on British goods imported into the Ottoman Empire and opened the Ottoman Empire as a market for cheap, English fabric. The Egyptian factories could not keep up and closed. Egypt became a producer of raw materials. This example was a portent of what was to come, indeed, the Ottoman Empire actually de-industrialized over the course of the 19th century because of the access to cheap, foreign industrial goods and because of the pressures faced by the government. Internal political unrest and external wars were costly in terms of time, manpower, and money and these help explain why the Ottoman Empire did not industrialize. These reforms triggered nationalist movements. Initially, the Young Ottomans worked to create a more unified and homogenous identity within the Ottoman Empire that echoed the consolidation of national identities in Europe. This group was quickly superseded by the Young Turks and Arab Nationalists who each argued that their ethnic identity as Turks or Arabs was more significant to them than their civic affiliation with the Ottoman Empire. In this case, national identity was not created through empire, but rather destroyed by it. In addition to these reforms that created internal crises, the Ottoman Empire suffered from external threats, fighting wars with Russia in 1828-29, 1853-56 (Crimean War), and 1877-78, and losing territory to Austria in 1878 (Bosnia). The Ottoman sultans looked for alliances and help from European countries in the 19th century and generally received it from the British. As noted above, the Ottoman Empire lost Algeria to the French and the French also threatened Lebanon at mid-century. Although the French received the right to protect Catholics in Lebanon, they were unable to take the province entirely. However, this did set a dangerous precedent and both the Austro-Hungarian (Catholic) and Russian (Orthodox) Empires requested similar concessions for their co-religionists in the Balkans. Regardless of these political challenges, the Ottoman Empire expanded its influence during the 19th century into Arabia at the beginning and end of the century. During the late 18th century, a new power arose in Arabia, the Saudi-Wahhabis, who threatened Ottoman power in western Arabia and Iraq. The map pictured below on the left shows their expansion. The Ottoman military turned back this first Saudi-Wahhabi state and co-opted them into the Ottoman administration of Arabia. In the 1870s, Ottoman authority expanded along the east coast of Arabia, along the Persian Gulf into what is today the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The map pictured below on the right shows the extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1900. Expanding into this area brought the Ottoman Government into direct conflict with the British Government, which responded to the threat by seeking to undermine Ottoman authority without triggering a war. Saudi Wahhabis Expansion and the Ottoman Empire in 1900 Although the Ottoman Empire during WWI is maligned as the 'sick man of Europe,' the internal threats and loss of territory obscure the fact that the Ottoman Empire was coming to terms with the 19th century and working to deal with many similar issues to the European empires, along with the challenge of imperialism. Despite these challenges, the Ottoman Empire remained formidable until the end of WWI when it was dissolved by nationalists after having joined the German and Austro-Hungarian alliance.

changing the game "the scramble"

Although generally associated with Africa, the so-called scramble for colonies 1880-1914 affected Asia as well, but its effects in Africa were more dramatic. This map shows the results of imperial expansion in SE Asia, but nowhere was the establishment of imperial authority more sudden or explosive than in Africa. While, as noted in the previous lesson that some areas were able to maintain independence, the independent kingdoms of India, for instance, many were not. This link provides an overview to imperialism in Africa, how it grew, and how it connects to some of the ideas developed in Unit 4. This map shows Africa in 1808. You can zoom in to different areas to see the names written on the map. Although not all of the kingdom or group names provided are correct (Hottentot was a pejorative British term that lumped a number of ethno-linguistic groups together), this map shows the way that the British government viewed the kingdoms of Africa. Many of the names along the coast indicate cities, but internally, the names in capital letters refer to kingdoms or ethno-linguistic groups that claim authority in that area. This map illustrates not only the limitations of British knowledge—the big pink band across the top referred to as "Negroland" was never an actual kingdom and Ethiopia is put in the wrong place on the map—but it also reveals the complexity of early 19th century African political history. While historians might not know a lot about these different groups because they chose to record their histories and records orally, these groups were present and often fought to preserve their rights to their lands. Further, this ignorance about Africa caused many British historians in the 19th century to label Africa the "dark continent," which expresses more about their ignorance about the interior of the continent, than about any quality inherent to Africa itself. Africa in 1808

