Veterinary Entomology Exam 2

Prevention and control of Black Flies

*Aimed at larval stage* Concentrated in easily identifiable, specific habitats Chemical insecticides Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis(Bti, serotype H14) -very successful! Current efforts to manage black flies in the adult stage are restricted primarily to the application of repellents and pour-on insecticides. Potential for biological control

Glossinidae life cycle (Mating)

*Females are sexually receptive 1 day after emergence from the puparium* *Males require several blood meals before they are fully fertile* Female ovulation will only occur if mating takes longer than an hour Sperm are stored in a spermatheca and the female will remain fertile for life, but may mate multiple times

Trypanosomes is Tsete Flies

1) Tsete fly takes blood meal 2) Injected trapomastigotes transform into bloodstream 3) trypomastigotes multiply by binary fission 4) Trapomastigotes in blood - Acute phase, undetectable 5) Tsete fly takes a Blood meal 6) Trapomastigotes transform into procyllic trypomastigotes in vector midgut 7) Procyllic Trypomastigotes leave midgut and transform into epimastigotes 8) Epimastigotes multiply in the salivary gland. They transform into metacyclic trypomastigotes

Glossinidae life cycle (eggs)

About 9 days after copulation, the first ovulation of a single egg occurs and sperm are released to fertilize the egg Fertilized egg moves posteriorly into the uterus, where hatching occurs about 4 days later The larva is retained in the uterus, where it is held against the uterine wall by a supporting structure called the choriothete Secretions from the milk glands pool around the larval mouth and are easily ingested

House Fly (Musca Domestica)

Abundant where livestock, poultry or companion animals housed Adults occur on virtually all substrates Adults also occur directly on animals Cause significant annoyance Significant mechanical vectors of microbial pathogens Developmental host for a chicken

Simuliotoxicosis of Black Flies

Acute toxemia and anaphylactic shock caused by toxins introduced with the saliva as black flies are feeding Components responsible unknown Cattle, especially calves, are vulnerable to simuliotoxicosis, but goats, horses, mules, pigs, and sheep also have been affected Susceptible animals succumb in less than 2 hours Some immunity may develop in animals living in afflicted areas Occurs near large rivers Relatively rare now

Black Fly Life Cyle: Adult

Adult emerges covered in an air bubble and rises to the surface Adults generally live less than a month Sugar-feed, mate, blood-feeding (female), and oviposit

Face fly (Musca autumnalis)

Adult face flies found on cattle, bison, and horses Feeding at eyes, faces, and wounds Hosts respond by blinking their eyes, flapping their ears, shaking their heads, and switching their tails Vector of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (pinkeye) Caused by bacterium Moraxella bovis Symptoms include: conjunctiva, excessive tearing, photophobia, opacity, and ulceration of the cornea May involve one or both eyes and is most frequent among calves of white-faced breeds Also spread by direct contact

Sand Fly feeding behavior

Adult sand flies feed on plant sap, nectar, and honeydew -Store sugar and protein-rich liquids in their crop Females require vertebrate blood for egg development Feeding sites usually directed to tender and exposed skin areas such as the ears, nose, neck, undersides, feet, and tail

Mosquito Life Cycle: Adults

Adults are terrestrial Holometabolous occupying two different environments -Larvae and pupae develop in a wide range of aquatic habitats For the first 3-5 days after emergence, both sexes obtain sugar from plant nectar Sugar is essential sexual maturation, flight and host seeking Adult female blood feeds to obtain nutrients for oviposition

Sand Fly Life Cycle: Adults

Adults can be found in tree hollows, rock piles, animal burrows, animal enclosures such as poultry houses and pigsties Flight range of up to 1.5 km is possible although usually less Sand flies exhibit characteristic seasonal and biotropic patterns

Life Cycle of Muscids: adulthood

Adults have a prominent pair of compound eyes -Males are holoptic (eyes nearly meeting at the dorsal midline) -Females they are dichoptic, or more widely separated Mouthparts of adults vary considerably among species depending on food source

Dog Heartworm (Dirofilariaimmitis)

Adults occupy the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries forming aggregations of 50 or more individuals Decreased cardiac output to the lungs, weakness, lethargy, chronic coughing, and ultimately congestive heart failure Dogs may die if left untreated Long and complex life cycle!

