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Piaget's theory

Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.

Sex differences

double standards.

phonology

sound system of a language, sounds and how they may be combined

Short term stress

sympathetic activity

syntax

the ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences

Osteoporosis

thinning of the bones.

Infants REM-like sleep

(1) Brain waves are different than those observed in the dreaming sleep of adults. (2) This active, REM-like sleep takes up half an infant's sleep at first. (3) Researchers think the function of REM-like sleep in infants is to provide a means for the brain to stimulate itself—a process called autostimulation. (4) Genetic factors "preprogram" sleep cycles, but environmental factors such as culture affect the sleep patterns of infants. Sometimes, although not always, their closed eyes begin to move in a back-and-forth pattern, as if they were viewing an action-packed scene. This period of active sleep is similar, although not identical, to the rapid eye movement, or REM, sleep, that is found in older children and adults and is associated with dreaming. At first, this active, REM-like sleep takes up around one-half of an infant's sleep, compared with just 20 percent of an adult's sleep (see Figure 4-6). However, the quantity of active sleep quickly declines, and by the age of 6 months, amounts to just one-third of total sleep time. Some researchers think it provides a means for the brain to stimulate itself—a process called autostimulation. Stimulation of the nervous system would be particularly important in infants, who spend so much time sleeping and relatively little in alert states.

Depression in Adolescence

- 2/3 of teens say they are depressed. Some common causes of depression are: break-up of parent's marriage, bullying, failure, death or bad romance. -Females experience depression more than males. -African Americans experience depression at high rates. -only 3% of teens report experiencing major depression--most cases are mild depression. 1. Depression manifests as feelings of sadness or hopelessness for 2 or more weeks, and those who suffer with this condition stop doing normal activities. 2. Group differences are reported in incidence rates. a. Girls have a higher incidence of depression than boys. b. Ethnic differences are also seen in some groups. c. Severe, long-term depression is often related to biological factors (such as genetic inheritance for some individuals).

Piaget's Sensorimotor

- Age 0-2 Infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. Intelligence consists of basic motor and sensory explorations of the world. They begin to understand object permanence- that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

Piaget's Formal Operational

- Age 12 - adult There is an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas and form hypotheses. The adolescent becomes capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and thinking more scientifically about the world. They are able to solve problems systematically, and engage in mental manipulations. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning emerge

Piaget's Concrete Operational

- Elementary Grade Years (7 - 12 years) Kids at this point of development begin to think more logically and are capable of operations. They struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts and solve problems by generalizing from concrete experiences (inductive logic). They are not able to manipulate conditions mentally unless they have been experienced (they are not able to think abstractly or hypothetically- deductive logic). They become less egocentric and begin to think about the thoughts and feelings of others. They begin to understand that not everyone shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions. Conservation develops - the idea that objects conserve mass even when shape changes.

Infancy

(Birth-2) height, weight, and nervous system. -Lots of REM like sleep -Infant's senses are pretty good to begin with and develop quickly

Stress in Childhood: The Pressure to Make the Grade

1. No Child Left Behind has led to Achievement At All Costs, which can create a stressful situation for many children. 2. Increased amounts of homework often mean decreased amounts of physical, social, and emotional development.

dualistic thinking

According to research by psychologist William Perry, students entering Harvard University tended to have a view of the world where they reasoned that something was good or bad; people were good or bad; or others were for them or against them. He called this

Concrete Thinking

Thought derived from the senses, which reflects experience rather than abstract reasoning. In other words, believes and understands only what is observed. In Piaget's classification this stage occurs between 7 and 11 years of age, is preceded by syncretic thinking, and is followed by abstract thinking

chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

What is used to find genetic defects and involves taking samples of hair-like material that surrounds the unborn baby?

two-thirds

What percentage of high school students report having an alcoholic drink in the past year?

syphilis

What sexually transmitted disease can be transmitted directly to the fetus, who will be born suffering from the disease?

School years

muscle coordination improves.

Cell body

contains DNS (Takes in oxygen, waste removal)

One drawback to using nonhumans as research subjects is that

we cannot be sure how well the obtained findings can be generalized to people.

culture and emotion

1. Across every culture, infants show similar facial expressions relating to basic emotions. 2. Darwin argued that humans and primates have an inborn, universal set of emotional expressions, a view consistent with today's evolutionary approach to development. 3. Infants display similar kinds of emotions, but the degree of emotional expressivity varies from culture to culture.

Eating Disorder Causes

1. Biology 2. Society 3. Psychology

Theories of Aging

1. Disengagement Theory 2. Activity Theory 3. Continuity Theory

Types of Correlational Studies

1. Naturalistic observation 2. Case studies 3. Survey Research 4. Psychophysiological methods

Hemophilia

A blood disorder produced by X-linked genes.

androgens; estrogens

Male sex hormones are called __________, while female sex hormones are called _________.

Erikson

Psychosocial Theory

Assimilation

The process in which people understand in new experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and existing ways of thinking

Drugs-Alcohol

_____ damages brain cells, which can lead to mental retardation in many children who were exposed during gestation. It can also lead to abnormalities in face and head size, as well as generally slow growth and cause abnormalities in the rest of the body.

Who delivers babies?

a. Birthing centers are homelike, and less foreboding or stressful than a hospital. b. The use of birthing centers is becoming increasingly common. c. Some parents use a midwife, a nurse specializing in childbirth, instead of an obstetrician, a physician who specializes in childbirth. d. Although relatively rare in the U.S., midwives deliver some 80 percent of babies in other parts of the world.

Which of the following statements about working while in college is true?

a. Working more hours results in decreased grades.

Condoms are less effective against the spread of _____.

b. herpes

perceptual categorization

based on similar perceptual features of objects: size, color, movement

Leptin is:

d. a protein that is involved in satiety.

Naive Idealism

occurs when adolescents attempt to equilibrate nearly impossible or unlikely operations (e.g., forming elaborate plans to end world hunger) with the real world

Expanding

restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said

Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions.

"Piaget observed his son Laurent dropping a toy swan repeatedly, varying the position from which he dropped it, [and] carefully observing each time to see where it fell." This is an example of

social referencing

"Reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation.

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Based on stage approach to development, with children and adolescents passing through four universal stages of development. 1.) Sensorimotor 2.) Properational 3.) Concrete Operational 4.) Formal Operational

Development of the Senses

A. The Development of the Senses 1. SENSATION is the stimulation of the sense organs. 2. PERCEPTION is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving the sense organs and brain. 3. Infants' Eyesight a. Newborn infants cannot see beyond 20 feet. b. By 6 months, the average infant's vision is 20/20. c. Binocular vision, the ability to combine both eyes' vision to see depth and motion, is achieved at 14 weeks. (1) Gibson's "visual cliff" experiments showed that most infants between 6 and 14 months would not crawl over the apparent cliff. (2) We do not know how early this depth perception occurs in infancy. d. Fantz's research showed that infants prefer to look at patterns and complex stimuli. e. Infants prefer to look at faces. 2. Auditory Perception: Sound in Infancy a. The ability to hear begins prenatally. b. Infants are more sensitive than adults to high and low frequencies, but not to the middle ranges. c. Sound localization permits infants to discern the direction from which a sound is emanating. (1) This skill is poorer in infants than adults because of infants' smaller heads. (2) It reaches adult level at 1 year. d. Infants can differentiate changes in sounds—a requirement for language—and their mother's voice from other voices. 3. Smell and Taste in Infancy a. Infants react to unpleasant tastes and smells from birth. b. Newborns can detect their mother's smell, but only when breastfed. c. Infants have an innate sweet tooth. 4. Infants' Sensitivity to Pain and Touch a. Infants are born with the capacity to feel pain. b. Pain produces stress in infants. c. There seems to be a developmental progression in reactions to pain. d. Touch is one of the most highly developed sensory systems in a newborn. (1) The rooting reflex is strong. (2) Infants gain information about the world through touch. 5. Multimodal Perception: Combining Individual Sensory Inputs a. Eventually infants use the MULTIMODAL APPROACH TO PERCEPTION, in which information collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated. b. Infants' perceptual growth is aided by AFFORDANCES, the action possibilities that a given situation provides. 6. Some researchers argue that sensations are initially integrated with one another in the infant 7. Others maintain that infant's sensory systems are initially separate and that brain development leads to increasing integration 8. It does appear that by an early age infants are able to relate what they have learned about an object through one sensory channel to what they have learned about it through another 6. Sensory Development in Preschoolers a. Brain maturation leads to advances in sensory systems. b. Preschool-aged children gradually shift in how they view objects made of multiple parts. c. Auditory acuity (sharpness of hearing) also improves.

phenotype

An observable trait is labeled

Tay-Sachs Disease

An untreatable disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration prior to death.

individuals refuse to eat

Anorexia nervosa is a severe disorder in which ______________.

Preventive Care

A. Types 1. BP: Used to detect hypertension, which can lead to heart attack, stroke, or kidney disease. 2. Cholesterol: Used to detect high cholesterol levels, which increase risk of heart disease. 3. Eye Exam: Used to determine If glasses required and check for eye disease. 4. Flexible Sigmoidoscopy or Double Contrast Barium Enema or Colonoscopy: A procedure using a scope or x-ray to detect cancer of the colon and rectum. 5. Fecal Occult Blood Screening: Detects unseen blood in stool, which is early warning sign for colon cancer. 6. Rectal Exam (Digital): Examination of prostate or ovaries to detect cancer. 7. Urinalysis Screening: Examination to detect presence of excess protein in urine. 8. Immunizations: Tetanus: Protection against infection after injury. 9. Influenza (Flu): Protection against the influenza virus. 10. Pneumococcal: Protection against pneumonia. 11. Self Breast Exam/ Breast Exam by provider: Examination to detect changes in breast that may indicate cancer. 12. Mammogram: Low-dose x-ray used to locate tumors for early detection of breast cancer. 13. Pap Smear: Test that takes small sample of cells to detect cervical cancer or precancer cells. 14. Pelvic Exam: Examination to detect pelvic abnormality. 15. Prostate Specific Antigen: Blood test used to detect cancer of the prostate gland. 16. Testicular Self-Exam: Examination to detect changes in testicles that may indicate cancer.

Values

A. VALUES, the qualities people see as most desirable and important, are a part of each person's life. 1. Values not only affect behavior in significant ways but determine the goals we pursue at every stage of life. 2. College students report that the most important goal they hold is raising a family (77 percent of those surveyed). 3. The values of college students have shifted over the last few decades.

Risks across the Lifespan

A. Risks 1. Coronary Heart Disease a. More men die in middle age of diseases of the heart and circulatory system than from any other cause. b. Both genetic and experiential characteristics are involved. c. Evidence suggests that some psychological factors are also related to heart disease. 1.) People with TYPE A BEHAVIOR PATTERN, which is characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and a tendency toward frustration and hostility, are more susceptible to heart disease. a.) They engage in polyphasic activities—multiple activities carried out simultaneously. b.) They are easily angered and become verbally and nonverbally hostile if prevented from reaching their goals. 2.) By contrast, people with TYPE B BEHAVIOR PATTERN, which is characterized by noncompetitiveness, patience, and a lack of aggression, have less than half the risk of coronary ?disease that Type A people have. 2. Cancer a. Cancer is the second leading cause of death in middle age. b. Many forms of cancer respond well to treatment. c. Cancer is unchecked cell growth. d. Cancer is associated with several risk factors. 1.) Genetics (family history of cancer) raises the risk. 2.) Poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol use, exposure to sunlight, exposure to radiation, and exposure to occupational hazards such as certain chemicals raise the risk. e. Treatment of cancer can take a variety of forms. 1.) Radiation therapy involves the use of radiation to destroy a tumor. 2.) Chemotherapy involves the controlled ingestion of toxic substances meant to poison the tumor. 3.) Surgery may be used to remove the tumor. 4.) Early diagnosis is especially crucial in middle age, when risks increase for certain cancers. 3. Common Physical Disorders in Older Adults a. Arthritis 1.) Arthritis typically begins after the age of 40, and diabetes is most likely to occur in people between the ages of 50 and 60, particularly if they are overweight b. hypertension 1.) Hypertension (high blood pressure) is one of the most frequent chronic disorders found in middle age 2.) Sometimes called the "silent killer" because it is symptomless, hypertension, if left untreated, greatly increases the risk of strokes and heart disease 3.) For such reasons, a variety of preventive and diagnostic medical tests are routinely recommended for adults during middle adulthood c. Psychological and Mental Disorders in Older Adults 1.) Depression is characterized by intense sadness, pessimism, and hopelessness. 2.) Some psychological problems such as anxiety may be caused by inappropriate drug doses or drug interactions. 3.) The most common mental disorder of old people is DEMENTIA, a broad category covering several diseases, each of which includes serious memory loss accompanied by declines in other mental functioning. d. The most common form of dementia is ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, which is a progressive brain disorder that produces loss of memory and confusion. 1.) The symptoms appear gradually. a.) unusual forgetfulness b.) trouble recalling particular words during conversation c.) First recent memory goes, then older memories follow. d.)Eventually, total confusion is seen, along with the inability to speak intelligibly or to recognize family and friends. e.) Toward the end, patients experience loss of muscle control and confinement to bed. 2.) Alzheimer's occurs when production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein, a protein that normally helps the production and growth of neurons, goes awry. 3.) No known triggers are understood to cause Alzheimer's; it runs in families. 4.) Diet and high blood pressure may increase susceptibility. 5.) There is no cure for Alzheimer's.

Vygotsky's View of Cognitive Development: Taking Culture into Account

A. Vygotsky viewed cognitive development as the product of social interactions. 1. Culture and societies influence cognitive development. a. Cognition proceeds because of social interactions where partners jointly work to solve problems. b. Rather than being like little scientists (Piaget), children are, in Vygotsky's view, cognitive apprentices who learn cultural skills from master teachers. c. This partnership is determined by cultural and societal factors. B. According to Vygotsky, children's cognitive abilities increase when information is provided within their ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD), the level at which a child can almost—but not fully—perform a task independently, but can complete the task with the assistance of someone more competent. 1. The assistance provided by others is called SCAFFOLDING, the support for learning and problem-solving that encourages independence and growth. 2. The aid that more accomplished individuals provide to learners comes in the form of cultural tools, actual physical items such as pencils, paper, calculators, and computers. C. Evaluating Vygotsky's Contributions 1. Vygotsky's view has become increasingly influential in the last decade. 2. It helps explain a growing body of research attesting to the importance of social interaction in promoting cognitive development. 3. The zone of proximal development is not precise and not easily testable. 4. His theory is silent on how basic cognitive functions such as attention and memory develop. 5. His broad focus on culture ignores how specific information is processed and synthesized.

1 out of 100; Down syndrome

About ___________ babies born to mothers over 40 have ________.

LABELING THEORY OF PASSIONATE LOVE

According to Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid's ________ individuals experience romantic love when 2 events occur together: intense physiological arousal and situational cues suggesting that the arousal is due to love.