Nationalism and Imperialism: Russia

As noted in Unit 4, many European monarchs used ideas of the Enlightenment to expand their power: Catherine the Great centralized authority in the office of the tsar employing the Enlightenment ideal of equality for her citizens strategically. She argued that all people were her servants and in so doing bypassed the traditionally strong class of nobles who threatened her authority. The map below shows how the empire grew from the 16th-19th century. The increasing number of non-Russians in the empire stimulated Alexander II (1855-1881) to create the slogan "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality." With this slogan he made a statement about the direction of Russian identity—it was Orthodox Christian, dedicated to tsarist power, and Russian nationality. Russia was not the only place to expand their identity as they came into contact with people of different ethnicities. Alexander II did not just attempt to transform Russia's national identity via the slogan above, he also instituted the Great Reforms (1855-1881). These reforms were controversial because they worked to change the social order in Russia by attacking the landed gentry—nobles who owned land, and elevating industrialists, businessmen and technicians. As part of the Great Reforms, Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861. Serfdom was first introduced in the mid-17th century to appease land owners by tying individuals to specific lands. Serfs were not permitted to move from their land and had to produce certain quantities of crops for the landlord. Alexander II considered serfdom as a symbol of Russia's backwardness because it chained individuals to the land. Keep in mind, the question of slavery's morality plagued 19th century Europe as slave owners sought to navigate the tensions of the Enlightenment—were all men equal? In mid-19th century Russia, the tsar's answer was: while his subjects were not all equal, bondage was immoral and moreover, serfdom was a threat to Russia's stability and future. He expressed his desire to emancipate the serfs in nationalist and Enlightenment terms. Despite the moral inspiration, this action stimulated intense opposition—not all peasants were serfs and they were upset that they suddenly had to compete for land with a new group of people. Similarly, the nobles whose serfs left their land questioned the economic viability of this movement. Ultimately, many serfs either fled to the cities to be part of the industrialization movement or remained on the land they farmed as serfs, as what in the US context is called sharecropping.

British Imperial Authority in Africa

As they expanded their influence in Asia, they also looked to Africa. In the late 19th century, with their finances in order thanks to the colonization of India and the expanded trading relationships with China, Britain could finally begin to experience the benefits of colonies—wealth. However, the imperial relationship came with significant drawbacks—namely the cost of maintaining an empire. Without the BEIC, the British Treasury became responsible for administering the colonies, staffing the bureaucracy, and overseeing the army and navy. Beyond this, expanding the empire was an expensive proposition as well. Before 1800, the core of Dutch imperialism in the area was around the Cape Colony. Below, you can see the growth of Dutch influence in the region. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Cape Colony became highly contested. Growth of the Dutch Cape Colony The map below shows the growth of English authority in the early 19th century—it was slow. What is more, the primary enemy of the British were the Dutch who established their own Orange Free State after being pushed by the British settlers and army off their lands in the pink section of the map. The yellow sections of this map represent autonomous areas that were controlled by independent kings and rulers from many different linguistic and ethnic groups. Growth of English Authority in the Cape Colony This map shows the Cape Colony in 1878. Note that between the mid-19th century marked by the last map and 1878, there was little appreciable expansion. After 1878, British imperial authority expands at an unprecedented rate in this area. Click here to view another map detailing this expansion. Be sure to pay attention to the key which explains how British Imperial authority grew in the Cape Colony. The Cape Colony in 1878 The wars to expand British authority in southern Africa began in 1879 with the Zulu War (1879) against the powerful Zulu armies, followed quickly by the First South African War (1880-1881) against the Dutch settlers. By the Second South African War (1899-1902) British authority expanded precipitously and the map looked like the one pictured below. The South African Wars are also known as the Boer Wars. Boer was a pejorative term for a Dutch colonist and thus historians try not to use the word Boer anymore. With the Treaty of Vereeniging, British authority was affirmed in the pink areas with the creation of the South African Republic and the Transvaal and Orange River Colonies were given autonomy in the region. The Boer War

Russia, Imperialism, and Industrialization

Beyond freeing the serfs, Alexander II also instituted a program of industrialization. Industrialization in Russia focused on heavy industry, capital, and railroads. By the turn of the 19th century, Russia had eight industrial regions. The Moscow industrial region had textile, metal, and chemical plants. St. Petersburg specialized in metal processing, machine building, and textiles. Polish regions had textile, coal, iron, metal, and chemical industries. The Ukranian, Ural, and Transcaucasian regions supplied raw materials—coal, iron, and other minerals. What this suggests is that the cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg) specialized in manufacturing, while the non-ethnic Russian and newly acquired regions in the south like Ukraine and the area between the Black and Caspian Seas focused on producing raw materials for those plants. In a way, this mirrors the division of extraction and manufacturing in many empires—the big cities at the core of the empires refine and manufacture goods, while the colonies produced raw materials to feed the city's factories. Russia incorporated Siberia into its empire in the 17th century, but did not have an effective way to administer it until the 19th century and the coming of industrialization which allowed for the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The Trans-Siberian Railway was one of the icons of Russian industrialization. Beginning in 1891, it was completed in 1903 and symbolized Russia's arrival as an industrial power. Not only were they able to build the railway and connect the furthest reaches of their empire, but they were also able to gain access to the Pacific trade networks and threaten other governments. In 1905, Russian presence on the Pacific coast of Asia stimulated war with another industrializing power, Japan. This is discussed in John Green's video, "Samurai, Daimyo, Matthew Perry, and Nationalism," which is covered later in this unit.