Life Cycle of Muscids Reproduction

All the important muscid flies are anautogenous -Females require protein to complete their first gonotrophic cycle Under summer conditions, adult muscid flies can develop a new batch of eggs every 2-5 days -The average female probably lives only long enough to produce one or two batches

Keds(Hippoboscoidea)

Also called louse flies, bird flies, feather flies, spider flies, flat flies, tick flies, ked flies, and keds Do not feed on Cold-blooded species

Accidental myiasis

Also called pseudomyiasis Fly larvae involved normally are not parasitic Fly eggs or larvae contaminate foods that are subsequently ingested by an animal, as in the case of pomace flies and fruit flies Uncommon

Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus (EHDV) of Biting Midges

Another Orbivirus that is similar to BTV. Primarily a concern in wild ruminants like deer (sometimes called "blacktongue"). Deer industry expanding in North America. Three strains found in the United States (more around the world). Cause Internal hemorrhaging. Deer seen with arched backs, labored breathing, and starving from sore mouths. Death in 4-10 days if severe. C. sonorensis primary vector in North America. Epizootic outbreaks can spill over into cattle operations. Yet another Orbivirus. Highly fatal disease of horses, and less so in donkeys and mules. 9 serotypes of AHS which are found in central Africa. These can regularly be found in South Africa and sometimes breakout in northern Africa

Bovine Onchocerciasis of Black Flies

At least 11 species of filarial nematodes in the genus Onchocercaare transmitted by simuliid to domesticated and wild animals Onchocerciasis is the most widespread of these filarial parasites in the United States Simuliumjenningsi is its primary vector in the United States Microfilariae are concentrated in the umbilical region of the cattle Ingested by black fly during blood-feeding and transmitted to a new host after they have developed to the infective third stage in the fly Incidents of infection is often high, but symptoms are mild

Stable fly (Stomoxyscalcitrans)

Attacks Legs Individual stable flies typically feed once per day, and remain on their host for 2-5 min *Both sexes blood feed* Can cause significant fly worry Not an important vector (mechanical vector of bovine leukosis and equine infectious anemia in laboratory trials) Attacks most large mammals, including domesticated cattle, horses, donkeys, dogs, swine, sheep, goats, and camels Attack large animals on their legs sides, backs, and bellies Small ruminants and dogs are attacked most frequently on their legs, heads, and ears

Controlling myiasis

Avoid contact between potential hosts and myiasis-causing flies Early treatment of wounds to prevent myiasis Reduction or elimination of myiasis-fly populations Insecticide-impregnated ear tags, leg bands Systemic pour-on, injectables Trapping of adult flies Sterile male introduction Oral dewormer(ivermectin)

Feeding of Biting Midges

Biting midges are telmophagous (lacerate skin and suck blood from tissues) Midges can be host-specific feeders or indiscriminate (generalist) Most species are crepuscular (feed at dawn and dusk) Many factors effect behavior (wind, temperature, light, air pressure, etc.)

Calliphoridae

Blow Flies, Carrion Flies, Floor Maggots, Nest Maggots, and Screwworm Carrion-Associated Blow Flies -Blue-bottle flies, green-bottle flies, and blow flies Commonly associated with dead animal tissues, or carrion (facultative myiasis) Primary agents of cutaneous myiasis Life cycle takes 3-4 weeks but are prolonged by cold temperatures

Black Fly Life Cycle: Larvae

Both larva and pupa adapted for aquatic life (water must be flowing) Silk glands spin silk pads to anchor larva to substrate Higher velocity water = stickier silk Prominent labral fans, each with about 20-80 individual rays with minute on their inner surface, are used to filter particulate matter from the water current Larval stage lasts approx. 7 days and can have 6-11 instars Final larval instar moves to slower moving water before spinning a silk cocoon

Glossinadae feeding

Both males and females blood feed Midgut contains symbiotic bacteria that provide compounds associated with vitamin B metabolism Females without endosymbiont are unable to reproduce

Screwworms (Cochliomyia, Chrysomyaspp.)

