US Foreign Policy

China Differential, China Card

- 'China differential': The China differential was a set of restrictions on exports to China that the United States tried to force the allies to uphold in the 1950s. These restrictions were in response to China's role in the Korean War and were more restrictive than export sanctions on the Soviet Union. The allies however did not take kindly to the United States trying to control their economic activity and abandoned the restrictions by 1957. The United States maintained its embargo against China until the 1970s. - 'China Card': Proponents of improved US-Chinese relations in the 70s and 80s played the "China Card," arguing that improved relations with China would cause the Soviet Union to be alarmed at the possibility of a US-Chinese united front and pursue arms control and other agreements with the United States.Critics of this policy used the term to discredit US motives. http://nationalinterest.org/feature/weaponized-the-china-card-makes-its-return-us-politics-12783 : TPP example

Base Force Plan, Bottom up Review

- A National Security Strategy devised by the Clinton administration outlining plans for a reduction of the military in the post Cold War era by roughly 25%. - The end of the Cold War, arms reduction talks, and budgetary factors all impacted the decision to restructure the military, as the threat of the Soviet Union that justified a large military and arms supply no longer existed. - The BUR was designed with the idea that the US would be able to handle four types of situations abroad: "defeating aggressors in Major Regional Contingencies (MRCs), maintain an overseas presence to deter conflicts and provide regional stability, to conduct small-scale intervention operations such as peace enforcement, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief to further US interests, and to defend the US, troops, and bases against WMDs" (RAND 46).

Balance of Power

- A concept in international relations, realism, where nations see their national security at its best when no one country is powerful enough (militarily) to control all of the other nations. - Seen in both structural and classical realism, the balance of power is seen as a mechanism of state survival, where states will form alliances and balance against each other to prevent the emergence of a hanegmon.; - The balance of power is closely associated with a bipolar international order, where countries where make alliances with one of the two dominant powers in order to ensure their national security and defend against threats from other powers. This was the case during the Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union. - Concert of Europe: Balance of power system created because of Congress of Vienna of 1815, where european states would balance one another when one got too powerful. Main powers were Austria, Prussia, Russian Empire and UK, or Quadruple Alliance, who worked together to defeat Napoleon

Arms Control Negotiations (SALT,SALT II, INF, START)

- A series of Arms control treaties were established between the US and USSR during the Cold War period, limiting nuclear devices, launchers, and ICBMs. - SALT: the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty(Talks) was an arms reduction agreement signed between the United States and the Soviet Union in Moscow on May 26, 1972. - reduction of interceptors and of missile bases - is a key example of Nixon-Kissinger's detente policy, promoting an easing of tensions and paving the way for future arms reduction treaties and cooperation between the US and Soviet Union in the Future. - SALT II: the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks initiated in 1972 that was ultimately never ratified by the US, but was adhered to by both America and the USSR until its expiration in 1985. - The Vladivostok Agreements outlined the basic of the new arms reductions. Limits for both sides on transport vehicles - Final agreement reached on June 17, 1979 in Vienna, with an official limit on strategic nuclear vehicles - The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, combined with Congressional Scepticism of the USSR and the US strategic position led to the SALT II treaty not being ratified. - INF: the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces Treaty signed on December 8, 1987 in Washington between President Reagan and President Gorbachev, calling for the reduction and eventual elimination of all INFs in the US and USSR arsenal. - The INF had some of the most strict monitoring requirements of any arms treaty between the US and USSR. - START: The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty/Talks between the US and the Soviet Union signed 1991. - Limits the total number of nuclear warheads each side can deploy, along with limits on ICBMs and Bombers. - Proposed by Ronald Reagan as a means of greatly reducing strategic nuclear arms. The Treaty lasted until 2009; a year later it was replaced with START II. - New START: the second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty between the US and Russian Federation, signed on February 5, 2011. The Treaty is set to last for a period of 10 years. - Further limits on deployed ICBMS, SLBMs, and heavy bombers equipped for nuclear munitions, the number of nuclear warheads associated with these devices, and launchers for the ICBMS, SLBMS, and heavy bombers. - No restrictions on missile defense systems or "conventional strike capacity".