First Sentences - Timing

Around 18 months, vocab explosion coupled with words being linked together to form sentences. In other words, the linking together of individual words into sentences that convey a single thought. Which not only provides them with labels for things in the world but also indication the relations between them. Most early sentences are not demands or even necessarily require a response. The often are merely comments and observations.

Heart and Circulatory Disease

A. Affects 1. Heart and circulatory disease in middle age are responsible for more loss of work and disability days due to hospitalization than any other cause. 2. Each year heart and circulatory diseases kill around 200,000 people under the age of 65. 3. More men die in middle age of diseases of the heart and circulatory system than any other cause. 4. Both genetic and experiential characteristics are involved. 5. Heart disease runs in families. 6. Men are more likely to suffer than women, and risks increase with age. 7. There are several environmental and behavioral factors. a. Cigarette smoking b. High fat and cholesterol in diet c. Lack of physical exercise 8. Evidence suggests that some psychological factors are also related to heart disease. 9. Type A Behavior a. Characterized by: 1.) Competitiveness, impatience, and a tendency toward frustration and hostility, are more susceptible to heart disease. 2.) Engagement in polyphasic activities - multiple activities carried out simultaneously. b. They are easily angered and become verbally and nonverbally hostile if prevented from reaching their goals. c. Heart rate and blood pressure rise, epinephrine and norepinephrine increase. d. Wear and tear on heart produces disease. e. Evidence is only correlational so we cannot say Type A behavior causes heart disease. f. Most experts now say it is the negative emotion and hostility that are the major links to heart disease. g. Most research has been done on men; we need to research women to see if Type A women are equally susceptible. 10. Type B Behavior a. Non-competitiveness, patience, and a lack of aggression b. Evidence that Type B people have less than half the risk of coronary disease than Type A people have

Properational Stage (Stage 2 of 4)

A. Age 1. Age 2 to 7 2. Piaget saw the preschool years as a time of both stability and great change. B. Characteristics of Preoperational Stage 1. Mental reasoning and the use of concepts increases, but children are not capable of OPERATIONS, organized, formal, logical mental processes. 2. A key aspect of preoperational thought is SYMBOLIC FUNCTION. a.) Symbolic function is, the ability to use symbols, words, or an object to represent something that is not physically present. b.) Symbolic function is directly related to language acquisition. 1.) Addressing the question of whether thought determines language or language determines thought, Piaget argued that language grows out of cognitive advances. 3. CENTRATION a.) Centration is the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects. b.) A major characteristic of preoperational thought, and the major limitation of this period because it leads to inaccuracy of thought. 4. CONSERVATION a.) Conservation is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects. 1.) Preschool children do not yet understand this principle. 2.) They cannot focus on the relevant features of a situation or follow the sequence of transformations that accompanies the change in appearance of a situation. 3.) Children in the preoperational period are unable to understand the notion of TRANSFORMATION, the process in which one state is changed into another. 5. EGOCENTRIC THOUGHT a.) Egocentric thought is thinking that does not take into account the viewpoint of others. b.) Egocentric thought takes 2 forms. 1.) Lack of awareness that others see things from different physical perspectives 2.) Failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and points of view different from one's own. c. Egocentrism is at the root of many preschool behaviors: for example, talking to oneself and hiding games. 7. A number of advances in thought occur in the preoperational stage. a. INTUITIVE THOUGHT: the use of primitive reasoning and avid acquisition of knowledge about the world b. Children begin to understand functionality: the concept that actions, events, and outcomes are related to one another in fixed patterns. c. They begin to understand the concept of identity—that certain things stay the same regardless of changes in shape, size, and appearance.

Sensorimotor Stage (Stage 1 of 4)

A. Age 1. Birth to age 2. 2. The earliest (initial major) stage of cognitive growth. B. Six substages of sensorimotor stage 1. Simple Reflexes 2. First Habits and Primary Circular Reactions 3. Secondary Circular Reactions 4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions 6. Beginning of Thought C. Timing 1. Although the specific substages of the sensorimotor period may at first appear to unfold with great regularity, as though infants reach a particular age and smoothly proceed into the next substage, the reality of cognitive development is somewhat different. a.) Ages at which infants actually reach a particular stage vary. b.) Exact timing of a stage reflects an interaction between the infant's level of physical maturation and the nature of the social environment in which the child is being raised, but order remains invariant for all children. c.) Infants also pass through periods of transition, in which some aspects of their behavior reflect the next higher stage, while other aspects indicate their current stage. d.) Initially equipped with a set of reflex movements and a set of perceptual systems, an infant quickly begins to build up direct knowledge of the world through trial and error learning

Adult Preventive Health Care 40-49

A. Ages 40-49 1. BP: Every 2 yrs 2. Cholesterol: All adults should receive total cholesterol screening, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides AT LEASTONCE; Cardiac risk factors and lipoprotein results will determine frequency of follow-up by your health-care provider. 3. Eye Exam: Every 2 to 4 years; Diabetics—Every year. 4. Flexible Sigmoidoscopy or Double Contrast Barium Enema or Colonoscopy: No data 5. Fecal Occult Blood Screening: No data 6. Rectal Exam (Digital): No data 7. Urinalysis Screening: Every 5 years. 8. Immunizations: Tetanus: Every 10 years. 9. Influenza (Flu): Any person with chronic medical conditions, such as heart, lung, kidney disease, diabetes. 10. Pneumococcal: No data 11. Self Breast Exam/ Breast Exam by provider: Every month/Every year. 12. Mammogram: Every year. 13. Pap Smear: After 3 normal tests in a row, screen every 2 to 3 years unless at special risk. 14. Pelvic Exam: Every year (if ovaries remain after hysterectomy). 15. Prostate Specific Antigen 16. Testicular Self-Exam: Every month

Adult Preventive Health Care Age 50 to 59

A. Ages 50-59 1. BP: Every 2 years 2. Cholesterol: All adults should receive total cholesterol screening, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides AT LEASTONCE; Cardiac risk factors and lipoprotein results will determine frequency of follow-up by your health-care provider. 3. Eye Exam: Every 2 to 4 years; Diabetics—Every year. 4. Flexible Sigmoidoscopy or Double Contrast Barium Enema or Colonoscopy: Baseline at age 50; Every 3 to 5 years after initial test. 5. Fecal Occult Blood Screening: Every year 6. Rectal Exam (Digital): Every year 7. Urinalysis Screening: Every 5 years. 8. Immunizations: Tetanus: Every 10 years. 9. Influenza (Flu) 10. Pneumococcal: No data 11. Self Breast Exam/ Breast Exam by provider: Every month/Every year. 12. Mammogram: Every year. 13. Pap Smear: After 3 normal tests in a row, screen every 2 to 3 years unless at special risk. 14. Pelvic Exam: Every year (if ovaries remain after hysterectomy). 15. Prostate Specific Antigen: Every year upon doctor's advice. 16. Testicular Self-Exam: Every month

Breast Milk or Formula

A. Breast milk 1. Benefits a. Offers all nutrients infants need for first 12 months of life b. Is more easily digested than alternative sources c. Provides some immunity to a variety of childhood diseases d. May enhance cognitive growth e. Offers significant emotional advantages for mother and child f. For the first 12 months of life, there is no better food for an infant than breast milk. 2. ??? a. Not a cure-all for infant nutrition and health *Without proper nutrition, infants cannot reach their physical potential and can suffer cognitive and social consequences.

Health Concerns of Adulthood

A. Concerns 1. Most reach their maximum height in their 20s. 2. After age 55, bones become less dense; women ultimately lose 2 inches, and men lose 1 inch of their height. a. Women are more prone to declining height due to OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin. b. Osteoporosis is brought about by a lack of calcium in the body. c. Diet (high in calcium) and exercise can reduce the risk of osteoporosis. 3. Throughout middle adulthood, strength gradually decreases. a. This is particularly noticeable in the back and leg muscles. 4. There are many advantages to regular exercise. a.) Less than 10 percent of Americans exercise enough to keep themselves in good physical shape b.) Some exercise is better than no exercise; even moderate amounts can confer benefits 5. Health a. Young adults are less susceptible to colds and other illnesses. b. Lifestyle choices—use and abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs, or engaging in unprotected sex—can hasten secondary aging, physical declines brought about by environmental factors or individual choices. c. Adults in their 20s and 30s have a higher risk of dying from accidents than other causes. 6. Cultural variations in health and death are observed due to SES, gender, race, and violence. 7. Both men and women continue to gain weight in middle adulthood. a. The amount of body fat increases. b. Exercise and weight control can ameliorate the weight gain.

Health in Old Age

A. Factors 1. Certain diseases, such as cancer and heart disease, have a clear genetic component Economic well-being also plays role Psychological factors play an important role in determining people's susceptibility to illness, and ultimately, the likelihood of death Whether an older person is ill or well depends less on age than on a variety of factors, including genetic predisposition, past and present environmental factors, and psychological factors. In 2002, for example, older individuals averaged $3,600 in out-of-pocket health care expenditures, an increase of 45 percent in ten years. Furthermore, older people spend almost 13 percent of their total expenditures on health care, more than two times more than younger individuals.

Death among adults ages 25 to 34

A. Leading causes of death among young adults ages 25-34: 1. Accidents 2. AIDS 3. Cancer 4. Heart disease 5. Suicide 6. Murder 7. Gender and SES differences *At age 35, this reverses and illness and disease become more likely causes (for the 1st time since infancy). B. Accidents and Sex 1. Men are more apt to die from accidents than women. C. Race 1. African Americans have twice the death rate of Caucasians. D. Murder 1. Murder rate in the U.S. is significantly higher than in any other developed country. a. U.S rate = 21.9 per 100,000 men b. Japanese rate = 0.5 murders per 100,000 men Murder is the fifth most frequent cause of death for young White Americans (1 in 131 chance in lifetime) 2. Murder is the most frequent cause of death for African Americans (1 in 21 chance in lifetime) 3. In some areas of the country, a young black male has a higher probability of being murdered than a soldier in the Vietnam War had of being killed! 4. African American male: 1 in 21 chance of being murdered in his lifetime 5. European American male: 1 in 131 chance 6. Murder rates also depend significantly on racial factors. Although murder is the fifth most frequent cause of death for young adult white Americans, it is the most likely cause of death for African Americans, and it is a significant factor for Hispanic Americans.

assimilation

According to Piaget, ___________ is the process by which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. Taking a piece of information from the environment and reacting to it. Transformation of reality in the service of the self. If we use something to represent something else in personal fantasy. using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences Four-year-old Alex and his mother visited the zoo. While they were there, Alex's mother took him to see the squirrel exhibit. Alex saw many different types of squirrels, but when he saw a flying squirrel glide from one branch to the next he pointed and said, "A bird." Considering Piaget's work, Alex is demonstrating an example of Piaget thought that ________ occurs when a stimulus or event is acted upon, perceived, and understood in accordance with existing patterns of thought. the process by which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. It occurs, then, when a stimulus or an event is acted upon, perceived, and understood in accordance with existing patterns of thought. According to Piaget this is the mental process of fitting new ideas or concepts into existing ideas or concepts (schemes). It suggests that a child may change or alter what he perceives in the outside world in order to fit his internal world.

Moral Absolute Stage

According to Piaget, this is the stage where young children entering school have no flexibility with rules despite extenuating circumstances; thus teachers have to establish broad general rules for them to follow.

children exhibit the capacity for mental representation or symbolic thought

According to Piaget, what is the major accomplishment of Substage 6?

responsibility

According to Schaie, what is the mission of the late stages of early adulthood through middle adulthood?

zone of proximal development

According to Vygotsky, the level at which a child can almost but not fully perform a task independently (but can do so with assistance), is the child's __________

responsible

According to developmental psychologist K. Warner Schaie, the stage where the major concerns of middle-aged adults relate to their personal situations, including protecting and nourishing their spouses, families, and careers, is called the __________ stage.

assessing the implications of a potentially stress-inducing event

According to psychologists Arnold Lazarus and Susan Folkman, the primary appraisal stage of dealing with stress is focused on ______________.

assessing whether one can cope with the challenge

According to psychologists Arnold Lazarus and Susan Folkman, the secondary appraisal stage of dealing with stress is focused on ______________.

observable; external

According to the "black box" analysis, people and other organisms' behavior and learning are ________ in terms of _______ stimuli.

interactionist perspective

According to the __________________, language development comes about through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances.

Exposure to information that is new enough to be intruiging but not difficult

According to vygotsky and the zone of proximal development, what factor can aid a child in further development?

Moro reflex

Activated when support for the neck and head is suddenly removed. The arms of the infant are thrust outward and then appear to grasp onto something. Age of Disappearance: 6 months Possible Function: Similar to primates' protection from falling

Cultural Tools

Actual, physical items or intellectual and conceptual framework for solving problems Language Alphabetical and numbering schemes Mathematical and scientific systems Religious systems The nature of the tools available to children to solve problems and perform tasks is highly dependent on the culture in which they live.

Piaget's Theory of moral Development

Addresses children's moral reasoning. Children's thinking becomes more advanced and their understanding of moral problems deepens. 1) Heteronomous Morality: based on rules and consequences 2) Autonomous Morality: based on mutual respect and recognition

Contrasting Relatedness and Behavior Research

Adoption, Twin, and Family studies. a. Scientists use human twins to study the effects of genes and the environment. b. Differences between monozygotic twins separated at birth are most likely—but not always—due to different environments. c. If monozygotic twins are more similar than dizygotic twins on a particular trait, we can assume that genetics plays a role in the expression of that trait. d. People who are unrelated but share the same environment also tell us about environmental influences. e. Researchers also study biological parents and their children versus adoptive parents and their children to see the effects of heredity versus environment. f. Bottom line: virtually all traits, characteristics, and behaviors are the joint result of the combination and interaction of nature and nurture. The more genetically similar two people are, the more likely they are to share physical characteristics (e.g., height, weight).

oral

Adults demonstrating excessive activities such as eating, talking, or chewing gum may be experiencing a(n) __________ fixation.

The Formal Operational Stage (Stage 4 of 4)

Age 12 to 15 Develop the ability to think abstractly. Can understans how to test a hypothesis, conduct experiments, and observe the results. 2. Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development: Using Formal Operations 3. FORMAL OPERATIONS PERIOD is the stage during which people develop the ability to think abstractly. a. Adolescents are characterized by Piaget as being like scientists who utilize systematic, hypothetical thinking to solve problems. b. Beginning around the age of 12, adolescents use formal logical principles to formulate abstract steps to solve problems and test their hypotheses. c. Adolescents start with a general theory and deduce explanations from it; this process also distinguishes the formal operational period. d. Adolescents also can employ prepositional thought, reasoning that uses abstract logic in the absence of concrete examples. e. Not everyone achieves formal operational skills (some studies estimate that anywhere from 25 to 60 percent of college students do not). f. Cultural values influence the achievement of these skills. 4. The ability to think abstractly affects everyday behavior. a. Adolescent Use of Formal Operations (1) With increased ability to think abstractly, adolescents begin to exercise newfound skills in logic and reasoning. (2) Adolescents become more argumentative and find flaws in others' arguments and rules. (3) They may also appear indecisive as they consider multiple sides of issues before making choices. (4) This makes adolescents more interesting, but challenging.