Expanding Outward from India

Britain's interests in the Indian Ocean expanded in the 19th century, not only in India, but also throughout the region and Asia more generally. The growth of British influence in India and their expansion more generally was intimately linked to British interests in China because it was through China that the British were able to finally turn their imperial investment in the Indian Ocean into real wealth. After the Britain gained control of Bengal, they acquired access to the opium fields of that region. This powerful drug gave the British East India Company the opportunity to enter many markets and to fund their expansion because the drug was in demand. Like all commodities, however, they are only valuable if they can be sold. China was ruled by the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) whose emperors considered themselves superior to all other people on Earth. Around 1760, the Qing Emperor confined all foreign trade to a port in the south called Guangzhou (Canton). The images below show the bustling port. In the first painting, you should notice the different flags flying over the warehouses in the area. Here you can see that there were many different warehouses in the area including those for the Danish, Spanish, French, Americans, Swedes, and Chinese merchants in this port. Trade at Guangzhou Trade at Guangzhou To gain an advantage against the other traders with China and to make the Indian colony profitable, the BEIC began smuggling opium into China and selling it to Chinese merchants for transmission into China. Opium importation was illegal in the Qing Empire and in 1838, the Qing Emperor sent an official to investigate reports of the importation of opium by British merchants. When the investigator found evidence of the opium in their warehouse, he seized it and ordered that all British ships must be searched for opium before landing. In 1839, the British East India Company began a blockade of China and began bombarding Chinese ports in the first of what are called Opium Wars. The Chinese navy did not have the technological ability to compete with the British gunboats, for so long their battles were terrestrial, not maritime. By 1842, British ships threatened the imperial court in Beijing and the Qing Emperor agreed to the Treaty of Nanking, also called the Unequal Treaty, which you can read here. This treaty opened five of China's ports to British trade, forced them to pay reparations for the war to the British for opium and British lives lost, and required them to cede the island of Hong Kong to the British. This treaty also stimulated further threats from other countries including the US, France, and later Germany who all wanted equal trading rights with the British Government. The Qing Dynasty, being unable to compete and dealing with significant social problems internally, signed those treaties as well.

The British in India

By 1800, British imperial power was waning in the Atlantic with the loss of the American colonies. In the Indian Ocean, however, the story was very different. The British East India Company (BEIC), until 1857 directed policy in India. This private company funded its own army and navy, conscripting many of its soldiers and sailors from India and officers from England. From the late 18th century, BEIC power increased in India. This link shows the growth of British influence, but if you notice, not all of the control was direct. The British utilized both military conquest and diplomatic alliance to gain influence over the different Indian empires. They were able to do this because India at the turn of the 19th century was politically divided. Following the Seven Years War (1756-1763) the British East India Company established a firm hold over the area of eastern India known as Bengal. In the map below, you can see the area controlled by the BEIC in the darker brown color. What is more is that this territory is the sum total of over 100 years of BEIC influence in the area. The BEIC established trading ports in India after 1612 focusing on strategic areas in the northeast, northwest, and south, but they did not have the power to challenge the Mughal Empire who controlled much of India and its trade. Even in the early 19th century when Mughal authority and territory declined, the BEIC chose not to directly engage the Mughal emperors. 18th Century India Below, you can see the greatest extent of Mughal power, reached in 1707 and from then, Mughal authority shrunk back into the northern areas of India. The decline of Mughal authority was accompanied by a strengthening of the southern Indian kingdoms, including the Nizams of Hyderabad and the Sultans of Mysore. Both groups worked against the BEIC and tried to establish their own authority in southern India. The BEIC fought four wars against the Sultans of Mysore before the kingdom fell. Click here to read about one of their last leaders, Tipu Sultan. Greatest Extent of Mughal Power in India The constant battles between the BEIC and local rulers continued and as the BEIC gained control of an area, they set up a governing system and recruited people into their private military. The BEIC was separate from Britain's formal army and so relied on local recruits. These recruits believed they would remain in their home territories and be paid regularly, both of which turned out to be unreliable expectations. In 1857, following rumors that the new cartridges for their weapons included some type of animal fat, pig or cow, a mutiny began. The Indian Mutiny of 1857 resulted in the British Government taking direct control of India away from the BEIC and the establishment of the Government of India, which worked in parallel with Britain's Government in London. It gave the British Government flexibility to respond to issues within the Indian Ocean. The Indian Mutiny was the culmination of almost a century of East India Company expansion that either took control directly or allied with the princely states in India. After the Indian Mutiny, the British Government undertook a massive industrialization campaign in India. Unlike in Europe, however, Indian textile manufacturing was already a booming business. In fact, the production of Indian cotton cloth was one of the prized goods exported from the region. The major difference between manufacturing in India and England in the 19th century, was that in India the level of production was met through human and not mechanical labor. However, once the British imported industrial technologies, many of these weavers lost their jobs and either moved into farming, left the subcontinent altogether as indentured servants, or migrated to cities to work in the British factories. Although the story of industrialization follows a similar trajectory to Europe—displacement, pollution, and urban crowding—some people did manage to make a living and become successful. The biggest success story is that of Jamsetji Tata who worked first in cotton mills and then worked to import newer technologies including Egyptian cotton and American machinery to revolutionize his factories. Using these funds, he expanded and invested into steel production. His heirs worked to expand the company and it remains one of the most successful and diversified companies in India. In addition to bringing mechanized factories to India, the British also championed the rail system. By 1909, the railway network in India was among the most sophisticated in the world and connected the major cities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta to the rest of the India. This facilitated not only the movement of individuals from the rural to urban areas of India, but it also aided the movement of troops into provinces in rebellion. Railways in India circa 1909