Boland amendment

- A series of three legislative amendments passed between 1982-1984 in response to the CIA's funding of the Contras during the Iran-Contra incident, without informing Congress prior to the start of its covert actions. - named after Edward Boland, who was a democratic MA senator, signed by Reagan - Reagan circumvented the amendment without a vote: increased executive power - The three amendments were meant to restrict CIA funding for the Contras. - The amendment initially prohibited the government from funding the military to overthrow Nicaragua's government. - was later changed to ban all funding for military operations in Nicaragua when the National Security Council began to fund such operations instead. this amendment represents Congress trying to assert itself and gain more power in the foreign policy planning process.

Blowback

- A term originally associated with intelligence operations, blowback deals with the unintended consequences of a covert intelligence or military military operation. - Blowback felt by civilians may lead to acts of violence and protest. - Examples of blowback include Iran-Contra and the funding of the Mujahideen during the Cold War to combat the Soviets. the US funded the Mujahideen as a means of countering the SOviet invasion of Afghanistan; this support would later empower the Taliban and al-Qaeda in the region, who would then become our adversaries in the war on terror.

Democratic Peace Theory

- A theory based on the ideas of Immanuel Kant that posits that democracies are more peaceful in their international relations than other, non-democratic states (i.e. Europe post WWII). Based on this theory it is believed that democracies are more likely to cooperate with each other. It is fundamental to liberal foreign policy. Most every US president since Wilson has used this theory to justify foreign intervention. - Relevance to USFP: Why have we not fought a war against a democracy? (Why have we fought so many huge wars against non-democracy?) Also! We intervene a LOT into developing countries to develop democracy--a result of this theory? Involvement in Afghanistan, spread of democracy on the agenda Counterexamples: War of 1812, Russo-Georgian war in 2008 (kinda).

Bretton Woods system

- An international economics system established during the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. - Plans centered around economic models of Harry Dexter White (American) and John Maynard Keynes (British); the final product was closer to White's proposals. - The IMF and the quota system reflect America's interest in creating an organization for offering "Limited Loans" (Cohen). - The use of gold as the basis for economic exchange and valuation largely favored the US because of the dollars' foundation in the gold standard at the time. - Power in the IMF was based on a quota system, not a "one-vote, one-state" system. SInce the US held "one-third" of all quotas, it was essentially granted a veto over any IMF decisions (Cohen). - Due to economic instability after World War 2, the US was the only nation capable of supporting the economic order and providing liquidity to the IMF. The - US became the "hegemon" of the global economic system (Cohen). This allowed the US to fund foreign debt and gain unbridled spending power, and freedom to loan money in line with its interests. - GATT (everntual WTO) arised out of Bretton Woods - nondiscrimination and free trade

Asymmetrical Warfare

- Andrew J. R. Mack in 1975 in "Why Big Nations Lose Small Wars", addressing the power disparities between conflicting parties in conflict. - Asymmetric Warfare arises when two sides in conflict have significant differences in power, in terms of economic/human/technological/military resources and differing strategies. - may occur when a smaller force has a technological or strategic advantage that allows it to effectively counter its opponent's larger force. - These tactics include guerilla warfare and strategies involving terror attacks. - Examples of Asymmetric Warfare: Vietnam War (US conventional forces vs North Vietnamese), Cold War (proxy wars, strategic maneuvering), IRA, ETA, al-Qaeda.

Belief Systems, evoked set, operational code

- Belief systems: Perceptions held by members of society, influenced by history, which leads to certain policies being favored over others. - Evoked Set: Looking for Specific traits or characteristics in a current situation that match similar traits and information from previous incidents. - Operational Codes: General beliefs on critical historical events and their impact on politics and decision making by leaders. Closely related to Allison's Models with regards to how policy makers create foreign policy. Each agency has its own operational codes influenced by its respective cultural history and experiences, leading it to make policy decisions based on these factors.