Both primary and secondary screwworms Primary = obligatory myiasis -Most important species are Cochliomyia Hominivorax And Chrysomyabezziana Secondary = facultative myiasis -Infest wounds caused by primary myiasis -Most important species are Cochliomyia Macellaria And Chrysomyamegacephala

Control of Glossinidae

Bush and game clearance -though initially effective, not recommended Insecticides Ground spraying -no longer done Sequential aerial technique (SAT) -very effective Traps and targets including live bait traps Sterile insect technique (SIT) -Riverine Species tent -Savvanah Species Tent

Surra - Tabanids

Caused by Trypanosoma evansi Causes chronic wasting Morphologically indistinguishable from Trypanosoma brucei (Ngana) Transmission mechanical not biological Untreated infections are usually fatal in horses, elephants, and dogs Can be serious and chronic in camels and cattle

River blindness of Black Flies

Debilitating disease caused by Onchocercavolvulus Infects millions in Africa as well as in South and Central America Research has been hampered by a lack of good animal models, as the parasite can only develop fully in humans and some primates Experimental findings with Litomosoides Sigmodontis In mice and Onchocerca ochengiin cattle may offer hope to be used as models

Glossinidae life cycle (Larvae)

Developing larva molts (twice!!) within the uterus, becoming a second-instar larva 1 day after hatching, and a third instar about 1.5 days later The third-instar larva is fully developed about 2.5 days after the second molt, at which time it occupies most of the female's abdomen and is about equal in weight to the rest of the female's body

Simuliidae - Black Flies

Distributed worldwide Influenced by the availability of flowing water for larva/pupa development Ranked third globally as vectors of disease agents Can kill animals via exsanguination during massive attacks More than 2200 species but only 10-20% are pests of humans/anim

Black Fly Life Cycle: Egg

Egg is roughly oval or triangular with rounded angles

Tabanidae life cycle : Eggs

Eggs are 1-3mm long and are deposited in masses Female usually lays 100-800 eggs in a single mass Number varies with the species and size of the blood meal Stream-dwelling species often deposit their eggs above waterline on stones in the stream where water flow is moderate Terrestrial species usually lay their eggs on vegetation or in leaf litter Embryogenesis is both temperature and species dependent

Life Cycle of Biting Midges: Eggs

Eggs are laid in moist habitats, but there is a very broad preference between species around the world Four (4) larval stages that look like worms and feast on organic matter, bacteria, etc. Pupae respire from horns and are found in same the habitats as larvae Eggs hatch in 2-7 days, and immature stages last ~2 weeks total (more in cold climates) Immature stages may overwinter in temperate climates

Mosquito life cycle: Eggs

Eggs are laid on water surface or a substrate that will become inundated May be laid singularly, in clusters or on a raft

Life cycle of Muscids: Eggs

Eggs occur singly or in groups Creamy in color, 0.8-2.0 mm long Filth flies deposit eggs on organic debris wet enough to support aerobic microbes Dung flies oviposit in fresh manure Sweat flies oviposit in plant litter or decomposing dung

Equine encephalitides of Mosquitos

Endemic in Texas, along the Gulf Coast and Atlantic Seaboard to Massachusetts, upstate New York, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Georgia, and Alabama Horses rapidly succumb after a short incubation period (2-5 days) High fever, recumbency, coma and death

Arboviruses (arthropod borne viruses) of Mosquitos

Equine encephalitides -Eastern Equine Encephalomyelitis (EEE) virus (Alpha virus) -Western Equine Encephalomyelitis (EEE) virus (Alpha virus) -Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis (VEE) Complex (Togavirus)

Fowlpox(FP) virus

Family Poxviridae Mosquitoes mechanically transmit viruses Important disease of domestic fowl, particularly chickens It causes development of papules along the comb and beak Inhalation of the virus causes diphtheritic membrane to form in the mouth, pharynx, larynx and trachea (prognosis poor) Vaccine is available

Life Cycle of Biting Midges: Reproduction

Females may be autogenous (no blood meal required for the first egg batch) but are more likely to be anautogenous Females may lay 2-3 eggs clutches in the wild, and up to 7 in the lab. They require 2-10 days per gonotrophic cycle and have a 2-6 week life span. Females lay 30-450 eggs per clutch. Mating usually happens in swarms. How can you replicate this in a lab colony? -Shake them like a martini Species and temperature determine how many gonotrophic cycles peractive season (univoltine, bivoltine, or multivoltine)

Elaeophorosis (Elaeophora schneideri) Tabanids

Filarial nematode of domestic animals and wild ruminants Widely distributed in North America After ingestion by tabanid, nematode develops in the fat body and hemocoel Infective larvae (L3) are found in the mouthparts after about 14 days