conclusion

Conclusion This unit helps illustrate the diversity of approaches and effects that empires employed during the 19th century when faced with the challenge of imperialism. For some like Japan, industrial modernization enabled the country to maintain independence. For others, like Congo, industrial modernization in Belgium resulted in an increased demand for raw materials and goods. Just as the experience of imperialism was different, so too was its practice. The British and French empires both undertook imperialism for their own glory and economic benefit, but there was significant differences in the ways they dealt with their colonies.

Origins of Imperialism

Despite nationalism growing as a European ideology, it was not inherently European to view yourself as superior to your neighbors or rivals. As people began to think about what made them German or French or English, it led to assertion of superiority. One of the reasons that one wanted to be part of one nationality or another was because it was viewed as better. Along with these ideas came the need to spread one's own culture in order to ensure the world becomes a more developed place. The easiest way to do this was via imperialism. Nineteenth century imperialism differed from the 16th and 17th century variety because more European governments established direct colonies throughout the world and because they tried to institute some aspects of Enlightenment and Scientific Revolutionary thought. Imperialism was an economic and intellectual undertaking. Through their colonies, European governments attempted to integrate the areas where resources could be acquired and then re-sold after manufacturing in the country itself. For instance, cotton could be purchased by English merchants from India during the mid-19th century, then manufactured into thread and cloth and then exported to Indian markets for profit. This is a different model from earlier economic ventures where in most European governments or private companies extracted the manufactured goods from Asia or the Americas and simply transported them into Europe—for instance, spices were picked, cured, and then sent on European ships to Europe. Similarly, silver was mined, refined, and then used by the Spanish to buy manufactured goods from China such as porcelain or silk. This unit will not only discuss the ramifications of imperialism and how they were tied to the national duty of many countries. It will also discuss how imperialism and industrialization affected different countries and colonies throughout the world. Keep in mind the industrialization unit as you go through this one. Additionally, imperialism was an intellectual undertaking. Unlike in earlier eras, superiority was not based solely on technology or religious belief, but rather in empirical (observable) reality. If, according to the Enlightenment, these new ways of thinking and branches of intellectual production represented the most advanced on Earth, then it was reasonable to assume that the countries in which the Enlightenment was strongest were the most advanced on Earth as well. It is important to note that the attachment of superiority to identity was not a European, Enlightenment, or modern innovation. Other empires considered themselves more advanced than their neighbors. Notably, in the 18th century, the Qing Dynasty in China also felt itself to be the most progressive and civilized kingdom on Earth. The Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799) responded to a letter presented to him in 1793 by Lord Macartney on behalf of the English King George III. In this, King George III proposed more open trade for English merchants and an exchange of ambassadors between the courts. The Emperor Qianlong responded that sending a Chinese emissary to England would be "impractical" because no court in Europe could deal with the etiquette necessary to host a Chinese emissary. He noted that even if Lord Macartney "were able to acquire the rudiments of our civilization, you could not possibly transplant our manners and customs to your alien soil." The Chinese Emperor's concerns were based in his deeming the European courts simple and inferior to his own. He could not send his subjects somewhere they would not be respected according to Chinese traditions and customs and thus, he rejected the plan to exchange ambassadors with the British. In his economic dealings, he was even more blunt. He noted, "Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country's barbarian merchants, have carried on their trade with Our Celestial Empire at Canton. Such has been the procedure for many years, although Our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its borders." The significant difference between the way that the Qing Dynasty in China and other European empires acted on their feelings of superiority is that the Qing did not think it possible or likely that they could educate people to bring the inferiors up to their level. The Europeans not only believed they could civilize people, meaning make them more like Europeans, but also believed this was one of their most important callings in the 19th century. That said, Europeans needed the resources that different areas of the world could supply and so scholars suggest that 19th century imperialism was both an intellectual and economic pursuit.