Bounded rationality; Substantive and procedural rationality, crisis decision making

- Bounded Rationality: is the idea that in decision-making, rationality of individuals is limited by the information they have, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the finite amount of time they have to make a decision.. One example is the Cuban Missile Crisis, which limited potential policy options for the US. - Substantive rationality: a theory put forward by Max Weber which states that decisionmaking is based on values and emotions rather than rational calculations. This theory doesn't take into account the outcomes of decisions. An example of this would be the overthrow of a democratically elected government by the US. - Procedural Rationality: choices are rational when they have been made through careful deliberation in the context of a decisionmaking process, and all possible options have been considered before acting. - Crisis Decision Making: A situation where a crisis like environment arises and leaders must make decisions with imperfect information and little time for deliberation. In this context, decisionmaking in handled differently depending upon the leader in question, but many use the available information they have or their initial response to shape their own decision. - Relevant Scholar: herbert A. Simon.

Civil-Military Relations

- Broadly, civ-mil relations describe the relationship between civil society as a whole and the organized military. The term is often used to describe the relationship between the civilian and military authority and cooperation in various kinds of operations. For example, civ-mil relations in development and reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan have been highly analyzed. - in Afghanistan, military was forced into position of peacebuilding and nationbuilding and creating liaisons with Afghan civilians, need to invest more in civ-mil diologue - arguments over who should have more power: after Cold War, US has huge standing army, causing worry about maintaining democracy since there had been military coups in the past

Burden sharing, free riders, hegemonic stability theory

- Burden sharing: contributions for manpower, equipment, and funding are split between members of a group or alliance. NATO during Cold War, Kyoto Protocol during the early 2000s: country's shared burden of greenhouse gas emission reduction - Free riders: nations or individuals in an alliance that do not contribute to the operations conducted by the group. These members typically believe that another alliance member will sufficiently contribute to operations to the extent that they don't have to, or simply feel there is little incentive to contribute to the group. An example of this in American foreign policy is NATO, where the US provides a large portion of the financing and equipment to military operations, while members such as Norway contribute little. - tragedy of the commons can occur when resources aren't managed --> energy, water, other public goods - Hegemonic stability theory: a theory of international relations which states that the international system is at its most stable when it is overseen by a hegemon. Associated with realism - Robert Keohane first coined the theory - Kindleberger: economic chaos during 20s 30s and 40s was because lack of global hegemonic leader

Congress and foreign policy oversight, war powers, advise and consent, "twilight zone"

- There is a historic and statutory tension between the President and Congress with regard to foreign policy. While the President, as the head of state, conducts foreign policy, Congress exercises oversight - reserving the power to declare war, to control the budget and financing of the military, and (in the case of the Senate) to be consulted on FP and to ratify treaties and confirm executive appointments. - The twilight zone refers to the ability of executive orders to infringe on the powers or limitations imposed by Congress. Relevant to FP because domestic tension and power dynamics influence efficacy of FP. - Relevance to USFP: Tensions between Congress and President over declaring wars and carrying them out (and also approving treaties and ambassadors). For example the Iraq War, Obamas AUMF against ISIS

Central Intelligence Agency, Director of National Intelligence, Intelligence Community

- CIA: one of the principal intelligence-gathering agencies of the US, but is the only independent agency, reporting to the Director of National Intelligence. Has 3 principal activities: 1) Gathering information about foreign governments, corporations and individuals; 2) analyzing that information, along with intelligence gathered by other US intelligence agencies in order to provide national security intelligence assessment to senior US policymakers and; 3) upon the request of the president, carrying out or overseeing covert activities and tactical operations by its own employees, the US military, or other partners. Overall, has received lots of criticism for, but not limited to: extraordinary rendition, torture, targeted killings and assassinations.he Central Intelligence Agency one of 16 agencies that make up the body of the Intelligence Community in the United States Government. All 16 agencies fall under supervision of the Director of National Intelligence. - established under National Security Act of 1947 - Director of National Intelligence - the US Government official who: serves as principal advisor to the President, the National Security Council, and the Homeland Security Council about intelligence matters related to national security; Serve as head of the seventeen-member Intelligence Community; and Direct and oversee the National Intelligence Program. These duties are all required by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. The DNI is subject to the authority, direction and control of the President. - Intelligence Community - The U.S. Intelligence Community is a federation of 17 separate US Government agencies that work separately and together to conduct intelligence activities considered necessary for the conduct of foreign relations and national security of the United States. Member organizations of the I.C. include intelligence agencies, military intelligence, and civilian intelligence and analysis offices within federal executive departments. The I.C. is headed by the Director of National Intelligence(DNI), who reports to the President of the United States. In 2010, there were 1,271 government organizations and 1,931 private companies in 10,000 locations in the United States that are working on counterterrorism, homeland security, and intelligence, and that the intelligence community as a whole includes 854,000 people holding top-secret clearances. Members: CIA, DIA, NGA, NRO, NSA, Intelligence Services for Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, Coast Guard, DHS, FBI, Dept. Treasury, Dept. Energy, DEA, INR, ODNI