Pests affecting poultry

Filth flies Blow flies Lice Mites Fowl ticks Chiggers

West Nile virus of Mosquitos

Flavivirus Also causes inflammation of the central nervous system Worldwide distribution 40% mortality rate in horses without vaccination As with EEE, WEE and VEE humans can also be infected Normally asymptomatic Symptoms include general loss of appetite, depression and fever along with neurological signs such as ataxia

Pests affecting cattle

Flies (biting and non-biting) Screw-worms and Blow flies -Primary screwworms largely eradicated in US -Fly strike can be avoided by wound avoidance/care Cattle grubs -Largely eradicated in the US Lice Ticks Mites

Bluetongue Virus (BTV) of Biting Midges

Found in many regions of United States, but Canada is "mostly" free from BTV. This affects animal movement and trade. Estimates of 20%-50% seroprevalence in endemic areas. Viral infection creates edema in mouth, coronary band, etc. Lack of blood flow creates blue color Painful hooves (arched back), labored breathing, lesions and swelling on lips and tongue. Death from lung congestion or internal hemorrhaging. Underweight calves, fetal abortion, stillbirths What might be the issue with a vaccine? There are 27 different types, meaning you'll need 27 different types o of vaccine

Pests affecting swine

Hog louse Sarcoptic mange mite Stable flies Mosquitoes Tabanids Biting gnats Midges House and filth flies Fleas

Life Cycle of muscoid and oestroid flies

Holometabolous Egg, larva (three instars), pupa (in a puparium), and adult Pupal stage longest, may overwinter Males are smaller and generally emerge earlier Females may oviposit or larviposit In most cases, eggs or larvae are laid in contact with the larval nutrient substrate In some cases first-instar larvae must locate and invade their nutrient resources (nest maggots)

Horse - Stomach Bot Flies (Gasterophilinae)

Horse stomach bot flies Gasterophilus Intestinalis (most common), G. nasalis, and G. haemorrhoidalis Do not cause warble formations Site of attachment is specific for each fly species

Vesicular stomatitis virus

Infection causes an acute, febrile (fever), weakening viral disease Affects horses, cattle, swine, and occasionally sheep and goats Caused by some members of the Vesiculovirus Genus (Family Rhabdoviridae), two of which are called 'vesicular stomatitis virus'

American screwworm

Infested wounds range from mere thorn scratches or insect and tick bite marks to gaping lacerations Livestock husbandry operations such as castrating, dehorning, branding, and shearing also cause wounds subject to invasion. Untreated screwworm cases can be fatal Used to be a major economic burden Largely eradicated by Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) Females only mate once! Outbreaks do still occur

Control of Sand flies

Insecticides (mostly pyrethroids) for residual spraying of dwellings and animal shelters, space-spraying, impregnated dog-collars useful Because the breeding-sites of sandflies are generally unknown, control measures that act specifically against immatures are not feasible Not host specific Removing manure is *not* effective in removing sand flies

Life Cycle of Muscids: Larvae

Larvae (often called maggots) burrow, feed and develop in ovipositional substrates Typically three instars Most feed on microorganisms and organic particles in the semi-liquid substrate The last instar of garbage and sweat flies are facultative predators Once mature, the third instar stops feeding, empties the alimentary canal, and begin a wandering phase

Mosquito life cycle: Larvae

Larvae have four instars which closely resemble each other and increase in size Larvae are rich in taxonomic characters -Usedtodistinguish

Control of Biting Midges

Larvicides and adulticides (ex. insect growth regulators, pyrethrins, organophosphates) Removal of larval breeding habitats (when known) Fogging and aerial spraying for dense populations of midges Stable livestock, treat walls, keep fans running. Midges are poor fliers. RNA Interferance

Hippoboscoidea life cycle (Egg)

Larviparous(adenotrophic viviparity) A single egg is passed to the uterus, where it embryonates and hatches Two subsequent larval instars remain in the uterus *Nourished by a pair of accessory glands (milk glands) that empty into the uterus* Parturition occurs when the larva is fully developed but prior to formation of the puparium