Imperialism & Nationalism: Filipino-American War

During the Filipino-American War (1898-1902) the US initially helped the revolutionaries oust the Spanish. When the US troops failed to leave, the Filipino revolutionaries turned on them and it ushered in years of warfare. The US focused its attacks not only on the battlefield, but also on identifying Filipinos who did not support the war and wining them over. The US position in this war was revealed by President McKinley who noted that the Philippines posed a specific problem for the US. He said, 1) That we could not give them back to Spain- that would be cowardly and dishonorable; 2) that we could not turn them over to France and Germany-our commercial rivals in the Orient-that would be bad business and discreditable; 3) that we not leave them to themselves-they are unfit for self-government-and they would soon have anarchy and misrule over there worse than Spain's wars; and 4) that there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them, and by God's grace do the very best we could by them, as our fellow-men for whom Christ also died. (http://historymatters.gmu.edu/blackboard/mckinley.html) In this statement published in 1903 after his assassination, McKinley noted the national and geostrategic pressures on the US—the annexation of the Philippines was a national duty, undertaken to civilize the Filipinos and an imperial imperative to ensure that American economic interests were protected in Asia. The Philippines remained an American colony until 1946.

Nationalism & British Imperialism

For many, the British Government are the iconic imperialists, but this view is based on Britain's imperial holdings in the late 19th century, not in reality. Many students are taught in high school that the 'sun never set on the British Empire" and maps like this from the late 19th century glorify Britain's empire. However, much as with the American and Russian models, the growth of the empire was slow and occasionally violent.

japan

In this video, John Green takes the first few moments to talk about nationalism. The last half of the video discusses how the Japanese used nationalism, along with industrialization to create a more stable and prosperous country, capable of not only resisting direct imperialism, but also of creating an empire of its own. "It was not until the sixth year of Kaei (1853) that a steamship was seen for the first time; it was only in the second year of Ansei (1855) that we began to study navigation from the Dutch in Nagasaki; by 1860, the science was sufficiently understood to enable us to sail a ship across the Pacific...I think we can without undue pride boast before the world of this courage and skill" (Fukuzawa Yukichi). Japan was isolated, but the government was also curious about the new technologies and the changes to the regional politics that it observed, namely the Opium Wars between China and Britain. Part of the reason that Japan is described as so isolated by observers is because of the dramatic changes that occurred after 1868, when the American navy steamships appeared off Edo (Tokyo) harbor and demanded the right to trade with the empire. This stimulated a modernization campaign that was mind-boggling in its speed and scope. This webpage explains the dramatic changes the government underwent after 1868. The Shogun was overthrown and the emperor restored to power, hence the name for this period is the Meiji Restoration. Beyond the political changes, this restoration affected art, commerce, civic engagement, and national identity. Japanese modernization was so successful, that the Japanese government was able to challenge local governments for territory—Korea (1876), China (1894-95), and Russia (1904-05). Additionally, the Japanese sent troops to China to help quell the Boxer Rebellion in which a group that opposed western influence in China rose up to challenge the authority of Qing government (1898-1900). For two years, the government worked to diplomatically end the uprising, but in the summer of 1900, the Boxers besieged the Qing capital, Peking. The Qing government called for help and an alliance of eight nations (Austria-Hungary, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the US) formed to help remove the Boxers and restore the Qing government to power. The cartoon on the left illustrates the competition over China, while the cartoon on the right shows the different nations that came to China's aid against the Boxer Rebellion. Competition for China & Support during the Boxer Rebellion