Stage of Preoperational Thinking

Ages 2 to 7 years Time of stability and change Use of operations at the end of this stage Preschool years time of stability and change; lack use of operations and organized, formal mental processes Preoperational Stage: 2-7 years Characterized by symbolic thinking; mental reasoning and use of concepts increase Still not capable of operations: organized, formal, logical mental processes that characterize school age children. It is only at the end of preoperational stage that the ability to carry out operations comes into play.

Stage approach to development

All children pass through a series of four universal stages in a fixed order from birth through adolescence: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

heredity, environment

All developmental specialists acknowledge that neither ______ nor _____ alone can account for the full range of human development and change.

genotype

All of a person's actual genetic material. genetic makeup. The underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism.

self

All of the characteristics of a person.

Childhood Threats

A. Most children in the United States have reasonably healthy bodies. B. Childhood Illness 1. 7 to 10 colds and other minor respiratory illnesses in each of the years from age three to five 2. Minor illness permits children to understand body better, learn coping skills, and develop empathy for others who are sick C. Behavioral Concerns Increasing numbers of children are being treated for behavioral problems. 1. Use of Medication a. (See image) Although there is no clear explanation as to why the use of stimulants and antidepressants has increased among children, some experts believe that medication is a quick-fix solution for behavior problems that may in fact represent normal difficulties. D. Physical Injury 1. Accidents pose the greatest risk for children. 2. Why are Children prone to injuries? a. High levels of physical activity b. Curiosity c. Lack of judgment 3. Before the age of 10, children have twice the likelihood of dying from an injury than from an illness. 4. Children in the United States have a 1 in 3 chance every year of receiving an injury that requires medical attention. 5. Individual differences a. Gender b. Cultural c. Socioeconomic E. Safety 1. Safeguarding the childhood environment can decrease injury. a. Lead Poisoning 1.) Some 14 million children are at risk for lead poisoning, according to the Centers for Disease Control 2.) The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has called lead poisoning the most hazardous health threat to children under the age of 6 F. SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) 1. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in their sleep 2. SIDS strikes about 1 in 2,500 infants in the United States each year 3. Although it seems to occur when normal patterns of breathing during sleep are interrupted, researchers have been unable to discover why that might happen 4. In the United States, SIDS rates have dropped dramatically as parents have become more informed and now put babies to sleep on their backs instead of their stomachs. SUID: Sudden Unexplained Infant Death.

Facets of Addiction

A. Psychological addiction 1. Depend on drugs to cope with everyday stress of life; prevent adolescents from confronting - and potentially solving - problems that led them to drug use in the first place B. Biological addiction 1. Presence in body becomes so common that body is unable to function in their absence; causes physical - and potentially lingering - changes in nervous system; drug intake no longer may provide a "high," but may be necessary simply to maintain the perception of everyday normalcy

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

A. SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) 1. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in their sleep 2. SIDS strikes about 1 in 2,500 infants in the United States each year 3. Although it seems to occur when normal patterns of breathing during sleep are interrupted, researchers have been unable to discover why that might happen 4. In the United States, SIDS rates have dropped dramatically as parents have become more informed and now put babies to sleep on their backs instead of their stomachs. SUID: Sudden Unexplained Infant Death.

Solid Foods: When and What?

A. Solids 1. Solid foods are gradually introduced to infants' diets. 2. Introduction is one at a time to permit monitoring of preferences and allergies. 3. Order is typically cereal, fruit, and then vegetables, followed by other foods. 4. Weaning, the gradual cessation of breast or bottle feeding, occurs slowly. 5. Timing varies greatly.

The Social Clocks of Adulthood

A. The SOCIAL CLOCK is the psychological timepiece that records the major milestones in people's lives, which were fairly uniform until the middle of the twentieth century. (1) Most people moved through a series of developmental stages closely aligned with particular ages. (2) Today, the timing at which major life events occur has changed considerably, especially for women. (3) Culturally determined (4) Shifting cultural landscape means that the timing of major events is also changing (5) Women may especially show variability in their choice of "clocks" and the timing of each

Alzheimer's Disease

A. The most common form of dementia is ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, which is a progressive brain disorder that produces loss of memory and confusion. 1.) The symptoms appear gradually. a.) unusual forgetfulness b.) trouble recalling particular words during conversation c.) First recent memory goes, then older memories follow. d.)Eventually, total confusion is seen, along with the inability to speak intelligibly or to recognize family and friends. e.) Toward the end, patients experience loss of muscle control and confinement to bed. 2.) Alzheimer's occurs when production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein, a protein that normally helps the production and growth of neurons, goes awry. 3.) No known triggers are understood to cause Alzheimer's; it runs in families. 4.) Diet and high blood pressure may increase susceptibility. 5.) There is no cure for Alzheimer's. B. The Biology of Alzheimer's Disease 1. Production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein—a protein that normally helps the production and growth of neurons—goes awry. 2. This produces large clumps of cells that trigger inflammation and deterioration of nerve cell. 3. Brain shrinks, and several areas of hippocampus and frontal and temporal lobes show deterioration. 4. Certain neurons die, which leads to shortage of various neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine. C. Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease 1. No cure 2. Treatment deals only with the symptoms 3. Drugs effective for only half of Alzheimer's patients 4. Many spend the remainder of their lives in nursing homes 5. While understanding of the causes of Alzheimer's is incomplete, several drug treatments for Alzheimer's appear promising, although none is effective in the long term. The most promising drugs are related to the loss of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) that occurs in some forms of Alzheimer's disease. Donepezil (Aricept), galantamine (Razadyne), rivastigmine (Exelon), and tacrine (Cognex) are among the most common drugs prescribed, and they alleviate some of the symptoms of the disease. Still, they are effective in only half of Alzheimer's patients, and only temporarily. 6. As victims lose the ability to feed and clothe themselves, or even to control bladder and bowel functions, they must be cared for 24 hours a day. Because such care is typically impossible for even the most dedicated families, most Alzheimer's victims end their lives in nursing homes. Patients with Alzheimer's make up some two-thirds of those in nursing homes.

Alzheimer's Disease

second

During the _____ trimester, hair, eyelashes, eyebrows, and nails appear and the baby can open and close its eyes, such its thumb, and swallow.

self-concept

Domain-specific evaluations of the self.

2 types of traits

Dominant trait and Recessive trait

Evolutionary perspectives

Draws on the field of ethology (Konrad Lorenz 1903-1989), which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior.

preterm infants

Infants born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term.

Abortion

the voluntary termination of a pregnancy

Sex

Typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior.

Spermarche

A boy's first ejaculation

REFERENCE GROUPS

Are groups of people to whom one compares oneself.

problem-focused coping

Allison is having a great deal of difficulty in her statistics class. She goes to her teacher to discuss ways in which she can improve her skills, or even drop the class if necessary. Allison is demonstrating

romantic love

Also called passionate love, or eros, this type of love has strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and it often predominates in the early part of a love relationship.

Sociocultural Theory

An approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture. a. Vygotsky argued that children's understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children. b. He also argued that to understand the course of development we must consider what is meaningful to members of a given culture. c. Emphasizes that development is the result of recurring reciprocal transactions between people in the child's environment and the child. d. Assessing (1) It helps us to understand the variety of environmental and cultural factors that shape development. (2) Some suggest the strong emphasis on culture and social experience ignores biological factors. (3) Vygotsky minimizes the role individuals can play in shaping their own environment. Development is a reciprocal transaction between child and environment

Startle reflex

An infant, in response to a sudden noise, flings out its arms, arches its back, and spreads its fingers Age of Disappearance: Remains in different form Possible Function: Protection

Scheme

An organized pattern of sensorimotor functioning.

Appropriation

Appropriation is the process of constructing knowledge from social and cultural sources, and integrating it into pre-existing schemas. It is a developmental process that comes about through socially formulated, goal-directed, and tool-mediated actions. Appropriation has occurred when the student has adapted the information in a way that is meaningful to them and they can use the knowledge as their own.

Dizygotic Twins

Are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by 2 separate sperm, are no more genetically similar than any two siblings.

Evolutionary perspectives

Argue that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as skin and eye color, but certain personality traits and social behaviors.

cognitive tools

A culture's history and technology. Past members of the culture have developed effective tools for solving problems, students learn more easily when they use these cultural tools. E.g. for reading- alphabets, the language, a book, a library, glasses.

operant conditioning.

A form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences is called

Under-nutrition

A form of malnutrition in which the body is not getting enough of the essential nutrients.

correlation coefficient

A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables.

commitment

A personal investment in identity.

reflexive smile

A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep.

Babbling

1. Definition: Making speechlike but meaningless sounds 2 months-1 year. a. Babbling is a universal phenomenon. b. Babbling begins with easy sounds (b, p) and proceeds to more complex sounds (d, t). c. By the age of 6 months, babbling differs according to the language to which the infant is exposed. 2. Infants who cannot hear and are exposed to sign language babble with their hands instead of their voices.

Phonology

1. Definition: The Basic sounds of language, called phonemes, that can be combined to produce words and sentences.

Race Dissonance

1. Is defined as, the phenomenon in which minority youngsters indicate preference for majority values or people. 2. Some studies find that as many as 90 percent of African American children, when asked about their reactions to drawings of black and white children, react more negatively to the drawings of black children than to those of white children. a. However, these negative reactions did not translate into lower self-esteem for the African American subjects. b. Instead, their preferences appear to be a result of the powerful influence of the dominant white culture, rather than a disparagement of their own racial characteristics.

Stress

1. Is the response to events that threaten or challenge an individual. 2. Is the negative emotional state resulting from judgment that requirements exceed resources. What tends to be stressful? ◦ Events and circumstances that produce negative emotions ◦ Uncontrollable or unpredictable ◦ Ambiguous and confusing ◦ Simultaneous demands

The Stresses of Adulthood

1. Jobs 2. Raising a family 3. Long-term relationships 4. Retirement And many more...

How are language and thought related?

1. Language shapes thought 2. Thought shapes language 3. Thought and language influence one another 4. Research supports all 3 views 5. Most developmentalists suggest that though independent at first, by the time children are 2 years old, language and thinking work in tandem, as Vygotsky argued.

Visual Perception in Infancy

1. Newborn's distance vision ranges from 20/200 to 20/600 2. By 6 months, average infant's vision is already 20/20 3. Other visual abilities grow rapidly a. Binocular vision b. Depth perception 4. Infants can only see with accuracy visual material up to 20 feet that an adult with normal vision is able to see with similar accuracy from a distance of between 200 and 600 feet.; distance vision is 1/10th to 1/3rd that of average adult's.

Kwashiorkor

1. Older children are susceptible to kwashiorkor, a disease in which a child's stomach, limbs, and face swell with water.

hardiness

Ashley and her brother Tim react to stressful family situations entirely differently. Ashley is easily frustrated and tends to look at the negative side when things go wrong, while Tim has always been a person who enjoys challenges and feels capable of responding effectively no matter what the situation. Tim is demonstrating

social support

Assistance and comfort provided to a person dealing with a stressful situation is known as

How personality is formed by our upbringing?

At the beginning of "The Human Genome" video, an experiment conducted the University of Minnesota was discussed. In this experiment, psychologists compared twins separated at birth to twins reared in the same family, hoping to discover which of the following?

Elderly Population

Because people are living longer, late adulthood is increasing in length. The fastest growing segment of the population is the oldest old—people who are 85 or older. In the last two decades, the size of this group has nearly doubled. The population explosion among older people is not limited to the United States. In fact, the rate of increase is much higher in developing countries. Sheer numbers of elderly are increasing substantially in countries around the globe. By 2050, number of adults worldwide over the age 60 will exceed the number of people under age of 15 for first time in history.

Explaining Gender Differences: Biological Perspective

Biological perspectives argue that physical characteristics associated with the different sexes, hormone differences, and differences in the structure of female and male brains might lead to gender differences. a. Hormones have been found to affect gender-based behaviors. (1) Girls prenatally exposed to high levels of ANDROGENS (male hormones) are more likely to display male-typical behaviors than their sisters not exposed to these hormones. (2) Boys exposed to female hormones prenatally display more female-typical behaviors than other male peers. b. The CORPUS CALLOSUM, a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the hemispheres of the brain, is larger in women than men. (1) This may be due to girls' greater exposure to verbal interactions rather than to innate biological mechanisms. (2) Thus, these findings do not rule out the possibility that environmental experiences may bring about biological differences (not vice versa). c. The evolutionary approach purports that gender differences have served the biological goal of survival of the species; stereotypical roles ensure attraction and reproduction, as well as nurturance of offspring.

Sexuality

C. Sexuality 1. Ongoing Sexuality a. Sex contributes to wellness across the lifespan, even despite some age-related changes in sexual functions. b. Amount of testosterone declines 30 to 40 percent from late the 40s to the early 70s. (1) Men typically need more time to get an erection as they age. (2) In women, the walls of the vagina become less elastic and thinner and the vagina shrinks, potentially making intercourse painful. 2. The Climacteric and Menopause a. FEMALE CLIMACTERIC: starting about age 45, women transition from being able to bear children to being unable to do so. b. This period lasts about 15 to 20 years. c. The most notable sign is MENOPAUSE, the cessation of menstruation. d. The process may begin as early as age 40 or as late as age 60. e. Perimenopause is the period beginning around 10 years prior to menopause when hormone production begins to change. f. It was once thought that about 10% of women had psychological problems associated with menopause such as depression. It is now believed that women's expectations about menopause may affect their experience of menopause. 3. Men experience some changes during middle age that are collectively referred to as the MALE CLIMACTERIC, the period of physical and psychological change relating to the male reproductive system that occurs during late middle age. a. The most common change is the enlargement of the prostate gland. (1) By age 40, 10% of men have enlarged prostates. (2) Symptoms are problems with urination, including difficulty starting to urinate and frequent need to urinate during the night. (3) Sexual problems that increase with age include erectile dysfunction. (4) Men also undergo psychological development in middle adulthood, but the link to physical changes remains a more open question.

Izard- Infant emotional expression

-At birth, infants express interest, distress and disgust. Over next few months, other emotions emerge. - All infants display same kind of emotions, just at different levels of intensity. Maximally Discriminative Facial Movement Coding System (MAX)- a research tool used to identify and track infant emotional expressions.