Détente and linkage

- Détente: easing of strained relations, especially with respect to political situations. ○ not meant to replace the postwar US strategy of containment → meant to be a less confrontational method of containing Communist power through diplomatic accords and a flexible system of rewards and punishments by which US might moderate Soviet behavior ○ often used in reference to the general easing of geo-political tensions between the USSR and the US, which began in 1971 as a foreign policy of Presidents Nixon and Ford. ○ characterized by the signing of treaties such as SALT I and the Helsinki Accords (Ford administration/Brezhnev- declaration in an attempt to improve relations between the West and the Communist bloc, not binding, major diplomatic boost for USSR) ○ Détente ended 1979 ● Linkage: Kissinger's idea of connecting two otherwise separate/unrelated issue areas (e.g. economics and security) ○ linking positive inducements (arms control, technology transfers, grain sales) to expected Soviet reciprocity in other areas (restraint in promoting revolutionary movements) ○ fundamentally undermined due to the amount of revolutions occurring during this time wholly independent of Soviet involvement ○ ex: Kissinger in the 70s tied together Soviet access to US trade for perceived "good behavior" on the part of the USSR in exchange for easing tension over the Vietnam War

Cuban Missile Crisis

- It was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the US and the Soviet Union over Soviet missiles based in Cuba that were pointed at the US. It was the closest the world had ever come to nuclear war. In addition to being one of the defining parts of President Kennedy's administration (and Khrushchev too), it has lent valuable lessons to Kennedy's successors about how to conduct US foreign policy. - Castro aligned w USSR, especially after Bay of Pigs, so Russia could use this country to threaten the US - Russia felt cornered b/c of US's missiles and bases in Turkey, wanted to level playing field (security dilemma, realism) - President Kennedy: uses coercive diplomacy to bloackade Cuba: build up military forces in Florida to put pressure on Cubans - effective coercive diplomacy: war was avoided b/c Khrushchev removed missile in exchange for US not invading Cuba

Collegial, competitive, and formalistic models of presidential management

- Styles of presidential leadership - formalistic emphasizes a strict adherence to protocol regarding chain of command, information flow, and delegation (Truman, Eisenhower). -Competitive emphasizes competition among officers, so that the President is exposed to diversity of opinion but will remain the ultimate decisive authority (FDR). - Collegial systems emphasize teamwork, problem solving, and shared responsibility/accountability (Kennedy). Different styles necessarily have different impacts on diplomacy and foreign policy, as collegial and competitive systems are more adaptable, but also rely on the executive's knowledge of the issues at hand.

Fast Track Authority

- The fast track authority for brokering trade agreements is the authority of the President of the United States to negotiate international agreements that Congress can approve or deny but cannot amend or filibuster. - Congress started the fast track authority in the Trade Act of 1974 - PA authority was renewed from 1988 to 1993 to allow for negotiation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the commencement of the Uruguay Round, of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).[4] With this grant of authority, Congress eventually enacted legislation implementing NAFTA. - n early 2012, the Obama administration indicated that renewal of the authority is a requirement for the conclusion of Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) negotiations, which have been undertaken as if the authority were still in effect.

Brinkmanship

- The practice of pursuing a dangerous foreign policy strategy to the extreme in the hopes of getting an opponent to back down or make concessions. - Brinksmanship can be diplomatic in nature. - During the Cold War, the threat of Nuclear weapons was an example of brinksmanship, especially the Cuban Missile Crisis, which could have easily fallen into nuclear war, yet worked b/c Russia backed down Relevant Scholar: Adlai Stevenson.