Imperialism, 15th-19th Centuries

It was not inherently European or a function of the 19th century that sent individuals abroad to colonize other countries. Imperialism is not a 19th century invention. Indeed, from the beginnings of this class we have discussed the topic. In earlier units, the Spanish and Portuguese created settler colonies in North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean. This map and this map show the limits of imperial power in the Indian Ocean into the 18th century. This type of limited economic influence, sustained by trade treaties is considered imperialism because the different actors—the Portuguese Government, the British, French, or Dutch East India Companies—want to spread their own power in this region to their rivals' and others' detriment. What changes in the 19th century is the number of colonies and the ways these colonies were integrated into the imperial powers. This map shows European colonial holdings at 1800. It is important to understand that European imperial dominance was not eternal. By 1914, this map shows the growth of European influence in the world and the establishment of colonies throughout the world. In reality, the vast majority of this colonization occurred between 1882 and 1914. In the 19th century, most European imperial powers wanted more direct control than simple trade treaties could provide and with their technological superiority, they could begin to demand allegiance. However, they were not always successful. Although European countries gained colonies and influence throughout the 19th centuries, the competition increased at the end of the century. In 1882, the British successfully acquired a protectorate over Egypt, taking it from the Ottoman Empire. They also gained access to the Suez Canal (opened 1869), which was a vital waterway that decreased the amount of time needed to ship goods or people between the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean. This acquisition had the potential to change the balance of power within the world and many European countries rushed to take strategic and not-so-strategic territories. In 1884, after Portugal and Britain almost went to war with Germany over the Congo and the right to trade freely on the river, Europe participated in the Berlin Conference to regulate colonial acquisitions, particularly in Africa.

exceptions

Not all countries that encountered imperialism experienced it so dramatically and some were able to fight back. In this next section, we will focus on Oman, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire. Although they were able to maintain some autonomy, they still felt the influence of imperialism and dealt with it in their own ways. In the Indian Ocean, in the middle 19th century, the Sultanate of Oman expanded its territory dramatically beyond its boundaries. By 1856, it reached its greatest extent collecting taxes and enforcing policies from southern Iran into eastern Africa, as the map below indicates. The Omani Sultan benefited in this relationship by connecting his empire and taxing merchants who moved goods in his empire, but unlike the Europeans, he rarely tried to dominate or direct the economic markets. In the last half of the 19th century, the empire divided in two parts, one in Muscat in Oman, the other in East Africa, Zanzibar. This division combined with significant internal unrest that occasionally boiled over into civil war to weaken the empire and by 1900, the Omani Sultan was largely a British vassal state. Once the British were in place, they attempted to direct the economy towards clove production and wrest control of all trade from the Indian, Persian, Arab, and African traders. The Omani Empire

Nationalism & Imperialism in France

The French experience with nationalism and imperialism is somewhat different from the US example. The 19th century was tumultuous for the French government. Not only did the century begin with a failed political revolution, they also had to contend with the results of the Napoleonic Wars. These wars decimated France's economic and political influence and power and the French political landscape remained unsettled throughout much of the remainder of the century. After the Napoleonic Wars, the French government returned to monarchy. Although initially respectful of liberal ideas—rights, freedoms, etc., the monarchy eventually began legislating to limit rights, curtail freedoms, and bring back the structured class system. This stimulated internal unrest which threatened the unity of the station and feelings of connections between the French people. The king, Charles X (ruled 1824-1830) hoped to rectify the divisions by expanding the French empire. The French government had lost colonies from the late 18th century onward. In 1827, the rulers of the city-states of Algeria, called deys, sent an emissary to France to collect the debts accrued from the Napoleonic Wars. The French government refused their request, and after a minor insult the French government launched attacks on Algeria. The French gained control of it, taking it from the Ottoman Empire and established a settler colony. The purpose of taking this territory was two-fold—not only did it give the French government a colony to promote national pride, but it also gave them access to important agricultural land and a strategic territory. The map below illustrates the strategic importance of taking Algeria—with it, the French could launch boats from both sides of the Mediterranean Sea. Strategic Importance of Algeria This imperial acquisition was not enough to quell unrest, and in July 1830, there were uprisings throughout France against these innovations. If you have seen the play or film Les Miserables or read the book by Victor Hugo, you understand something of the conditions plaguing France in the days leading up to the uprisings during the summer of 1830. Additionally, the French faced violent resistance in Algeria that raged from 1827-1847, and the country was forced to commit more resources and money to the territory. In 1848, another round of uprisings emerged in France and overthrew the monarchy in favor of a republic, again. This republic continued its dedication to overseas territories and throughout the late 19th century, the French government worked to expand its strategic control throughout the world. The French sought to gain control of southeast Asia, and through a series of wars (1887-1900), they created a colony that they called Indochina out of five separate kingdoms (Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina, Cambodia, and Laos) that lasted until the 1950s. The French colonization of Indochina demonstrates the importance of overseas colonies to national pride and a disregard for their social or economic cost. Following a war with the Chinese (1884-1885), the French gained their foothold in southeast Asia, but almost immediately, they faced significant opposition. As in Algeria, the costs of fighting this war were significant, but deemed important. In southeast Asia, the access to markets and resources, along with the ability to claim they were civilizing people in Indochina, by spreading French language and the Catholic religion, made the cost worthwhile.