Cancer

Cancer is associated with genetic and environmental risks Poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol use, exposure to sunlight, exposure to radiation, and particular occupational hazards Early treatment is related to higher survival rate Many forms of cancer respond quite well to medical treatment, and 40 percent of people diagnosed with the disease are still alive 5 years later; but second leading cause of death in U.S. Therapy: radiation, chemotherapy, surgery. Detection: breast examination, mammogram, testicle exam Takes a variety of forms Radiation therapy involves the use of radiation to destroy a tumor Chemotherapy involves the controlled ingestion of toxic substances meant to poison the tumor Surgery may be used to remove the tumor Early diagnosis is crucial Mammography, a weak X-ray, is used to detect breast cancer. Women over 50 should routinely have one.- Younger women have denser breasts and the problem of false positives increases. Mammograms are expensive. Increasing evidence suggests that cancer is also related to psychological factors. Mammography, a weak X-ray, is used to detect breast cancer. Death rate of women with breast cancer was much lower for those who had a "fighting spirit" or those who denied they had the disease. People with close family ties are less likely to develop cancer. Cancer patients who are habitually optimistic report less physical and psychological distress. Participating in group therapy reduces anxiety and pain and increases survival rates. A positive psychological outlook may be related to a tendency to adhere to a strict treatment regimen.

Continuous Change

Caters to whatever theory is being studied Part of the debate with Discontinuous Change. Development is gradual, with achievements at one level building on those of previous levels. Quantitative in nature: the basic underlying developmental process that drive change remain the same over the course of the life span. Matter of degree, not kind.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive Theory of Development

Vygotsky's View of Cognitive Development

Cognitive advances occur through exposure to information within zone of proximal development (ZPD) Cognition is the result of social interactions in which children learn through guided participation Children gradually grow intellectually and begin to function on their own because of assistance that adult and peer partners provide The ZPD is the level at which a child can almost, but not quite, understand or perform a task. WHAT IS IT? Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. WHY USE IT? Documented results include improved academic achievement, improved behavior and attendance, increased self-confidence and motivation, and increased liking of school and classmates. Cooperative learning is also relatively easy to implement and is inexpensive. WHAT IS IT? Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue.

Explaining Gender Differences: Cognitive Approaches

Cognitive approaches argue that individuals develop a GENDER IDENTITY, the perception of oneself as male or female. a. To do this, they develop a GENDER SCHEMA or a cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender. b. Preschoolers begin developing rigid rules about what is appropriate for males and females. c. According to his cognitive-developmental theory, Lawrence Kohlberg argues that this rigidity reflects levels of their understanding of gender, and reveals their erroneous assumption that sex is based on gender—on appearance or behaviors (which do change)—rather than on unchanging biological characteristics. d. By the time they are 4 or 5 years of age, children develop an understanding of GENDER CONSTANCY, the belief that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors. e. Interestingly, children's understanding of gender constancy does not influence their gender-related behavior. (1) Young preschoolers base their assumptions about appropriateness of behaviors on stereotypes. (2) This takes place long before they understand gender constancy.

logical operations

Concrete operational thought involves applying _____ to solve problems.

continuity-discontinuity issue

Debate that focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).

Cognitive Theory of Development

Developed by Piaget, focus on mental processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about world. universal and fixed sequence of stages, quantitative and qualitative advances.

What is meant by the concept of development?

Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span.

How is research conducted on the time span of people's lives?

Developmentalists study the relation of age to other variables using three research strategies: 1. Cross-Sectional Approach 2. Longitudinal Approach 3. Cohort Effects

timing

Differences exist in the _____ of development in children from different cultural groups.

visual problems

Difficulty in writing, frequent headaches, and dizziness are all signs of _____________.

The Process of Birth

E. The Process of Birth 1. About 266 days after conception, a protein called corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) triggers the process of birth. a. The hormone oxytocin is released from mother's pituitary. b. Braxton-Hicks contractions have been occurring since the fourth month. c. Contractions force the head of the fetus against the cervix. d. Labor proceeds in 3 stages. (1) The first stage is the longest. (a) Uterine contractions occur every 8-10 minutes and last about 30 seconds. (b) Contractions increase to their greatest intensity, a period known as transition. (c) The mother's cervix fully opens. (d) For first babies, this stage can last 16-24 hours (this varies widely). (e) Subsequent children involve shorter periods of labor. (2) During the second stage of labor, the baby's head moves through the birth canal. (a) This stage typically lasts 90 minutes. (b) After each contraction, the baby's head emerges more and increases the vaginal opening. (c) An EPISIOTOMY is an incision sometimes made to increase the size of the opening of the vagina to allow the baby to pass. (d) This stage ends when the baby is born. (3) The third stage of labor occurs when the child's umbilical cord and placenta are expelled. (a) This is the shortest stage. (b) It lasts only minutes. (4) Cultural perspectives color the way that people in a given society view the experience of childbirth.

What are some contributions and criticisms of the ecological theory?

Contributions • A systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems. • Attention to connections between environmental settings (mesosystem). Criticisms • Even with added discussion of biological influences in recent years, there is still too little attention to biological foundations of development. • Inadequate attention to cognitive processes.

What are some contributions and criticisms of the ethological theory?

Contributions • It provides an increased focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development. • Ethological theory promotes the use of careful observations in naturalistic settings. Criticisms • The critical and sensitive period concepts may be too rigid. • The emphasis on biological foundations is too strong.

What are the contributions and criticisms of the cognitive theories?

Contributions • These theories offer a positive view of development. • There is an emphasis on the active construction of knowledge and understanding. Criticisms • Skepticism exists about the timing and manner of development according to Piaget's stages. • Little attention is given to individual variations in cognitive development.

Lifespan Approaches

Expansive view on life span. Part of the debate with Particular Periods. 1. Growth and change continue throughout life. 2. An important part of every person's environment is the other people around him or her-the person's social environment. 3. Some skills get better over time: others decline relative to other stages of life. 4. Resources for motivation, energy, and time are invested and utilized differently at different ages in life.

8. Ego integrity vs. despair stage (late adulthood)

Erikson's final stage of life (50 years and up), characterized by a process of looking back over one's life, evaluating it, and coming to terms with it. a. Integrity comes when people feel they have realized and fulfilled the possibilities that have come their way. b. Despair occurs when people feel dissatisfied with their lives and experience gloom, unhappiness, depression, anger, or the feeling that they have failed.

What is the nature of the ethological theory?

Ethologists stress the timing of certain influences and the powerful roles that evolution and biological foundations play in development.

Alleles

Genes for traits that may take alternate forms. 1.) HOMOZYGOUS is inheriting from parents similar genes for a given trait. 2.) HETEROZYGOUS is inheriting from parents different forms of a gene for a given trait.

settling process

George is experiencing back pain. His doctor tells him the bones attached to his spinal column have become less dense. The doctor is referring to the

Cross-sectional Design

Gesell and his co-worker developed norms for four aspects of human growth: motor behavior, language behavior, adaptive behavior, and personal-social behavior. They studied large numbers of children in each age group to determine the approximate age at which each step in the growth process normally occurs. Gesell and his co-workers studied different groups of children in age groups ranging from birth through adolescence. What kind of study did they undertake? This is an example of _____ research. Jones and Conrad (1933) administered intelligence tests to all residents in a small New England town. They grouped the subjects' test results by age and then compared the average score per age. Test results indicated age trends in various aspects of intellectual ability. This is an example of _____ research. The approximate age at which an infant can be expected to roll over, creep, crawl, pull himself up to a standing position, and walk unaided can be determined by observing the behavior of groups of children from birth until the age of about 15 months. If we, as investigators, study a group of one- month-old infants, another group of two-month olds, and a different group of babies at every month of age thereafter, we will have a _____ research design.

Affluence and Poverty

Greater affluence, the more they speak to child. Professionals spend almost twice the amount of time interacting with children as do poor. Affluent children exposed to far greater number of words. Effects: Being exposed to a greater number and variety of words linked to measures of childhood intellectual achievement.

Milestones of Motor Development

Fifty percent of children are able to perform each skill at the month indicated in the figure. However, the specific timing at which each skill appears varies widely. -For example, one-quarter of children are able to walk well at 11.1 months; by 14.9 months, 90 percent of children are walking well. Young infants still are able to accomplish some kinds of movement. -When placed on their stomachs they wiggle their arms and legs and may try to lift their heavy heads. -As their strength increases, they are able to push hard enough against the surface on which they are resting to propel their bodies in different directions. -They often end up moving backwards rather than forwards, but by the age of 6 months they become rather accomplished at moving themselves in particular directions. -These initial efforts are the forerunners of crawling, in which babies coordinate the motions of their arms and legs and propel themselves forward. -Crawling appears typically between 8 and 10 months. -Walking comes around the age of 9 months; most infants are able to walk by supporting themselves on furniture, and half of all infants can walk well by the end of their first year of life. Most are able to sit without support by the age of 6 months.

Edward's says to his teacher, "All the world's a Stage". He is using :

a metaphor

Ages 6-11 how many words are known?

14,000-40,000

By what age have most people lost, on average, 10% of their maximum strength?

Experimental

________ research is designed to discover causal relationships between various factors.

Primary Circular Reactions

(1 - 4 months) the first of three types of feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence, this one involving the infant's own body. the infant senses motion, sucking, noise, and so on, and tries to understand them by repetition

What are the three key developmental processes?

1. Biological processes 2. Cognitive processes 3. Socioemotional processes

How is age related to development?

1. Chronological age 2. Biological age 3. Psychological age 4. Social age

phallic stage

3 years to 5-6 years, Psychosexual development

Laboratory study

A research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant.

metaphor

An implied comparison between two unlike things.

case study

An in-depth look at a single individual.

episiotomy

An incision that is sometimes made to increase the size of the opening of the vagina to allow the baby to pass is called

Mesosystem

Connects various aspects of microsystem, linking (forces that bind people together)

declining

Infant mortality has been generally _________ since the 1960s.

Sucking reflex

Infant's tendency to suck at things that touch its lips. Age of Disappearance: Remains Possible Function: Food intake

Case studies

Involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or a small group of individuals. (a) Case studies are designed to derive broader principles or draw tentative conclusions that might apply to others. (b) Diaries are one method of collecting data.

Evocative gene-environment correlations

Jorge get genes for anxiety, and his anxious behavior makes his parents overprotective of him

gametes

Male and female reproductive cells are also known as

Polygenic Inheritance

Most traits are the result of ___ ____, in which a combination of multiple gene pairs is responsible for the production of a particular trait.

Obesity is defined as weight greater than ______________ percent above the average for a given height.

Private Speech - Preschool Years

Spoken language that is not intended for others, kids think out loud.

5 to 7 pounds

The average annual weight gain for both boys and girls in middle childhood is __________.

Humanistic perspective

This perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives.

defensive coping

Unconscious strategies to distort or deny the seriousness of a potentially stressful situation, or to insulate oneself from feeling its effects, are called ______________.

social interactions

Vygotsky viewed cognitive development as the product of ____________.

Fixation

When too little or too much gratification during a phase results in being stuck in earlier phase due to an unresolved conflict

Bradley

Which childbirth method is known as "husband-coached childbirth"?

drawing a picture

first step to writing

1. It familiarize the child with the mother or the father's voice. 2. The melody pattern begins to teach the child how sentences are structured and the pattern of communication. 3. It exposes children to a variety of words and vocabulary so they begin to learn vocabulary.

the reasons cited that reading aloud to a baby is important from a very early age?

Environment influences development through _______, ______ _____, and ______.

◦ Culture/subculture/"microculture" ◦ Ethnic group ◦ Cohort: same time/place (ie: 9/11 Children)

James, an American, will most likely consider himself an adult when he _____, whereas Nirmal, an Indian will most likely consider himself an adult when he _____.

a. moves out of the house; graduates from college d. gets married; buys his first home

Non-normative life events

atypical factors (ex: death of caregiver at young age)

identity

In the later stages of preoperational stage, children show an understanding that certain things stay the same, regardless of changes in shape, size, and appearance, and this is called

syntax

In the months spanning their third birthday, the number of ways children combine words and phrases to form sentences, known as ________, doubles each month.

environmental influences.

In the nature versus nurture discussion, the term nurture refers to

Nonverbal decoding abilities

Infants are able to discriminate facial and vocal expressions of emotion early in infancy via

A longitudinal study found that at age 25 _____ of the participants were fully financially independent of their family of origin.

b. a little more than half

College freshmen are similar to high school freshmen in that both:

b. are considered novices in their respective settings.

reciprocal teaching

Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity in which students become the teacher in small group. Teachers model, then help students learn to guide group discussions using four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. Once students have learned the strategies, they take turns assuming the role of teacher.

Accommodation

Refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new similar or events

Moral Development

Refers to changes in people's sense of justice, of what is right and wrong, and in their behavior related to moral issues.

Pragmatics - Preschool Years

Refers to communicating effectively with others. Turn-taking, sticking to topic, and what should or should not be said.

classical

Judy was bitten by a small brown and white dog when she was a little girl, and now every time she sees a small dog approaching her, she is fearful. Watson would say that Judy's reaction is a result of _________ conditioning.

Passive gene-environment correlation

Roger inherited genes for artistic creativity from his parents and grew up watching them sketch and paint.

Psychological and Mental Disorders

Major depression Drug-induced psychological disorders Dementia Some 15 to 25 percent of those over age 65 are thought to show some symptoms of psychological disorder, although this represents a lower prevalence rate than in younger adults. The behavioral symptoms related to these disorders are sometimes different in those over 65 than those displayed by younger adults. Major depression is characterized by feelings of intense sadness, pessimism, and hopelessness. Some studies suggest that the rate of depression actually may be lower during late adulthood. One reason for this contradictory finding is that there may be two kinds of depression in older adulthood: depression that continues from earlier stages of life and depression that occurs as a result of aging. The most common mental disorder of elderly people is dementia, a broad category of serious memory loss accompanied by declines in other mental functioning, which encompasses a number of diseases. Although dementia has many causes, the symptoms are similar: declining memory, lessened intellectual abilities, and impaired judgment. The chances of experiencing dementia increase with age. Less than 2 percent of people between 60 and 65 years are diagnosed with dementia, but the percentages double for every 5-year period past 65. Almost one-third of people over the age of 85 suffer from some sort of dementia. There are some ethnic differences, too, with African Americans and Hispanics showing higher levels of dementia than Caucasians.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 - 18 Months)

Sensorimotor SubStage 5: At this age infants develop what Piaget regards as the deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences. Rather than just repeating enjoyable activities, infants appear to carry out miniature experiments to observe the consequences. A child will drop a toy repeatedly, varying the position from which he drops it, carefully observing each time to see where it falls. 12 to 18 months Development of schemes regarding deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences Carrying out miniature experiments to observe consequences Example: Piaget observed his son Laurent dropping a toy swan repeatedly, varying the position from which he dropped it, carefully observing each time to see where it fell. Instead of just repeating the action each time (as in a secondary circular reaction), Laurent made modifications in the situation to learn about their consequences. Infants develop these reactions, which are schemes regarding the deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences. Infants appear to carry out miniature experiments to observer the consequences.