CNN Effect

- The term the CNN effect came to be understood as shorthand for the notion that mainstream news media in general, not just CNN (though it started with and named for CNN's 24-hour newscast), were having an increased effect upon foreign policy formulation. - Starting with the Kurdish crisis in 1991, and swiftly followed by Operation Restore Hope in Somalia (1992-93), a series of humanitarian crises were associated with an emerging doctrine of so-called humanitarian intervention. In Somalia, US news media coverage of famine during the civil war of the early 1990s appeared to persuade President George Bush #41 to deploy 28,000 troops in support of aid workers. At the time, it appeared to be the case that news media were at the centre of an emerging doctrine of humanitarian intervention whereby sovereignty was no longer sacrosanct. For liberals and those in humanitarian circles, naturally, these developments were warmly welcomed and seen as indicative of the way in which media could open up the traditionally conservative and non-interventionist (with respect to humanitarian crises) orientation of foreign policy communities.

Attentive Public, Mass Public, "one-issue mobilizers"

- These three categories represent the American citizenry in different groups based on their attentiveness/knowledge on foreign policy, and frequency of voicing an opinion/taking action on particular issues. - Attentive public: the roughly 10% of the American public considered knowledgeable on foreign policy. These individuals are usually well educated and typically belong to the middle/upper classes. They are likely to lobby and campaign for certain issues, supporting certain interests groups and consulting their congressional representatives over certain issues. - Mass public: the majority of the American populace that holds little interest in everyday foreign policy decisions. These individuals may occasionally organize to campaign over specific issues and collectively can have a powerful impact on the decisions of policy makers (Vietnam); however, they are usually only interested in significant events. - One Issue-Mobilizables: A category of citizens who are only interested in foreign policy as it pertains to a specific issue. These people will mobilize and campaign for one issue but outside of this they remain uninterested in daily foreign policy decisions.

Coercive Diplomacy

- Threats and small scale demonstrations of military power designed to send a signal and impact the behavior of other actors in the intl system - since 1816, many of these small scale conflcits have happened - While it is a substitute for using force, it is not a substitute for power, because coercive diplomacy requires that a threat be credible. Nye and Jakobsen suggest that coercive diplomacy include a threat, a deadline, and a "carrot/stick" element (bribe). Success: Kennedy's handling of Cuban missile crisis. Can be used along either for compellence or deterrence. - Taiwan Straight Example: tension since Chinese Rev in 1949, China wants Taiwan to reunites t the mainland, US caught between protecting Taiwan's autonomy and its strong econ relation w china - all used coercive diplomacy: 2001: US spy plane collides w Chinese fighter jet, US established arms sales to Taiwan, China warns Taiwan of force in 2003 if it doesnt reunite, etc.

Containment

- a semi-consistent US foreign policy during the Cold War of preventing Communism from spreading any further, to any more countries. - was a middleground approach between detente and rollback, and aimed at preventing the spread of communism to South America, Parts of Asia, and the Caribbean - relates back to slavery, when it was contained in order to force its eventually collapse, built community of free states around the southern slave states, pressuring them to give in and reduce expansion of slavery - Started with Kennan's "long telegram" from Riga and his X-Article, published with Forestal in 1946. Most associated with Truman, Eisenhower. LBJ also used it, as did Carter in later years. Alternatives were isolationism, détente (FDR), and rollback (aggressive military action). Kennan wanted more of a Marshall Plan approach; Truman bought into it very enthusiastically and created NATO etc. Relates to our involvement in Latin America, Nam, Korea, Afghanistan, etc. - Kennan wanted political containment of the political threat of communism, not military containment - Truman Doctrine: raised millions of dollars to support free state, especially those surrounding Russia who resisted communism - hope that it will eventually lead to the break down or mellowing of soviet power

Ethnic lobby groups

- according to Thomas Ambrosio,[1] is an advocacy group (often a foreign policy interest group) established along cultural, ethnic, religious or racial lines by an ethnic group for the purposes of directly or indirectly influencing the foreign policy of their resident country in support of the homeland and/or ethnic kin abroad with which they identify. -AAA: Armenian American Assembly: powerful lobby group that influences american foreign policy, has anti-turkish agenda and seeks to limit US aid to that part of the world