Why Imperialism?

The Industrial Revolution changed the ways that the world engaged with itself, but it was not the only significant change during the 19th century. The Enlightenment helped to create a sense of superiority within western European intellectuals and governments that stimulated a humanitarian need for them to go abroad and spread their culture. The Industrial Revolution provided an economic incentive to do so—all of these inventions required raw materials and for some countries, these raw materials could only be acquired overseas. The map below shows the industrial areas of Europe by 1850. Beyond the economic and moral reasons for creating colonies, there were also significant domestic political reasons. Nationalism, or the idea that your country is better than all others grew in the 19th century as governments tried to distinguish themselves. These three trends stimulated governments to go abroad, but they were not always successful. -Economic, moral, nationalism

Nationalism and Imperialism

The connection between nationalism and imperialism grew during the 19th century. Enlightenment ideas combined with the experience of the Napoleonic Wars to stimulate change throughout the world. European borders were stabilized after the Napoleonic Wars with the Congress of Vienna (1815). The Concert of Europe (1818) ensured monarchical power and that monarchs could expect support from their allies in the event of a popular uprising in order to prevent another French Revolution and Napoleon from rising. This focus on domestic stability through repression clashed with the Enlightenment political ideals of representation, freedom, and liberty. Many intellectuals called for the creation of new identities based on ethnic, linguistic, religious, or spatial categories. In the 19th century, as it had earlier, the acquisition of overseas colonies and the ability to acquire and access overseas sources of wealth became enmeshed with the desire for national greatness. Through imperialism many European countries and the United States were able to fulfill some of their Enlightenment hopes, while utterly ignoring others. The intellectual underpinnings of imperialism are reflected in the desire to civilize others as discussed in Unit 4. John Ruskin in 1870 as part of his lectures on art delivered at Oxford University in the UK explained imperial duty. He argued that taking colonies was What England must either do, or perish: found colonies as fast and as far as she is able, formed of her most energetic and worthiest men;--seizing every piece of fruitful waste ground she can set her foot on, and there teaching these her colonists that their chief virtue is to be fidelity to their country, and that their first aim is to be to advance the power of England by land and sea: and that, though they live on a distant plot of ground, they are no more to consider themselves disenfranchised from their native land, than the sailors of her fleets do. (http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/nael/20century/topic_1/jnruskin.htm) Ruskin's speech demonstrates the connection between imperialism and nationalism—citizens are citizens no matter where they live and that it was a national duty for citizens to serve abroad in these far-flung colonies.

Inspiring "The Scramble"

The emphasis on colonies intensified in the late 19th century. Given the unrest in Europe during the 19th century—revolutions, protests, the recent wars over German (1870-1871) and Italian (1815-1871) unification, and the challenges posed by industrialization (large urban population, demands for better living conditions, etc.), none of the European rulers wanted to expend money on another continental war like the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). Instead, they focused their attention on building their militaries and expanding their imperial holdings as a way of acquiring both raw materials for their industrial bases and national prestige. The map below from 1885 illustrates the slow growth of European imperial presence in Africa as well. The green represents the French, the pink indicates British control (all except Morocco), and Portuguese control is represented in purple. In almost 80 years, there was only limited growth in imperial control. Africa in 1885 Compare the 1885 map to this map from 1890 (below). In this map, the British are still represented in pink, Germans in dark orange, Portuguese in solid green, French in Brown, and independent states, like Morocco and Tripoli, in lighter green. But, even here the continent was largely independent and ruled by autonomous groups and kingdoms. Africa in 1890 This more modern map might help explain it more clearly and when you compare the 1890 and 1910 maps at the top, you see a very different story. Colonization and Liberation of Africa