Beginnings of Thought (18 - 2 Years)

Sensorimotor SubStage 6: The major achievement of Substage 6 is the capacity for mental representation, or symbolic thought. Piaget argued that only at this stage can infants imagine where objects that they cannot see might be. Children can plot in their heads unseen trajectories of objects, so that if a ball rolls under a piece of furniture, they can figure out where it is likely to emerge on the other side. Understanding causality Ability to pretend Deferred imitation Define: A mental representation is an internal image of a past event or object. Piaget argued that by this stage infants can imagine where objects might be that they cannot see. They can even plot in their heads unseen trajectories of objects, so if a ball rolls under a piece of furniture, they can figure out where it is likely to emerge on the other side. Deferred imitation, in which a person who is no longer present is imitated later: To Piaget, deferred imitation provided clear evidence that children form internal mental representations. The capacity for mental representation or symbolic thought (ex: pretend play)

Simple Reflexes (0-1 Month)

Sensorimotor SubStage Stage 1: During this period, the various reflexes that determine the infant's interactions with the world are at the center of its cognitive life. Infant understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking First month of life Various inborn reflexes At the center of a baby's physical and cognitive life Determine the nature of an infant's interactions with the world Some of the reflexes begin to accommodate the infant's experiences Example: Infant who is being breast-fed, but who also receives supplemental bottles, may start to change the way he or she sucks, depending on whether a nipple is on a breast or a bottle.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

Sensorimotor SubStage Stage 3: During this period, infants take major strides in shifting their cognitive horizons beyond themselves and begin to act on the outside world. 4 to 8 months of age Child begins to act upon the external world Infants now seek to repeat enjoyable events in their environments that are produced through chance activities Infant activity involves actions relating to the external world A child who repeatedly picks up a rattle and shakes it in different ways to see how the sound changes is demonstrating her ability to modify her cognitive scheme about shaking rattles. Example: Infants now seek to repeat enjoyable events in their environments if they happen to produce them through chance activities. A child who repeatedly picks up a rattle in her crib and shakes it in different ways to see how the sound changes is demonstrating her ability to modify her cognitive scheme about shaking rattles. Child is engaging in what Piaget calls secondary circular reactions, which are schemes regarding repeated actions that bring about a desirable consequence. Child becomes more focused

stressful situations and cultural demands

Some experts suggest that some adolescent eating disorders are a result of

Combination

Some genes (such as those for blood type AB) are neither dominant nor recessive, but are a _____ of both.

Infinite Generativity

Someone with a vocabulary of only 200 words can still combine the words in different ways to say thousands of different things. This aspect to language is referred to as: ______________ _______________

young old

Sophia is a 98-year-old woman who still lives independently, has no major illnesses, and is able to take daily walks to the local grocery store. What is Sophia's functional age?

Learning theory

The _______________ approach to language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning.

learning theory

The _______________ approach to language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning.

perspective taking

The ability to assume another person's perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings.

self-regulation

The ability to control one's behavior without having to rely on others for help.

infinite generativity

The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.

Symbolic function

The ability to use a mental symbol, a word, or an object to stand for or represent something that is not physically present

resilience

The ability to withstand, overcome, and actually thrive following profound adversity is called ______________.

Psychodynamic perspective

The approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control.

psychodynamic perspective

The approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond peoples' awareness and control is called the

pragmatics

The appropriate use of language in different contexts.

Zone of proximal development

The area between the level of independent performance and the level of assisted performance, refers to which of Vygotsky's terms?

scaffolding

The assistance or structuring provided by others is termed

Syncretic Thinking

The attempted reconciliation, melding or union of different or opposing principles, practices, or parties, as in philosophy or religion. In language it can also mean the merging of two or more originally different inflectional forms.

Longitudinal research

The behavior of one or more individuals is measured as the subjects age over time. a. Following many participants over a period of time provides rich amounts of data for analysis regarding change over time. b. They require a tremendous investment of time. c. There is the possibility of participant attrition. d. Participants may become "test-wise."

nonshared environmental experiences

The child's own unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared by another sibling; thus, experiences occurring within the family can be part of the "nonshared environment."

1. It causes educators to rethink how we intervene. 2. It has important implications on how we assess children. 3. It causes use to rethink what is developmentally appropriate.

The concept of the zone of proximal development has at least three important implications for early childhood education

receives aid from someone more competent in a task

The concept of the zone of proximal development suggests that a child will improve more if he/she

Fitness: Longevity

The greater the fitness level, as measured by adherence to the U.S. Health and Human Services guidelines met, the higher the gains in life expectancy due to physical activity.

Treatment or experimental group vs. control group

The group receiving the treatment is known as the TREATMENT GROUP or EXPERIMENTAL GROUP. The CONTROL GROUP is the group that receives either no treatment or alternative treatment. The formation of treatment and control groups represents the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment. In contrast, the DEPENDENT VARIABLE is the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation. A critical step in the design of an experiment is to assign participants to different treatment groups on the basis of chance alone—random assignment—allowing the researcher, through laws of statistics, to draw conclusions with confidence.

30 minutes of moderate exercise at least 5 days a week

The health benefits of exercise are seen after only ______________.

rooting

The infant's tendency to turn its head toward things that touch its cheek is known as the ________________ reflex. The _____ reflex occurs when the baby's cheek is stroked and the infant will turn toward the side that was stroked and begin to make sucking motions.

gene 3 environment (g 3 e) interaction

The interaction of a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment.

theory

The interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions.

Conservstion

The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and phsyical appearance of objects.

Information processing approaches

The model that seeks to identify the ways people take in, use, and store information. -Theory grew out of the computer age. -Assume that even complex behaviors such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual steps -Assume cognitive growth is more quantitative than qualitative. -Suggests that as people age, they are better able to control their mental processing and change the strategies they choose to process information. -Neo-Piagetian theory that builds on Piaget's research assumes that cognition is made of different individuals' skills. 1.) Neo-Piagetians argue that some skills develop quickly and others more slowly. 2.) Values life experiences more than traditional Piagetian theory does. Pays little attention to behavior such as creativity and doesn't take into account the social context in which development takes place.

the adolescent prefrontal cortex is biologically immature

The most likely reason for adolescent impulsivity and risky behavior(s)?

Expressive behavior

The most striking personal finding that the University of Minnesota research team in the video entitled "The Human Genome" experienced with the twins was the remarkable similarity in what we call _____. This includes gesture, the way you wave your hands, the tone of your voice, how you become angry, things of that sort.

fertility

Menopause marks the end of a woman's natural ______________.

dendrites

Neurons have a distinct ability to communicate with other cells using a cluster of fibers called

Health Problems in Older People

People of all ages suffer from cancer, heart disease, and other diseases and illnesses Incidence of these diseases increases with age Rebound is often slower The leading causes of death in elderly people are heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Close to three-quarters of people in late adulthood die from these problems. Because aging is associated with a weakening of the body's immune system, older adults are also more susceptible to infectious diseases (Feinberg, 2000). In addition to their risk of fatal diseases and conditions, most older people have at least one chronic, long-term condition (AARP, 1990). For instance, arthritis, an inflammation of one or more joints, afflicts roughly half of older people. Arthritis can cause painful swelling in various parts of the body, and it can be disabling. Sufferers can find themselves unable to carry out the simplest of everyday activities, such as unscrewing the cap of a jar of food or turning a key in a lock. Although aspirin and other drugs can relieve some of the swelling and reduce the pain, the condition cannot be cured. Around one-third of older people have hypertension, or high blood pressure. Many people who have high blood pressure are unaware of their condition because it does not have any symptoms, which makes it more dangerous. Over time, higher tension within the circulatory system can result in deterioration of the blood vessels and heart, and can raise the risk of cerebrovascular disease, or stroke, if it is not treated.

organogenesis

Process of organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development.

biological processes

Processes that produce changes in an individual's physical nature.

Piaget

Proposed theory that young children's cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults. Proposed a theory of cognitive developmental stages- in which individuals exhibit common patterns of cognition during specific periods of development.

Assessing Vygotsky's Perspective

Pros Increasingly influential Helps explain growing body of research about importance of social interaction in promoting cognitive development Consistent with growing body of multicultural and cross-cultural research Broad concepts such as the zone of proximal development are not precise, and they do not always lend themselves to experimental tests. Cons Lack of precision in conceptualization of cognitive growth Sparse information about how attention and memory develop and how children's natural cognitive capabilities unfold

Explaining Gender Differences: Psychoanalytic Perspective

Psychoanalytic perspectives attribute gender differences to the satisfaction of biological urges. a. Preschool children experience the phallic stage, when children's pleasure focuses on genital sexuality. b. The end of this stage is marked by the Oedipal conflict (around age 5), when children note the anatomical differences between males and females, and identification, the process by which children attempt to be similar to their same-sex parent, incorporating the parent's attitudes and values, occurs. c. Boys in this stage experience castration anxiety and girls, penis envy.

Jargon

slang

Phoneme

smallest unit of sound

Peripheral Slowing Hypothesis

suggests that overall processing speed declines in the peripheral nervous system (spinal cord and brain).

Sexual decline

testosterone declines during adulthood. Erectile difficulties. Vaginas become thin and inelastic. STI's still important concern.

TRUE

The process of losing height is very slow and women tend to have more shrinkage than men on average.

Scientific method

The process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data.

Cognitive perspective

The processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world. Jean Piaget proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development. The quantity of information increases; the quality of knowledge and understanding changes as well. Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, organized mental patterns that represent behavior and actions. He suggested that children's understanding of the world can be explained by assimilation and accommodation.

cognitive perspective

The quantity of information increases; the quality of knowledge and understanding changes as well.

Imprinting

The rapid, innate learning that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object observed.

The raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality present at birth that represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses: operates according to the pleasure principal, in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension.

Object Permanence

The realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen Although the understanding of object permanence emerges in Substage 4, it is only a rudimentary understanding. It takes several months for the concept to be fully comprehended, and infants continue for several months to make certain kinds of errors relating to object permanence. Before an infant has understood the idea of object permanence, he will not search for an object that has been hidden right before his eyes. But several months later, he will search for it, illustrating that he has attained the concept of object permanence. Why would the concept of object permanence be important to a caregiver?

Pragmatics - Middle Childhood

The rules governing the use of language in a social context.

Semantics

The rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.

Crammer - Preschool Years

The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed

Contextual perspective

The theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds.

socioemotional selectivity theory

The theory that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships.

selective optimization with compensation theory

The theory that successful aging is related to three factors: selection, optimization, and compensation.

During the third stage of labor what occurs?

The third stage of labor occurs when the child's umbilical cord and placenta are expelled. (a) This is the shortest stage. (b) It lasts only minutes.

Dominant Trait

The trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present is called the _____ _____.

Recessive Trait

The trait that is present in the organism but not expressed is called the ____ ____. *If a child receives a recessive allele from each parent, it will display the recessive characteristic.

peer pressure

The use of illegal drugs can begin during childhood and may escalate during adolescence due to ____ ______.

Middle Childhood Speech

The use of passive voice and conditional sentences increases. Understanding of syntax grows (ex: Give me lollipop, I will stop biting.)

Independent variable

The variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment.

Big Five factors of personality

The view that personality is made up of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Secondary sex characteristics

The visible signs of sexual maternity that do not directly involves the sex organs.

Social development

The way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life.

syntax

The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.

information-processing theory

Theory emphasizing that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking.

Csikszentmihalyi points out that _____ capable of achieving flow.

d. everyone is

First words receptive __ spoken vocabulary.

exceeds

Easy babies

have a positive disposition. Their body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable. They are generally positive, showing curiosity about new situations, and their emotions are moderate or low in intensity. -This category applies to about 40 percent (the largest number) of infants.

Difficult babies

have more negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations. When confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw. -About 10 percent of infants belong in this category.

If broca's area damaged fluent ___ speech produced.

incomprehensible

PASSIONATE (OR ROMANTIC) LOVE

is a state of powerful absorption in someone. It involves intense interest and arousal, and caring for another's needs.

Infants recognize __ sounds. "citizens of the world"

language

Worldwide

language milestones reached about the same age

Child directed speech

language spoken in a higher pitch than normal with simple words and sentences

Affect of DES (diethylstilbestrol) on fetus

later caused cervical and vaginal cancer in daughters.

infants advances in processing information (memory, imitation and concept formation)

more gradual and less stage-like, occurs earlier than early theorists believed

5 stages of psychosexual development

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Scheme

organized pattern of behavior or thought; plan of action based on previous experiences

Sensation

physical stimulation of the sense organs.

Dendrites

receive messages from other cells.

Infants recognize own language sounds at

6 months

critical

A(n)_____________ period is a specific time during which a particular event has the greatest consequences.

eclectic theoretical orientation

An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach, but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.

__________ is the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular, special individual.

Attachment

Authentic activities

Meaningful real-world tasks. They are authentic, and all participants have legitimate roles in performing them. Learners are more likely to engage in authentic real-world tasks with adults, such as identifying different species of butterfly.

Applied research

Meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Measures electrical brain waves. Graphical record of brain-wave activity obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead.

phenotype

Observable and measurable characteristics of an individual, such as height, hair color, and intelligence. physical appearance of an organism An observable trait, the trait that is actually seen.

naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in real-world settings.

Carla, 70, enjoys swimming laps at the city pool, traveling to new foreign countries, and having lunch with friends each week. Carla's lifestyle is an example of ______ theory.

activity

individual's begin to understand metaphors and satire at:

adolescence

Adolescent Egocentrism

adolescent's inability to differentiate between the world as he/she thinks it should be and the world as it actually is. young children find it difficult, if not impossible, to take on another person's point of view

language

A form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols.

phonics approach

A teaching approach built on the idea that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.

Substage 1: Simple reflexes of the sensorimotor stage.

Beth normally breastfeeds her baby; however, during the workday Beth's mother watches her baby, and the baby must be fed with a bottle. Beth has noticed that her baby's approach to being bottle-fed is somewhat different than when the baby is being breast-fed. Piaget would say that this is an example of

Meta-Analysis

Base conclusion results on several studies

Pragmatics

1. Definition: The rules governing the use of language to communicate in a social context.

Mental Representation

An internal image of a past event or object

teratogen

Any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes.

1. less loss of muscle fiber 2. better performance on mental tests and less loss of brain tissue 3. cognitive benefits

As we age regular exercise contributes to

contributed to cognitive theory by observing his three children

Jean Piaget

1½ to 2 years old

Neuroscientists have discovered that there are growth spurts associated with the development of language abilities at

Skinner developed

Operant Conditioning

Eye-blink reflex

Rapid shutting and opening of eye on exposure to direct light. Age of Disappearance: Remains Possible Function: Protection of eye from direct light

third

During the _____ stage of labor, the umbilical cord is cut and the placenta and amniotic sac is expelled.

organization

grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system

core knowledge approach

infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems, "nature"

Affordances

infants seem to recognized opportunities that different stimuli provide. the action possibilities that a given situation provides.

In certain ethnic groups, the importance of homogamy is declining. True or False?