Extended Deterrence

- confrontation in which counrty A and Country c are friends/allies, and country B threatents country C, so country A threatens country B for threatening country C - US and Israel's enemies

Bay of Pigs

- failed military invasion of Cuba on April 17, 1961, that was run by the CIA with the directive from President Eisenhower to overthrow the Castro regime. - counter revolutionary military trained by CIA to overthrow Castro - US forces that participated in the invasion were defeated by Cuba's revolutionary forces, with many servicemen being imprisoned.The failed invasion represented a large foreign policy blunder for the US, and proved that the US was not invincible - The failure of the invasion enhanced ties between Cuba and the USSR, laying the foundation for the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

Foreign direct investment

- is a controlling ownership in a business enterprise in one country by an entity based in another country.

Covert Operations

- operations in which the United States (or any other country) wishes to keep its sponsorship a secret; it will be known to other actors that something happened, the only question will be who did it. Example: - Covert operations and clandestine operations are distinct. The Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (Joint Publication JP1-02), defines "covert operation" as "an operation that is so planned and executed as to conceal the identity of or permit plausible denial by the sponsor - Examples: Argo/hostage escape from Iran (under the Affleck admin.); Eisenhower greatly expanded doing them in immediate post-NSA era - Under 1984 Exec Order 12333, the gov't can deny their existence. - 1947 National Security Act: CIA has authority to conductt covert operations - Covert operations may include sabotage, assassinations, support for coups d'état, or support for subversion. Tactics include the use of a false flag or front group. - Boland agreements in 1984 limited the power of CIA covert operations in Nicaragua b/c wanted to train and back the contras - Iran contras: arms for hostages deal: Reagan trades arms to Iranian terrorists in exchange for american hostages, without the permission of Congress

Bureaucratic politics model

- sees foreign policy making as a struggle between gov institutions, agencies, and actors to promote their version of national interest, which is each shaped by their own personal interests and perspectives of their particular bureaucratic agency - interests are almost always related to institutional prestige, budgets, and power (US Army general grabbing the mission from the Navy was motivated by these considerations because would give more money and recognition to the Army instead of Navy) - different interests, varying Bureaucratic roles and missions, organizational processes - 4 assumptions to the policy making model: 1. Policy making is a social process 2. there is no single version of the national interest, is always shaped by the position of the policy maker 3. Policy decisions are compromises 4. Politics does not stop when one decision is made - example: The Space Race. Navy tries to send rocket Vanguard into orbit to rival Russian Sputnik in 57, but fails, which humiliated them and opened up a position for the Army to fill b/c of the Navy's failure - goes against rational actor model: Actors: unitary states vs multiple foreign policy bureaucracies, - Policy Process Objectives: Intellectual process vs social process

Counterinsurgency Doctrine

- the policy that has guided US actions in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; it includes protecting civilian populations, eliminating insurgencies, and the creation of a legitimate local government to provide services. Created by Petraeus. - This required U.S. soldiers and marines to undertake, in roughly proportionate measure, five tasks: safeguard the indigenous population, improve democratic governance, combat corruption, deliver economic projects and institute the rule of law as understood in the Western tradition. - Created in aftermath of Afghanistan and Iraq wars, but replaced in 2009 by a new counterterrorism strategy: 2009 troop surge. Can be tied to the theory of "Clash of Civilizations" (Huntington, and Fukuyama) in that cultural differences can both cause conflicts and the recognition of differences can lead to resolution. - Problem was that civ-mil relations were not strongly encouraged, and lack of understanding of Afghan norms - democracy and Western institutions were not necessarilty wanted within Afghanistan

Truman Doctrine

1947 speech, Containment, inspired by Kennan article, US as defender of free nations and democracy, world peace, beginnings of the Marshall Plan ● prompted by the British because they wrote a note saying they were withdrawing from Turkey and Greece and cutting them off within six weeks. ○ Truman needed a policy to justify economic and military support for both countries because of the US fear of the countries falling to communism. ○ Truman picked up Kennan's Long Telegram and turned it into justification for intervention ● Policy of US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures ● discussed the domino theory (all will fall one by one to USSR/communists) and must keep countries "free" and "western". ● hard sell to Americans because the US was planning to use tax dollars to support far away countries against a former ally. ● begins a period of global responsibility—political, military, and economic interventions in world under the "containment policy"