Consequences of Imperialism

The mania for acquiring colonies exacerbated rivalries among European countries, which threatened to bring the world back to the brink of war. In 1885 the negotiations between France, Britain, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Luxumburg, Portugal, Sweden, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Austro-Hungary were concluded in the Congress of Berlin. Click here to read the full text of the agreement. Take note of how the areas were being divided—generally it was by watershed or river valley, not by ethnic or linguistic group. The inattention to ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups caused significant problems for administration in many colonies. In some areas, like Nigeria, the British merged several independent kingdoms to create a single colony (1912-1914). Despite their attempts to create a unified colony with shared governance, there was significant resistance that forced the British to address each area, north, east, and west, independently. This decision, while expedient at the time, created significant tensions within the colony, but it also illustrates the flexibility of the colonial system. In an example from Guinée in West Africa, the French also found it difficult to impose their rule, yet still maintained control of the colony. Guinée was a rubber-producing colony and by 1900, rubber accounted for almost 80% of its exports (Osborn, 449). Despite French attempts to control rubber production or to offer the rights to control rubber production to private companies, local producers maintained primacy in the system until 1913. The French colonial government put new laws into place in an attempt to regulate the trade, purity, and sale of rubber, but these were largely ignored by local rubber harvesters. Further, many private investors who purchased the rights to harvest rubber in different parts of the colony found it difficult to do business—people did not want to work for these men or demanded high wages in order to do so. It was only with the coming of the railroad in 1905-06 that the investors began to be able to command the market (Osborn, 457-458). In the Congo, Belgium under King Leopold worked less collaboratively with local governments. This website details some of what happened in the Congo under the Belgians. In Congo, the Belgians worked to tap into the ivory and rubber trade. To do this, they connected the upper and lower Congo together in a single colony. Leopold's purpose was expressed in a public letter and reflects the desire to civilize the indigenous people while making them use their land more productively. In order to accomplish these goals, he took control of all vacant land and limited the territory that indigenous individuals could use, while forcing many to work in the ivory and rubber trades by limiting their other opportunities. He imposed quotas for rubber and ivory that each village had to make or face significant punishments. For many scholars, the Belgian Congo represents the most extreme type of direct colonization—one that institutes genocide in the name of civilization and trade. But it was not only the Belgians who engaged in such drastic tactics. In the early 20th century in German South-West Africa, today's Namibia, the Germans worked to organize their colony into the model for productivity. When they began taxing the indigenous groups, the Herero and Nama, the Herero rebelled. In 1904, they Herero fought back, attacking German farms and killing many German settlers. The German response was swift and decisive; they declared the group illegal and sent them into exile. They decreed, "The Herero nation must leave the country. If it does not do so I shall compel them by force...Inside German territory every Herero tribesman, armed or unarmed, with or without cattle, will be shot. No women and children will be allowed in the territory: they will be driven back to their people or fired on. These are the last words to the great Herero nation from me, the great General of the mighty German Emperor." (BBC)

U.S. Wars and the Expansion of American Imperialism

These processes and identities expanded further still during the late 19th century as the US fought with Spain to secure Cuban and later Philippine independence. In the early 16th century Spain took both Cuba and the Philippines and despite losing many colonies at the turn of the 19th century to independence revolutions, they did not lose them all. The two most productive and important colonies—Cuba and the Philippines—remained. However, the relationship was not secure or stable. Cuban nationalists revolted in 1895 in what they call the Cuban War of Independence. Although they revolted throughout the last quarter of the 19th century, this revolt succeeded. In this war, revolutionaries including José Martí organized the Cuban Revolutionary Party and in 1895 began a war for independence. Although the US President Grover Cleveland initially hoped to remain neutral, the US Senate voted in 1896 to recognize Cuba as an independent country. By 1897 the New York newspapers began whipping up support in favor of Cuban independence. The Cuba Libre movement emerged from this and many Americans felt common cause with the Cuban revolutionaries, seeing in the Cubans the same struggle the Americans experienced a century prior. The Cuban government gained independence in 1898. At the same time as Cuba agitated for independence, so too did the Filipinos. Beginning in the late 1890s, Filipinos began agitating in favor of independence. By late 1897, the movement reached Manila; the Spanish retaliated and almost crushed the movement, but Spanish attention focused back on Cuba in early 1898 as that war wound down and they faced a new one. Under the new president, William McKinley, the US Government sent the U.S.S. Maine into Havana harbor to ostensibly protect American citizens and their interests. In February 1898, this warship exploded and the vast majority of the sailors onboard died. Whether or not this was a result of Spanish interference became irrelevant as the newspapers in New York and elsewhere whipped up public support for a war. This stimulated a massive response from the US Government and stimulated the beginning of the Spanish-American War (1898). For ten weeks the US and Spain fought in the Caribbean and the Pacific. By the end of the war, the US gained control of Guam and secured favorable trade treaties with Cuba to protect US business relations with the country. The US war with the Philippines began.