True

In early research on attachment, there were few mentions of the father and his role. True or False?

True

Temperament tends to be unstable before adolescence. True or False?

True

morphology

Units of meaning involved in word formation.

Morphology

_____________ refers to units of meaning involved in word formation

According to a longitudinal study by Jerald Bachman and his colleagues, by the time individuals reach their mid-twenties, _____ their use of alcohol and drugs.

a. many would have reduced

female

If the child has a XX pairing on the 23rd chromosome, the child will be

50%

In the embryonic stage, the brain begins to undergo rapid development, which causes the head to represent about ____ of the total length of the embryo.

endoderm

In the embryonic stage, what is the term for the inner layer that produces the digestive system, liver, pancreas, and respiratory system?

genes influencing the environment

Noticing that their baby daughter seems to love singing and dancing, her nonmusical parents stream music into the house constantly and purchase a piano and child-sized guitar. This is an example of __________.

Obesity and Country

Obesity is particularly prevalent in the United States. The world average weight for adults is 137 pounds; in the United States, the average is 180.

Preferring Visual Complexity

Preferences that are present from birth: Genetically preprogrammed to prefer particular kinds of stimuli Prefer to look at patterned versus simpler stimuli In a classic experiment, researcher Robert Fantz found that two- and three-month-old infants preferred to look at more complex stimuli than simple ones. (Source: Adapted from Fantz, 1961.) They prefer curved over straight lines, three-dimensional figures to two-dimensional ones, and human faces to non-faces. Such capabilities may be a reflection of the existence of highly specialized cells in the brain that react to stimuli of a particular pattern, orientation, shape, and direction of movement. Prefer their own mother's face to other faces; distinguish between male and female faces

Treatments

Procedures applied by an investigator based on two different experiences devised for participants.

Centration

Process of concetrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus-typically its superficial elements- and ignoring others Preschoolers are unable to consider all available information about a stimulus. Instead, they focus on superficial, obvious elements that are within their sight. These external elements come to dominate preschoolers' thinking, leading to inaccuracy in thought.

Scientific Method

Process of posing and answering questions using observation and data collection. Three steps: ◦ 1. Identify question ◦ 2. Form explanations and predictions (theory) ◦ 3. Research to support or refute theory

dualistic thinking

Psychologist William Perry's research indicated that as Harvard students encountered new ideas and points of view from other students and professors, the level of their _____ _____increased.

Freud

Psychosexual development

Chromosomes

Rod shaped portions of DNA that are organized in 23 pairs.

malaria

Scientists have discovered that carrying the sickle-cell gene raises immunity to _______, which is a common disease in West Africa.

1. Lack of personal experience 2. Vivid cases in the media 3. Downplay of dramatic accomplishments

Society believes there is far more despair in the elderly than actually exists due to?

mutation

Sometimes genes, for no known reason(s), change their form in a process called spontaneous

Jean Mandler

argued that explicit memory does not occur until the second half of the first year of life

trait theories

Theories emphasizing that personality consists of broad dispositions, called traits, which tend to produce characteristic responses.

When Timmy was 18 months old, he heard his father coming up the front steps as he did every day after work. Timmy turned to his mother and distinctly said, "Da come." In stringing these two words together, Timmy took a giant step in his language development. True or False?

True

When a young child begins to learn how to take turns in conversation, stay on topic, and give appropriate responses such as "please" and "thank you," the child is demonstrating the knowledge of pragmatics.True or False?

True

When talking to her infant son, José, Ms. Gomez includes amusing sounds that are not words and imitates his prelinguistic speech. Ms. Gomez is engaging in infant-directed speech. True or False?

True

The overall divorce rate has declined in the last two decades. True or False?

True. Pg 380

during the first year of life

When does the greatest increase in height and weight occur?

theoretical

What type of research is designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge?

A sense of control over one's living environment

Which of the following is a psychological factor in determining a person's susceptibility to serious illness as aging occurs?

Identifying landmarks in the DNA a near the gene

Which of the following is a way in which genetic clinics can help parents, according to "The Human Genome" video?

to establish her ethnic/cultural heritage

When Allison was completing her medical forms in the doctor's office, she was asked to indicate her race. What may be an appropriate reason(s) for the question on the forms?

85-year-old African-American

Which of the following people is most likely to show the symptoms of dementia? 1. 63-year-old Caucasian 2.b85-year-old African-American 3. 64-year-old Hispanic-American 4. 67-year-old Asian-American

language development

Polyphasic activities

When a person carries out multiple activities simultaneously, this is called engaging in

guided participation

When a person's engagement in a learning activity is encouraged, supported and tutored by a skilled partner (O'Donnell et al., 2016, p. 116)

pragmatics

When a young child begins to learn how to take turns in conversation, stay on topic, and give appropriate responses such as "please" and "thank you," the child is demonstrating the knowledge of ____

Behavior modification

a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

Expressive style

a greater use of pronouns and socially linked words; Examples-hello, bye bye

Centration

a preoperational child's tendency to focus on only one dimension of a stimulus at a time

Sensitive Period

a specific but limited time span, usually early in an organism's life, during which the organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences relating to some particular facet of development.

Avoidant attachment pattern

a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior.

Binge drinking peaks at about:

b. 21 to 22 years of age.

Climacteric

female ends childbearing years. Menopause is the cessation of menstruation. Sex hormone levels begin to drop off. Normal part of aging. Expectations influence psychological symptoms. Men: 50's, decline in testosterone and sperm count, enlargement of prostate gland, erectile dysfunction.

Tast and smell of Elderly

loss of taste buds, deterioration of olfactory bulbs in brain, can lead to weight loss, malnutrition, and hypertension.

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state

implicit memory

memory without conscious recollection; involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed

Primary aging

genetic programming (dementia). Secondary aging: individual differences and environment (like illness) (Drugs, Alcohol use, diet). or senescence, is aging that involves universal and irreversible changes that, due to genetic programming, occur as people get older.

Most experts believe that sexual orientation is the product of a complex combination of ______________ factors.

genetic, physiological, and environmental. pg 363

Behavioral problems

increasing number of children treated for psychological or emotional disorders using drugs.

Positive correlation

indicates that as the value of one factor increases, it can be predicted that the value of the other will also increase.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

individuals are confident that they can remember something but just can't quite seem to retrieve it from memory.

Motor behavior

infants acquire knowledge neither from facts communicated by others nor through sensation and perception. Instead, Piaget suggested that knowledge is the product of _______

Renee Baillargeon

infants as young as 4 months expect objects to be substantial and permanent

Janellen Huttenlocher

infants whose mother speak often to them have higher vocabularies

According to Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love, a relationship that lacks intimacy and commitment, but includes passion, is an example of ______________ love.

infatuated. pg 371

Illegal drug use

influenced by role models and peer pressure. ADDICTIVE DRUGS produce a biological or psychological dependence in users, leading to increasingly powerful cravings. .

Multimodal perception

information from different sources is integrated into whole.

Accidents:

injury is greatest risk to children. Children under 10 two times more likely to die from injury than illness. Why? High level of physical activity, curiosity, lack of judgment. ◦ Prone? Boys, those living in urban poverty.

Chicken pox and mumps

may cause birth defects and miscarriage, respectively.

Low SES

means dangerous occupations, poorer health care, crime and pollution, and higher death rate.

equilibrium

mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next

Perception

mental process of sorting out sensation is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving the sense organs and brain.

Roger Brown

no evidence supports reinforcement as responsible for language rule systems

By the age of 4 months, infants use _______________ to interpret others' facial expressions.

nonverbal decoding

Constructivism

process of creating knowledge to solve a problem and eliminate a disequilibrium

joint attention

process that occurs when individuals focus on the same object and an ability to track another's behavior is present, one individual directs another's attention, and reciprocal interaction takes place enhances memory and self-regulation

The field of behavioral genetics studies

psychological disorders such as depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia.

Threats to Adolescents

A. Drugs 1. One in 15 high school seniors smokes marijuana on a daily or near-daily basis 2. Marijuana usage has remained at fairly high levels over the last decade 3. Attitudes about marijuana use have become more favorable 4. Why do Adolescents use drugs? a. Pleasurable experience b. Escape c. Peer pressure d. Enhanced academic performance B. Alcohol 1. More than 60 percent of college students have consumed at least 1 alcoholic drink during the last 30 days. 2. Binge drinking—drinking 5 or more drinks for men and 4 or more for women in one sitting—is a particularly troubling pattern in college students. a. Fifty percent of males and thirty-nine percent of females report binge drinking in the past two weeks. 3. Why do adolescents drink? a. It is an adult thing to do. b. Maintaining a "macho" image for male athletes c. It releases inhibitions and tension. d. The false consensus effect—an assumption that everyone else is doing it e. Genetics 4. From Activity to Addiction a. Alcohol use becomes uncontrollable habit b. Increasing ability to tolerate alcohol c. Increasing need to drink ever-larger amounts of liquor to bring about positive effects craved 3. ALCOHOLICS are persons with alcohol problems who have learned to depend on alcohol and are unable to stop their drinking. C. Tobacco 1. Why do Adolescents Begin/Maintain the habit? a. Advertisements in the media b. Addiction. Nicotine can produce biological and psychological dependency. c. Parent and peer models. Exposure to parents' smoking and peer smoking increases the chances that an adolescent will take up the habit. d. Adolescent rite of passage e. Smoking is considered hip and sexy. f. Smoking produces a pleasant emotional state that smokers seek to maintain. g. E-cigarettes are perceived as less harmful than the real deal. 2. Who is smoking? a. There are still significant numbers of adolescents smoking, although the overall proportion has decreased. b. Smoking is more prevalent among girls. c. Whites smoke more than African Americans. d. People who smoke as few as 10 cigarettes early in their lives stand an 80 percent chance of becoming habitual smokers. D. Sexually Transmitted Disease 1. Types a. AIDS (ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME) is produced by the HIV virus, has no cure, and ultimately causes death. 1.) A leading cause of death among young people worldwide 2.) Over 25 million people have died from AIDS worldwide, and people living with the disease number around 34 million worldwide. 3.) Who? a.)It has been difficult to motivate adolescents to use safe sex measures and change their sexual behavior. b.) African Americans and Hispanics account for nearly 40% of AIDS cases. c.) Sixteen million people have died of AIDS, and the number of people living with the disease is thirty-four million worldwide. d.) African Americans and Hispanics account for 70 percent of new AIDS cases, e.) African American males have almost 8 times the prevalence of AIDS as white males b. Human papilloma virus (HPV) 1.) The most common STI, often showing no symptoms and long suspected of leading to cervical cancer. 2.) Can be transmitted through genital contact without intercourse. 3.) A vaccine, recommended by the CDC, that protects against some kinds of HPV, is now available, it is routinely administered to girls 11 to 12 years of age—a recommendation that has provoked considerable political reaction c. Trichomoniasis 1.) Is a parasitical infection of the vagina or penis that causes a painful discharge. d. Genital herpes 1.) A common sexually transmitted disease that is a virus (not unlike the cold sores that sometimes appear around the mouth). 2.) The first symptoms of herpes are often small blisters or sores around the genitals, which may break open and become quite painful. Although the sores may heal after a few weeks, the infection often recurs after an interval, and the cycle repeats itself. When the sores reappear, the infection, for which there is no cure, is contagious. e. Gonorrhea (ancient) 1.) Used to be deadly but, can be treated with antibiotics f. Syphilis (ancient) 1.) Used to be deadly but, can be treated with antibiotics g. Chlamydia 1.) The most common sexually transmitted disease, caused by a parasite. 2.) Chlamydia, a bacterial infection, initially has few symptoms, but later it causes burning urination and a discharge from the penis or vagina. 3.) It can lead to pelvic inflammation and even to sterility. 4.) Chlamydial infections can be treated successfully with antibiotics 2. Prevention a. The only foolproof method of avoiding a sexually transmitted infection (STI) is abstinence. b. Practice Safer Sex 1.) Know your sexual partner—well. Before having sex with someone, learn about his or her sexual history. 2.) Use condoms. For those in sexual relationships, condoms are the most reliable means of preventing transmission of STIs. 3.) Avoid the exchange of bodily fluids. a. Semen b. Avoid anal intercourse. The AIDS virus in particular can spread through small tears in the rectum, making anal intercourse without condoms particularly dangerous. c. Oral sex, once thought relatively safe, is now viewed as potentially dangerous for contracting the AIDS virus. 3.) Stay sober. Using alcohol and drugs impairs judgment and can lead to poor decisions— and it makes using a condom correctly more difficult. 4.) Consider the benefits of monogamy. People in long-term, monogamous relationships with partners who have been faithful are at a lower risk of contracting STIs. 3. Over 2.5 million teenagers have contracted a sexually transmitted disease.

Demographic age

young old, 65-74. Old old, 75-84. Oldest old, 85 and older.

Functional ages

young old, healthy and active. Old old, health problems and difficulties with daily activities. Oldest old, frail and need care. -Young old- 65 to 74 -Old old- 75 to 84 -Oldest old- 85 years and older

maturational

Vygotsky believed that there were _____ prerequisites for certain learning; for example, you cannot master logic without having mastered language.

provides mastery and a sense of control

What do mothers and fathers report when asked why they think the Lamaze method of childbirth works?

Difference between positive and negative correlation

What does a negative correlation coefficient mean? A positive correlation between two variables, say X and Y, means that if one increases, the other will too. No correlation means that they are not related. A negative correlation means that as one increases, the other decreases.

zone of proximal development

What is Vygotsky's term for the level at which a child can almost, but not quite, understand or perform a task?

common cold

What is considered the most common illness in preschool children?

Osteoporosis

What is the label for a condition involving loss of bone strength?

social-cognitive learning

What is the learning approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, a process called modeling?

Primary circular reactions involve activities where the infant is focused on its own body, while secondary circular reactions involve activities where the infant's actions relate to the outside world.

What is the major difference between primary circular reactions and secondary circular reactions in Piaget's sensorimotor stage?

onset of menstruation

What is the most obvious sign of puberty in girls?

phenylketonuria (PKU)

What is the name of the inherited disorder in which a child is unable to make use of an essential amino acid present in proteins found in milk and other foods, and which has the potential to cause brain damage and mental retardation?

ultrasound sonography

What is the process in which high-frequency sound waves scan the mother's womb to produce an image of the unborn baby, whose size and shape can then be assessed?

1 in 20

What is the ratio of adolescents who can be classified as obese?

fetal stage

What is the stage that begins at about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth?

Obesity

What is the term for body weight that is more than 20% higher than the average weight for a person of a given age and height?

artificial insemination

What is the term for the procedure of fertilization in which a man's sperm is placed directly into a woman's vagina by a physician?

centration

What is the term for the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects?

concrete operational

What is the term that refers to the period of cognitive development between 7 and 12 years of age, which is characterized by the active, and appropriate, use of logic?