Deterrence

Deterrence: threat of military action to prevent an adversary from doing something that another state wishes to prevent. ● grand strategy employed by the US from Truman to Nixon, when detente came into play ○ 1949: Soviets detonate a nuclear weapon, beginning an arms race → 1951: US detonates hydrogen bomb. ○ 1950s created a second strike capability (needed enough nuclear weapons spread all over country and have ability to strike again if attacked). ■ both sides needed enough power to mutually ruin the other side (mutually assured destruction aka MAD). ○ massive first strike capability (where other side would be obliterated and not be able to respond at all) and there was a constant fear of this option being used ● Extended deterrence is when a country makes credible threats of retaliation on behalf of allies, rather than just itself. ● For example, the U.S. offered a guarantee of nuclear retaliation if the USSR or China were to attack Japan, meaning that Japan did not have to develop its own nuclear deterrent. - Nixon became first president to visit Russia, SALT talks were successful

Economic liberalism, economic nationalism

Econ liberalism: greatest number of economic decision are made by individuals, not collective institutions or organizations - strong support of free market and ownership of private property - opposes government interference when it interferes w free trade and open competition - usually associated w capitalism, anti protectionism and feudalism Economic nationalism: Economic nationalism is a body of policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital.

Empire, 'Unipolar moment', 'indespensable nation'

Empire: Traditionally suggested a state or nonstate actor (East India Company) exerting influence socially, politically, economically and militarily and acquiring spheres of influence over other pieces of land. ○ Always has a form of imperialism and exploitation ○ Today the idea of empire is in flux but regardless, most would attribute spheres of influence and exploitation as well as an asymmetrical relationship, between the empire and its subsidiaries. ■ Colonialist empires dying since the end of the British Empire ○ U.S is considered an empire --> control over UN and has most nuclear power as hegemon ● 'Unipolar moment': End of Cold War → death of bipolarity → US begins hegemon, beginning of unipolar moment in 1990 ○ coined by Charles Krauthammer ○ When there is a global hegemon, which is unable to be challenged by any power or collection of powers ○ examples: Pax Britannica and possibly Pax Americana ○ After the end of the Cold War, the U.S has been in a unipolar moment in which it is the regional/global hegemon because of the fall of the other power in the bipolar cold war system: the Soviet Union. ● 'Indispensable nation': A nation without which international cooperation is improbable ○ term attributed to Madeleine Albright in 1996 (Sec of State for Clinton) ■ only power capable of effectively organizing what Albright labeled as muscular multilateralism ● muscular multilateralism would contribute to American Hegemonism and would be impossible without it ■ multilateralism, like Bretton Woods UN NATO, was a product of America's relative power position after 1945 → Such a system couldn't have come about without such a preponderance of power ■ 'community of democracies' takes form and directs itself under indispensable nation ○ stems from the hegemonic stability theory in which the hegemon maintains a stable liberal economic (free trade) and political system. ■ US leading the cause for democracy ○ US primacy and exceptionalism ■ Defending the US Embargo of Iraq during Gulf War in 1991

Bush

Preemptive war: if the US has reason to think that another state (ie. Afghanistan) will attack the US, then it reserves the right to attack the state (actually preventative war based on the situation, which is a main criticism of the doctrine) ■ no safe harbors, any country that harbors terrorists is our enemy. ○ Unilateralism: go at it alone (US is prepared to defend themselves by themselves) → went against counsel of the UN regarding Iraq; removed US from Kyoto and Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty ○ Attacking countries that harbor terrorists (defining "axis of evil" as N. Korea, Iraq, Iran; either with us or against us mentality) ○ democracy promotion and regime change ● A forward leaning national security strategy that includes the controversial policies of preventive war, unilateralism, pre-emptive strikes. ● began the strategy for the Global War on Terror ● Didn't recognize the value of non-state actors vs. state actors, especially with his ideas of axis of evil and democracy-spreading ● Major break from US commitment to multilateralism during Clinton (engagement and enlargement), Bush Sr. (new world order) → hurt US influence abroad ● Fostered deep hatred towards the US, something still hard to fix, and also fostered deep hatred/skepticism toward Muslim cultures ● Rejected deep-seated in history commitment to human rights (torture acco