Pest Affecting Goat

Lice Stable flies Black flies Tabanids Biting midges Mosquitoes Mites Ticks

Face Fly

Longitudal Stripes Gray Underbelly

Leucocytozoonosis of Black Flies

Malaria-like disease in birds caused by protozoans in the genus Leucocytozoon Leucocytozoonsimondi is specific to ducks and geese, and its primary vectors are S. anatinumand S. rugglesi Leucocytozoonsmithi is specific to turkeys and is transmitted primarily by S. meridionaleand S. slossonae Leucocytozoonosis can be fatal in poultry Last major outbreaks of the disease in domestic turkeys were in the 1970s Turkeys now are raised primarily in poultry houses, reducing the incidence of disease because the vectors generally do not venture inside shelters

Tabanidae life cycle: adult

Many tabanids are anautogenous and require a single large blood meal in order to develop a batch of eggs Blood Meal size varies from 20 to 25 mg for many Chrysops spp. to almost 700 mg for Tabanus atratus. Following a blood meal, egg development is believed to be typically 3-4 days All are pool blood-feeders

Oestridae(Bot Flies)

Most highly evolved group of obligate myiasis causing parasites of mammals Often host and site specific Secondary microbial infection of the bot warble is rare -Bot fly maggots produce bacteriostatic secretions as they develop Bot fly maggots cannot complete their development in a dead host

Sheep ked wings?

No, never had them

Cattle Grubs (Hypoderma Spp.)

Northern cattle grub (Hypoderma bovis) Common cattle grub (H. lineatum) Introduced wherever cattle are raised Major economic pests of domestic cattle Damage to hides and self-injury by hosts (gadding) Both species glue their eggs directly to host hairs

Glossinidae (tsetse flies)

Obligate bloodsucking flies Transmit trypanosomes that cause African sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in livestock Tropical and subtropical regions of sub-Sahelian Africa One of the greatest factors affecting the course of economic and social development in Africa

Stable Fly

Only Two stripes Has Spots mouth part that sticks out Hangs out on the legs (Legs legs, what's on the menu?)

Mosquito control

Organized Typically county-level abatement districts Focus on the control of nuisance and vector species (often through insecticides) Often participate in surveillance for mosquito-borne disease pathogens Habitat modification Changes in larval habitat that prevent oviposition, hatching, or larval development are called source reduction Biological control Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis(Bti) Larvae die when they ingest crystalline, proteinaceous toxins produced by the bacterial cells during sporulation Bacillus sphaericusis particularly effective against Culexlarvae, more persistent in water, and more tolerant of water with a high organic content than Bti

Mosquito Life Cycle: Pupa

Pupa are comma-shaped, with the head and thorax fused to form a cephalothorax and the abdomen curled beneath it Pair of respiratory tubes (air trumpets) through which the pupa obtains oxygen at the water surface

Life Cycle of Muscids: Pupa

Pupa occurs in a case called the puparium Adult muscid flies emerge with little stored energy and nutrients -Non-biting flies obtain sugars from plants and honeydew Biting species obtain the bulk of their proteins from blood, saliva and mucus

Tabanidae life cycle: Pupa

Pupae are usually tan or brown, with the eyes, legs, and wing pads visible externally Eyes of adult male and female flies differ (holotropic vs dichoptic) Only female blood feeds

Black fly life cycle: Pupa

Pupal stage can last days to moths, depending on environmental conditions Nonmobile pupa have terrestrial adaptations useful if the water recedes

Pest management varies depending on where cattle are kept

Range land/pasture Feedlots Dairy

Control of Muscid Flies

Reducing larval development environments -*Removing manure is REALLY Effective* Ear tags Pour-ons and sprays Oil back rubbers and dust bags (tires) Feed supplements can prevent the development of larvae

Obligatory myiasis

Require a living host for their development -Screwworms and bot flies Myiasis also can be categorized in relation to the site of larval invasion, or subsequent development in the host Temporary mitosis occurs when there is intermittent contact between fly larva and host -Nestling maggots, floor maggots

Vectors of Vesicular stomatitis virus

Sand flies were one of the earliest insect species found infected with VSV in natural habitats Have been the most frequent insects associated with natural infection Only hematophagous insect shown to have competent transovarial transmission (sometimes the develop in egg won't continue, sand fly picks up virus and transmit it to larvae, and is able to transmit it as an adult) -Other biting flies also capable of being vectors

Sand Fly life cycle: Larvae

Sand fly larval habitats are terrestrial, occurring chiefly in highly organic soils or accumulations of decomposed manure -Larvae can be difficult to find!