Osteoarthritis and osteoporosis

What signs of aging would you not typically see as part of middle age? You would see wrinkles and weight gain, decreased hormone production, hearing and eye changes

Bradley

Which childbirth method is quite controversial because it discourages the use of traditional medical interventions?

cognitive neuroscience

Which developmental approach looks at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes by considering internal mental processes, but focuses specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and cognitive behavior?

Vygotsky

Which developmental psychologist believed that cognitive development is a result of social interactions in which children learn through guided participation and working with mentors to solve problems?

behavioral genetics

Which is one of the fastest growing areas within the field of lifespan development and studies the effects of heredity on behavior?

African-American adolescent male

Which of the following adolescents is the LEAST likely to start smoking? 1. Austrian female 2. Caucasian-American adolescent male 3. African-American adolescent male 4. Swedish female

Evolutionary perspective

Which perspective seeks to identify behavior that is the result of our genetic inheritance? The theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.

amniocentesis

Which procedure can identify a variety of genetic defects with nearly 100% accuracy?

Robert Peck: Personality in Late Adulthood

a. As part of a comprehensive description of change across adulthood, Robert Peck suggests that the first task in old age is a REDEFINITION OF SELF VERSUS PREOCCUPATION WITH WORK ROLE, when those in old age must redefine themselves in ways that do not relate to their work roles or occupations. (1) There can be a difficult adjustment when people stop working. (2) Values must be adjusted to place less emphasis on achievements related to working or professionalism. b. The second major task is BODY TRANSCENDENCE VERSUS BODY PREOCCUPATION, a period in which people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities as a result of aging. (1) If they do not cope well, they become preoccupied with physical deterioration, to the detriment of their personality development. c. The third developmental task is EGO TRANSCENDENCE VERSUS EGO PREOCCUPATION, in which elderly people must come to grips with the coming of death. (1) If they can see the contributions to society that they have made in their own lives, they will experience ego transcendence. (2) If not, they may become preoccupied with asking whether their lives had value and worth to society.

Integrating the Bodily Systems: The Life Cycles of Infancy

a. Behavior becomes integrated through the development of various body RHYTHMS, which are repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior. b. An infant's STATE is the degree of awareness it displays to both internal and external stimulation.

Cultural Differences in Childrearing Practices

a. Childrearing practices reflect norms in parents' cultural perspectives about the nature of children and the role of the parents. b. Childrearing practices in Eastern societies are more likely to involve strict control. Such control is seen as a measure of parents' involvement in and concern for the welfare of their children. c. In Western societies, and especially in the United States, parents are more often advised to use authoritative methods. d. Children's behavior is in part produced by their unique genetic endowments, and their behavior can in turn shape parental behavior.

Culture and Self-Concept

a. Children develop a view of self that reflects the way their particular culture considers the self. b. Asian societies tend to have a COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION, promoting the notion of interdependence, blending in, and being interconnected. c. Western cultures tend to embrace an INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, and competition.

Violence on TV: Does it Matter?

a. Children's television programs contain higher levels of violence (69 percent) than other programs (57 percent). In an average hour, children's programs contain more than twice as many violent incidents as other types of programs. b. The overwhelming weight of research evidence is clear in suggesting that observation of televised aggression does lead to readiness to act aggressively, to bullying, and to insensitivity to the suffering of victims of violence. c. Video games also contain aggression, and data suggests that experience with such games may put children at greater risk for acting aggressively. d. Social-learning principles suggest ways to decrease risk by helping children interpret violent programs differently. e. Nonaggressive models can reduce aggression by demonstrating how to avoid confrontation and control aggression.

True emotion

a. Developmentalists believe a true emotion has 3 components: biological arousal, cognitive, and behavioral. b. Emotional expressions have an adaptive function, permitting infants to express their needs nonverbally to caretakers before they have developed linguistic skills.

Spousal Abuse

a. Domestic violence is one of the ugly truths about marriage, and is occurring at epidemic levels. b. Some form of violence happens in one-fourth of all marriages. c. More than half of all women murdered are murdered by a partner. d. Between 21 and 34 percent of women will be slapped, kicked, beaten, choked, or threatened or attacked with a weapon at least once by a partner. e. Close to 15 percent of marriages in the U.S. are characterized by continuing, severe violence. f. Violence occurs across social strata, ethnic groups, and religions. g. Mostly it is men abusing women, but 8 percent of domestic abuse cases involve the wife physically abusing the husband. h. Certain factors increase the likelihood of abuse. (1) Spousal abuse is more likely in large families where there is economic concern and high verbal aggression (relative to families where these factors are not present). (2) Partners who grow up in violent homes are more likely to be violent as adults.

Race and Self-Esteem

a. Early research showed that the self-esteem of minority groups was lower than that of majority groups due to prejudice and discrimination. (1) The conclusion of this work was that African-American children had lower self-esteem than Caucasians. b. More recent work debunks this as a general overestimation. (1) Different racial and ethnic groups have different levels of esteem as they develop more complex views of racial identity. (2) As adolescents grow to identify more closely with the minority groups to which they belong, they also increase their positive views of group membership.

Psychological Moratorium

a. Erikson suggests that adolescents have a psychological moratorium to let go of responsibilities for a while and explore new roles and possibilities. 1. A time for exploring options 2. A time for suspending upcoming responsibilities of adulthood b. For many, this is an economic impossibility. 1. Probably no lasting, negative psychological affects. 2. Some benefits (satisfaction from working, independence, etc.).

Life Review and Reminiscence: The Common Theme

a. Erikson, Peck, and Levinson all suggest that a major characteristic of personality development in old age is looking backward, called a life review, wherein people examine and evaluate their lives. b. According to Robert Butler, the life review is triggered by the increasing awareness that one will die. c. There are benefits to a life review. (1) a better understanding of one's past (2) resolution of lingering problems (3) a sense of sharing and mutuality with others (4) may improve memory (5) Overall, this process can provide continuity between past and present as well as increasing awareness of the contemporary world. (6) leads to insights into the past d. A life review is not always positive. (1) People may become obsessed with the past. (2) This may cause psychological dysfunction.

Self-Esteem and gender

a. Especially in early adolescence, girls have lower self-esteem. (1) Obstacles to girls' self-esteem include juggling concerns about physical appearance, social success, and academic achievement, all of which are socially mediated. b. Boys also have esteem challenges. (1) They are pressured to be confident, tough, and competitive. c. Difficulties in matching this stereotype may lead them to feel incompetent and therefore lead to lower self-esteem.

Ethical Issues regarding artificial conception

a. Ethical and legal issues as well as emotional concerns are present, and may result in the rights of the mother, the father, the surrogate mother, and ultimately the child being in conflict. b. Sex-selection techniques are even more troubling, and questions arise about intervening in the reproductive process to obtain a favored sex or other characteristics. c. Evidence suggests that the quality of parenting in families who have used artificial means to conception may even be superior to the parenting in families with naturally conceived children. d. The psychological adjustment of children conceived artificially is no different than that of children conceived using natural techniques.

The Consequences of Self-Esteem

a. Everyone experiences periods of low self-esteem. b. Positive self-esteem has desirable consequences, and lower self-esteem is related to negative results. c. Children with chronically low self-esteem may become enmeshed in a cycle of failure that is difficult to break. d. Because children with low self-esteem may expect to do poorly on a test, they may experience high anxiety and not work as hard as those with higher self-esteem. e. As a result, they actually do with high self-esteem have more positive expectations, which leads to lower anxiety and higher motivation. f. As a consequence, they perform better, reinforcing their positive self-image.

Sexuality in Old Age: Use It or Lose It

a. Evidence suggests that sexual activity continues well into the 80s and 90s. b. Two factors determine whether elderly persons will engage in sexual activity: good physical and mental health, and previous regular sexual activity. c. Regular sexual activity is associated with lower risks for death. d. Many men and women over age 70 masturbate: once a week, on average. e. As people age, their view of their spouses as physically attractive increases.

Unemployment

a. For many workers, unemployment is a hard reality of life, and the implications are more psychological than economic. b. Unemployment can leave people feeling anxious, depressed, and irritable. c. Middle-aged adults tend to stay unemployed longer than young workers. d. Employers may discriminate because of age. e. For those who have been fired, laid-off by corporate downsizing, or forced out of jobs by technological advances, being out of work can be psychologically and even physically devastating. f. Every time the unemployment rate goes up 1 percent, there is a 4 percent rise in suicide, and admissions to psychiatric facilities go up by some 4 percent for men and 2 percent for women.

Identity, Race, and Ethnicity

a. Forming an identity presents a particular challenge for members of minority ethnic and racial backgrounds because of several choices. b. Cultural assimilation model holds that individual cultural identities should be assimilated into a unified culture. "melting pot model" c. Pluralistic society model suggests that the U.S. society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features. "Tossed Salad Model" d. Bicultural identity suggests that adolescents can draw from their own culture and integrate themselves into the dominant culture. "The middle ground model"

Self-Concept and Attitudes toward Gender, Race, and Ethnicity

a. Gender, the sense of being masculine or feminine, is well established by the time children reach the preschool years. b. Gender beliefs affect children's self-concepts. c. Preschoolers are affected by their culture's attitudes toward various racial and ethnic groups. (1) Racial awareness comes early. (2) Infants can detect different skin colors, but it is not until later that they attribute meaning to racial characteristics. (3) These meanings are learned through attitudes of the people, schools, and other cultural institutions within their community.

Adolescence: The Search for Identity

a. Identity questions take a central position in adolescent cognition. b. These issues grow in importance as adolescents' intellectual capacities become more adult. c. As they compare themselves to others, they realize they are individuals independent from other people. d. The dramatic physical changes of puberty also force teens to be aware of their bodies and to be sensitive to how others react to them.

The Shift in Self-Understanding from the Physical to the Psychological

a. In middle childhood, children begin to view themselves less in terms of external, physical attributes and more in terms of psychological traits. b. Due to increases in cognitive skills, their views of self reflect more abstract qualities and traits. c. Their views also become more complex. (1) Children seek endeavors in which they can be successfully industrious, according to Erikson's psychosocial development theory. (2) They also become divided into personal and academic spheres, evaluating themselves in 4 major areas that can be further divided into even more specific aspects. (3) The separate realms do not always correlate, although overlap exists.

Theory of Mind: Infants' Perspectives on the Mental Lives of Others—and Themselves

a. Infants have a THEORY OF MIND, knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it influences behavior, at a fairly early age. b. Infants see others as compliant agents, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and respond to the infant's requests. c. Children's capacity to understand intentionality and causality grows during infancy. d. By age 2, infants demonstrate empathy, an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person. e. Begin to use deception to fool others

Alternative birthing procedures

a. Lamaze birthing techniques (Dr. Fernand Lamaze) (1) The goal is to learn how to deal positively with pain and to relax at the onset of a contraction. (2) Low-income and minority groups may not take advantage of these natural childbirth techniques. b. Bradley Method (1) known as "husband-coached childbirth" (2) principle: childbirth should be as natural as possible (3) involves no medication or medical interventions c. Hypnobirthing (1) involves a self-hypnosis during delivery (2) produces peace and calm, thereby reducing pain d. Water birthing

James Marcia's approach to identity development is an update to Erikson.

a. Marcia suggests 4 categories within which adolescents experience either crisis—a period of identity development in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes decisions—or commitment, a psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology. (1) Marcia concluded from his work that there are 4 identity formation statuses into which individuals may be categorized: (a) IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT: adolescents consider and explore various alternatives without commitment. (b) IDENTITY FORECLOSURE: adolescents here did not do adequate personal exploration, but made a commitment (usually following others' directives). (c) MORATORIUM: adolescents explore and do not commit to an option, and that creates anxiety and conflict. An identity is usually defined later, after a struggle. (d) IDENTITY DIFFUSION: adolescents explore various options but never commit to one. (2) Although adolescents are not stuck in a single category, research indicates that identity gels by the age of 18.

School Violence

a. Of late, there is a decline in the amount of violence perpetrated in schools. b. The actual risk of experiencing a school shooting is tiny, but it is useful to consider factors that might identify students who are prone to violent acts. c. Several characteristics identified by the FBI include: (1) low tolerance for frustration (2) poor coping skills (3) lack of resiliency (4) failed love relationships (5) resentment over perceived injustices (6) depression (7) self-centeredness (8) alienation d. Elliot Aronson points out that students who act violently in school are often targets of bullying or were rejected. (1) Personal differences are exaggerated in school populations. (2) Students are sensitive to peer status. e. School programs have been instituted to prevent aggression by students.

Outwards signs of aging

a. One of the most obvious outward signs of aging is the hair. (1) gray or white (2) thinner (3) The face and other parts of the body become wrinkled as the skin loses elasticity and collagen, the protein that forms the basic fibers of body tissue. (4) People may shrink as much as 4 inches. (5) Cartilage in the backbone becomes thinner. b. Women are susceptible to developing OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a reduction in production of estrogen. (1) Twenty-five percent of women over sixty have osteoporosis. (2) Osteoporosis is the primary cause of broken bones. (3) Osteoporosis is largely preventable with sufficient calcium and exercise. c. Women, especially in Western cultures, suffer from the double standard for appearance, whereby women who show signs of aging are judged more harshly than men. (1) Women are more likely to dye their hair. (2) Women are more likely to have cosmetic surgery.

Switching-and starting-careers

a. People change careers in midlife for many reasons. (1) little challenge at current job (2) Challenges have now become routine. (3) Their jobs have changed in ways they do not like. (4) job loss (5) being asked to do more with fewer resources (6) Technological advances render their jobs no longer enjoyable. (7) They are unhappy with their status and want a fresh start. (8) Some feel burned out. (9) They may see this as the last time they can make a meaningful change toward more job satisfaction. b. Women might return to job markets after time spent out of the workplace raising children. c. Midlife adults in new professions face unique experiences. (1) Some enter with unrealistically high expectations, leading to disappointment when faced with reality. (2) They may find themselves at entry levels with work peers who may be considerably younger. (3) Yet they can also be invigorated, and appreciated as valued employees.

Women's Social Clocks

a. Ravennna Helson examined women whose social clocks were focused on families, careers, or on a more individual target. b. Helson found that traditional feminine behavior changed over time. c. Helson believes that it isn't the particular social clock a woman chooses that is important so much as whether that clock is acceptable and justifiable. d. Found broad patterns of women's social clocks by studying them at the ages of 21, 27, and 43. e. She found that women became more self-displayed and committed over the years. f. They felt greater independence and confidence and could cope with stress more effectively. g. Many women exhibit traditional feminine behavior from age 21 to 27, finding a spouse, becoming mothers. h. As children grew up, women took on less traditional roles. i. Women tend to change positively over time. j. Helson concluded that the social clock one chooses is not as important as the process of choosing.