Reagan Doctrine

Support anyone who counters communism/Soviets → U.S. provided overt and covert aid to right-wing guerrillas and resistance movements in an effort to "rollback" Soviet-backed left-wing governments in Africa, Asia and Latin America ● designed to serve the dual purposes of diminishing Soviet influence in these regions, while also potentially opening the door for capitalism (and sometimes liberal democracy) in nations that were largely being governed by Soviet-supported socialist governments ● centerpiece of US foreign policy from early 1980s-end of Cold war in 1991 ● Led to covert support of the Contras in Nicaragua, and the Afghan rebels in their fight against Soviet occupiers. ● recreated a hostile environment between the US and USSR → major tensions back ● caused problems in many areas of the world, especially Latin America. ● violated the constitution with Iran-Contra Scandal (questions of imperial presidency) ● Reagan's second term: embraced arms control (INF and START under Reagan) and met with Gorbachev in 1986 to propose eliminating all nuclear weapons. ○ Gorbachev agreed, but condition that the US would stop the star wars program but US said no because wanted to continue it = no deal.

Carter Doctrine

United States would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region, specifically oil ● 1980 State of Union address- response to the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 (intended to deter the Soviet Union) ● Carter believed that the presence of Soviet troops in the region was a threat to the free trade and supply of oil. ● Fear/dependency on energy supply from the Persian Gulf. Doctrine has stayed ingrained in US mentality... Strait of Hormuz. ○ Cannot allow US enemies or challengers to gain great access to those resources.

Allisons 3 models

Written in 1971, The Essence of Decision, re-written in 1999. Graham Allison shows difference between rational, organizational, and bureaucratic models differ in notions about analyses and factors. These three models are then used to better understand the lines of decision making that led up to the Cuban Missile Crisis - The Rational Policy Model, the Organizational Process Model, and the Bureaucratic Policy Model. - Rational Policy Model: Sharing key principles with the realist paradigm, this model places the nation/its government as the sole entity in the decision making process, making the most pragmatic decisions available to achieve its national security goals. Allison notes that the Rational Policy model is limited in explaining foreign policy decision making, as the government isn't the only actor that influences the policymaking process. - Organizational Process Model: Decisions are not produced by rational decisions but rather the mechanism of organizational process. Additionally, organizations follow strict guidelines that lead them to the desired outcome. - Bureaucratic Policy Model: Policy making is part of a "political game" between national leaders who are at the head of organizations involved in the process (Huda 1). Leaders include the president, the heads of different government agencies (DoD, DoS, intelligence agencies), and other important figures. Leaders compete with each other to make foreign policy. A common characteristic of this model is "bargaining" between leaders and organizations, where different inputs impact the final policy outcome (1).

Eisenhower Doctrine

commits the US to assisting Middle East countries that resist communist aggression or states closely tied to the Soviet Union, such as Egypt ● country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from US military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state ● announced in 1957 in message to Congress ● made in response to the possibility of a generalized war, threatened by USSR attempt to use the Suez War in 1956 as a pretext to enter Egypt ● Example: applied in the Lebanon Crisis the following year, when America intervened in response to a request by that country's president. ● worked to provide independent Arab regimes with alternative to Nassar's political control, strengthening them, while isolating communist influence through isolation of Nassar ○ largely failed to stop Nassar's influence → Nassar's power rising quickly by 1959 to the point that he could shape the leadership outcomes in neighboring Arab countries including Iraq and Saudi Arabia ○ Egypt-USSR relationship deteriorated → US switched to a policy of accommodation ● US also saw Middle East as being influential for future foreign policy not only for US but allies ○ large percentage of world's oil supply → if it fell to communism, US and allies would suffer immense economic consequences ● set precedent for US to continue on "domino theory" path (resisting communist aggression in countries around the world especially in the Middle East when asked to intervene)