Fly strike

Sheep blowfly fly Lucilia Cuprina And Lucilia Luciliasericata -Important in Australia, South Africa, New Z Zealand and Great Britain -Attack sheep breeds with large skin folds such as Merino Associated with fleece rot Phormia Regina Is the primary blowfly to cause fly-strike in cattle wounds in the United States

Pest Affecting Sheep

Sheep keds Lice Sheep bot fly Wool maggots Stable flies Black flies Tabanids Biting midges Mosquitoes Mites Ticks Lice

Hippoboscoidealife cycle (Larvae)

Shortly after the larva emerges, its integument hardens to form the puparium Pupariaare deposited or dropped on the roost substrate, nest, bedding area, or elsewhere close to the host Sheep ked glues the puparium to the fleece of the host Adult fly emerges after a period of several weeks to several months, depending on the species and temperature

Tabanidae life cycle: Larvae

Spindle-shaped larva are whitish in color, although some are shades of brown or green occur Abdominal segments have lateral and ventral pseudopods for locomotion *Undergo 6-13 larval molts and overwinter as larvae (may take 2-3 years!)* No one has ever been successful in colonizing a tabanid because the larvae stage is VERY specific

Prevention and control of Tabanids

Tabanid control is difficult to achieve Typical host contact time is only about 4 min when feeding and may occur only once every 3-4 days Short-term control on livestock for several days may be achieved through the use of insecticides Traps can be useful

Outcomes of infection

Treatment of canine visceral leishmaniasis is rarely curative -Clinical remission is often achieved when using drug treatment Relapses are common when treatment ceases, complete cures are rare but survival occurs in 80% of cases over 4 years Prognosis for emaciated chronically infected animals is very poor and in these cases euthanasia should be considered Potential zoonotic transmission of organisms from active lesions to humans particularly in immunosuppressed people can occur

Sheep Ked Control

Use of Insecticides/pyrethroids Newborn lambs become infested with keds directly from their mothers soon after birth Sheering prior to lambing significantly reduces populations Sheep-sheep transfer occurs through bumping and rubbing of animals Feed approximately every 24-36 h, increasing to 2-day intervals in older keds Feeding time = 5-10min Treatment with pyrethroids effective

Equine infectious anemia and Tabanids

Viral disease of horses and other equids Caused by Equine infectious anemia virus (Lentivirus Genus, family Retroviridae) Febrile illness that causes lethargy, weight loss, and death -Acutely infected animals die fairly quickly -Chronically infected animals eventually succumb to complications Inapparent carriers may live a number of years with few obvious health problem

Mosquitoes (Culicidae)

Well-known vector of human diseases as malaria, filariasis, encephalitis, yellow fever, Zika and dengue Occur in every region of every continent in the world except Antarctica Two subfamilies: Anophelinaeand Culicinae -Anophelinaethe more primitive group

Deer ked wings?

Yes, but they loose them shortly after landing on host

Tabanidae

are present on every continent except Antarctica Eyes of many species are brilliantly patterned with shades of green, yellow, orange, and violet Eyes lose color after fly dies Horse fly is applied to relatively large species of tabanids, typically 10-30 mm in length Mechanically transmit several significant animal pathogens, including those that cause Surra, and equine infectious anemia Even moderate numbers of flies feeding on livestock can result in significant production losses. Deer flies typically are 6-11 mm long Transmit fewer diseases

House Fly picture

longitudal Stripes and Milky Underside

Facultative myiasis

opportunistic Larvae that can be either free-living or parasitic Three types Primary -species that can initiate myiasis Secondary -species that can continue myiasis but only after it is initiated Tertiary -species that join primary and secondary species just before host death Invasion of open wounds on livestock by maggots of blow flies, which live off carrion

Feeding of Biting Midges

telmophagous (lacerate skin and suck blood from tissues) Midges can be host-specific feeders or indiscriminate (generalist) Most species are crepuscular (feed at dawn and dusk) Many factors effect behavior (wind, temperature, light, air pressure, etc.)

Cattle in the United States

the most important agricultural industry in the United States, accounting for $67.1 billion in cash receipts in 2018 (USDA)

Leishmaniasis

•Complex of sand fly-transmitted diseases •Distributed in tropical and subtropical areas of North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa •Ecology of leishmaniasis varies widely in different geographic zones