John Holland's Personality / Career Types

a. Realistic: These people are down-to-earth, practical problem-solvers, and physically strong, but their social skills are mediocre. They make good farmers, laborers, and truck drivers. b. Intellectual: Intellectual types are oriented toward the theoretical and abstract. Although not particularly good with people, they are well-suited to careers in math and science. c. Social: The traits associated with the social personality type are related to verbal skills and interpersonal relations. Social types are good at working with people, and consequently make good salespersons, teachers, and counselors. d. Conventional: Conventional individuals prefer highly structured tasks. They make good clerks, secretaries, and bank tellers. e. Enterprising: These individuals are risk-takers and take-charge types. They are good leaders, and may be particularly effective as managers or politicians. f. Artistic: Artistic types use art to express themselves, and they often prefer the world of art to interactions with people. They are best suited to occupations involving art. g. A major problem with Holland's theory is that not everyone fits neatly into a particular personality type.

Which of the following is true about cigarette smoking?

a. Secondhand smoke is implicated in many lung cancer deaths a year.

Self-awarness

a. Self-awareness is assessed by the mirror-and-rouge task. b. Most infants touch their noses to attempt to wipe off the rouge at 17-24 months. c. Crying when presented with complicated tasks also implies consciousness that infants lack capability to carry out tasks. d. Children's cultural upbringing also impacts the development of self-recognition; for example, Greek children show self-recognition at an earlier age than do children in Cameroon. **Reaction suggests that they are conscious that they lack the ability to carry out difficult tasks and are unhappy about it—a reaction that provides a clear indication of self-awareness.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Earning a Living

a. Some people work out of EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION, motivation that drives people to obtain tangible rewards, such as money or prestige. b. Some people work out of INTRINSIC MOTIVATION, motivation that causes people to work for their own enjoyment, not for the rewards work may bring. c. In many Western societies, people tend to subscribe to the Puritan work ethic, the notion that work is important in and of itself. d. Work also brings a sense of personal identity. e. Work may also be a central element in people's social lives. f. The kind of work people do is a factor in determining STATUS, which is the evaluation by society of the role a person plays. Why? Motivation, Personal Identity and Status

Effects of Diet (children)

a. Some relationship exists between infant size and nutrition. b. Social and emotional functioning at school age is related to diet. (1) Children who eat more nutrients than their peers are advantaged. (a) more involved with peers (b) more positive emotions (c) less anxiety More eagerness to explore new environments More persistent in frustrating situations Generally higher energy levels c. Cognitive performance is also linked to diet. d. Malnutrition or undernourished diets dampen curiosity, responsiveness, and motivation to learn. 5. Best eating practices for children involve offering a variety of foods low in fat and high in nutritional content. a. The iron content of foods is important. b. Allow children to develop their own taste preferences.

Instability of Emotions in Adolescence

a. Stereotypes predict that this stage of life is the most emotional of all life stages. b. Evidence does suggest that emotions do tend to be volatile in adolescence, especially at the beginning of this period. c. "Explosive" adolescent emotional reactions often don't last long.

Internal aging

a. The brain becomes smaller and lighter with age. b. There is a reduction of blood flow to the brain. c. The space between the skull and the brain doubles from age 20 to age 70. d. The number of neurons, or brain cells, declines in some parts of the brain, though not as much as was once thought. e. Because of hardening of the arteries and shrinking of blood vessels, a 75-year-old's heart pumps less than three-quarters of the blood it pumped during early adulthood. f. The efficiency of the respiratory system declines with age. g. The digestive system produces less digestive juice and is less efficient in pushing food through the system (resulting in more constipation). h. Lifestyle factors can slow the changes associated with aging. i. Certain types of neuronal growth may continue throughout the lifespan. j. Physical fitness is related to better performance on mental tests. (1) may prevent loss of brain tissue (2) may aid in the development of new neurons

3 stages of marital aggression

a. The first is the TENSION-BUILDING STAGE, when a batterer becomes upset and shows dissatisfaction initially through verbal abuse. b. The next is the ACUTE BATTERING INCIDENT, when the physical abuse actually occurs. c. Finally, the LOVING CONTRITION STAGE occurs in some—but not all—cases in which the batterer feels remorse and apologizes for the actions.

Neurological Basis of Emotion

a. The instability of emotions may be explained by the activation of brain organs. b. Studies of the brain comparing adolescent and adult activation suggest that emotional responses may be especially pronounced during adolescence, which affects the rationality of adolescents' evaluations of challenges and their responses to said challenges.

Sleep: Perchance to Dream?

a. The major state occupying the infant is sleep. b. On average, newborns sleep 16-17 hours daily, ranging from 10 to 20 hours a day. c. Sleep stages are fitful and "out of sync" during early infancy. d. By the end of the first year, most infants are sleeping through the night for a total of about fifteen hours. e. During sleep, heart rates increase and become irregular, blood pressure rises, and they begin to breathe more rapidly. f. Infants have a cycle of sleep similar to but different than REM (RAPID EYE MOVEMENT), the period of sleep found in adults and children that is associated with dreaming. (1) Brain waves are different than those observed in the dreaming sleep of adults. (2) This active, REM-like sleep takes up half an infant's sleep at first. (3) Researchers think the function of REM-like sleep in infants is to provide a means for the brain to stimulate itself—a process called autostimulation. (4) Genetic factors "preprogram" sleep cycles, but environmental factors such as culture affect the sleep patterns of infants.

Anesthesia and Pain-Reducing Drugs

a. The use of medication during childbirth has benefits and disadvantages. b. Eighty percent of women receive some form of pain medication during childbirth. c. One-third of women receive an epidural anesthesia, which produces numbness from the waist down. (1) A newer form is known as walking epidural or dual spinal-epidural, which use smaller needles and a system of delivering continuous doses of anesthetic, allowing women to move about more freely during labor.

Societal Pressures and Reliance on Friends and Peers

a. There are many social pressures to achieve a secure identity (or at least have clear career or other major goals). b. At this age, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than adults. c. Reliance on peers to help adolescents define their identities and learn to form relationships is the link between this stage of psychosocial development and the next stage Erikson proposed, known as intimacy versus isolation. d. Males are more likely to proceed through the social development stages in the order, developing stable identity before committing to an intimate relationship with another person. Females reverse order, seeking intimate relationships and then defining their identities through these relationships. Findings tied to historical setting in which data were collected.

Links Between Brain Growth and Cognitive Development

a. There are periods during childhood when the brain shows unusual growth spurts, and these are linked to cognitive abilities. b. Other research suggests that increased myelination may be related to preschoolers' growing cognitive abilities: for example, increased attention spans and memory (hippocampus). c. While research shows links between cognitive advances and brain growth, it is unclear whether the cognition fuels brain development or brain development causes the cognitive growth. d. Throughout life, brain and cognitive growth are interrelated. e. Increases in neuronal interconnections are associated with more sophisticated thinking. f. In adolescence, brain changes contribute to growing cognitive abilities. (1) Oversupply of gray matter produced in adolescence is pruned by 1-2 percent each year. (2) Myelination increases. (3) The prefrontal cortex, which contributes to judgment, evaluation, and thinking, undergoes considerable development. -Rather than simply reacting to emotions such as anger or rage, an individual with a fully developed prefrontal cortex is able to inhibit the desire for action that stems from such emotions. (4) Development of the prefrontal cortex allows for impulse control, reducing risky behaviors associated with this age group. (5) Some suggest that changes in dopamine sensitivity increase sensitivity to stress and resistance to the effects of alcohol, leading to higher alcohol intake.

Midlife Crisis: Reality or Myth?

a. There is a general expectancy in the U.S. that the age of 40 represents an important psychological juncture. b. Despite widespread acceptance, the evidence for a midlife crisis does not exist. (1) For the majority of people, the transition is relatively tranquil. (2) They view midlife as rewarding. (3) Many middle-aged people find their careers have blossomed, and are content with their lives. (4) Focus is on the present rather than the future as they seek to maximize their involvement with family, friends, and social groups. (5) Those who feel regret may be motivated to change direction, and those who do change their lives end up better off psychologically. (6) They feel younger than they actually are. (7) The popularity of the negative myth of midlife crisis may be due to the visibility and greater attention paid to the few who exhibit a midlife crisis.

Child abuse: Why?

a. There is a vague demarcation between permissible and impermissible forms of physical punishment or violence, including spanking. (1) There is increasing scientific evidence that spanking should be avoided, and that this type of punishment may result in a number of long-term side effects. (2) Spanking is associated with lower quality of parent-child relationships, mental health issues for parent and child, and higher levels of delinquency and antisocial behavior. (3) Spanking also teaches children that violence is an acceptable solution to problems. b. Privacy in Western childcare households (i.e., private, isolated households) leads to high rates of abuse. (1) In non-Western cultures, childrearing is seen as the joint responsibility of several people or the society as a whole, and others can help out when a child may test one's patience. c. Unrealistically high expectations regarding children's abilities to comply at a particular age can lead to abuse.

Happiness in Late adulthood

a. Three major approaches provide explanations as to how happiness is attained during late adulthood. b. DISENGAGEMENT THEORY argues for a retreat in late adulthood whereby people mark a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels. (1) Early work suggested that people withdraw from the world and the world compels the elderly to withdraw (e.g., retirement). (2) People can become more reflective about their lives. (3) People can become less constrained by social roles. (4) People become more discerning about relationships, which can help them adjust to increasing frequency of serious illness and death among their peers. (5) Disengagement is not an automatic, universal process for all people in late adulthood. c. According to the more recent ACTIVITY THEORY, successful aging occurs when people maintain the interests, activities, and social interactions with which they were involved during middle age. (1) Happiness and satisfaction with life are assumed to spring from a high level of involvement with the world. (2) When it is no longer possible to work, successful aging (according to activity theory) suggests that replacement activities be found. (3) Being involved in any activity just to remain active may not always contribute to happiness and satisfaction. (4) Some people are happier when they can slow down and only do those things that bring them the greatest satisfaction. d. The third view, CONTINUITY THEORY, suggests that people simply need to maintain their desired level of involvement in society to maximize their sense of well-being and self-esteem. e. Which theory best explains successful aging may depend on one's behavior prior to late adulthood. (1) Older adults experience positive emotions as frequently as younger individuals. (2) They also become more skilled in emotion regulation. f. When determining well-being in late adulthood, one must also consider the influence of other factors. (1) Good physical and mental health is important in determining an elderly person's sense of well-being. (2) Financial security and a sense of autonomy and independence also give one a significant advantage in later life.

B. Sensory Difficulties in the School Years: Visual, Auditory, and Speech Problems

a. VISUAL IMPAIRMENT is legally defined as difficulties in seeing that may include blindness (less than or 20/200 after correction) or partial sightedness (20/70 after correction). b. Visual impairments can also include the inability to see up close and disabilities in color, depth, and light perception. c. Blindness is acuity below 20/200 after correction. (1) Partial sightedness is visual acuity of less than 20/70 after correction. (2) Visual impairment affects school performance in a way that legal definitions do not consider. 2. AUDITORY IMPAIRMENT is a special need that involves the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing. a. It affects 1 to 2 percent of school-aged children and can vary across a number of dimensions. b. The loss may be limited to certain frequencies. c. Loss in infancy is more severe than loss after age 3. (1) Children who have little or no exposure to the sound of language are unable to understand or produce oral language themselves. (2) Abstract thinking may be affected. 3. Auditory impairments are sometimes accompanied by SPEECH IMPAIRMENTS, speech that deviates so much from the speech of others that it calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or produces maladjustments in the speaker. a. Three to five percent of school-aged children have speech impairments. b. STUTTERING, a substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech, is the most common speech impairment.

Gisela Labouvie-Vief recently proposed that:

a. adult thought today needs to be more reflective and complex than in the past.

According to Piaget, formal operational thought characterizes adults as well as adolescents. According to some developmentalists, Piaget's view is:

a. an inaccurate description of many adults.

Most of us reach our peak physical performance:

a. before the age of 30, often between the ages of 19 and 26.

The human genome has not changed markedly in the last century, yet obesity has noticeably increased. This points to the fact that:

a. environmental factors play an important role in obesity.

A comparison of the figures relating to the prevalence of obesity in the U.S and figures from a study of more than 168,000 adults in 63 countries reveal that the incidence of obesity in the U.S _____ the worldwide figures:

a. is higher than

Examples of Dana Torres, Olympic swimmer, Lance Armstrong, cyclist, and Tom Watson, golfer, have been used to illustrate that:

a. there have been instances of highly conditioned athletes stretching the age limit on winning performances.

3. initiative vs. guilt stage (infant)

according to Erikson, the period during which children aged 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action. a. With parents' help, children can learn to be independent and begin to shape the kind of persons they will become by making good decisions. b. Parents who discourage children's efforts to be independent may induce in their children a sense of lifelong guilt.

6. intimacy vs. isolation stage ( middle adulthood)

according to Erikson, the period of postadolescence (20-30 years old) that focuses on developing close relationships with others. a. According to Erikson, intimacy comprises several aspects. (1) a degree of selflessness: sacrificing one's own needs to those of another (2) sexuality: joint pleasure from focusing not just on one's own gratification but also on that of one's partner (3) deep devotion: marked by efforts to fuse one's identity with the identity of the partner (4) Erikson suggests that those who experience difficulties during this stage are often lonely and isolated, and fearful of relationships with others. (5) Their failure may stem from an earlier failure to develop a strong identity. b. Erikson's theory was limited to heterosexuals, and focused more on men's development than women's.

7. generativity vs. stagnation stage (middle adulthood)

according to Erikson, the stage during middle adulthood( 30-50 years old) in which people consider their contributions to family and society. a. Generativity is guiding and encouraging future generations. b. Generativity involves seeking to leave a lasting contribution to the world. c. Generativity means looking beyond oneself to the continuation of one's life through others. (1) Stagnation means people focus on the triviality of their lives and feel they have made only a limited contribution to the world—that their presence has counted for little.

Activity level

active during infancy, active during childhood. Twins. Environment.

genital stage

adolescence to adulthood, Psychosexual development

Melody has been unable to work at her job as a truck driver for more than 15 months now because of a back injury. Research on the impact of work would suggest that Melody:

b. may experience emotional distress and low self-esteem.

Alcohol

binge drinking in teenagers linked to damaged brain tissue. ◦ False consensus effect: incorrect assumption that rates are higher than they are. 1. More than 60 percent of college students have consumed at least 1 alcoholic drink during the last 30 days. 2. Binge drinking—drinking 5 or more drinks for men and 4 or more for women in one sitting—is a particularly troubling pattern in college students. a. Fifty percent of males and thirty-nine percent of females report binge drinking in the past two weeks. 3. Why do adolescents drink? a. It is an adult thing to do. b. Maintaining a "macho" image for male athletes c. It releases inhibitions and tension. d. The false consensus effect—an assumption that everyone else is doing it 4. ALCOHOLICS are persons with alcohol problems who have learned to depend on alcohol and are unable to stop their drinking. a. Teens may be genetically prone to become alcoholics. b. Stress may trigger drinking and alcoholism for some teens.

Language has strong __ foundations.

biological

Piaget's theory of infant development

biology and experience sculpt cognitive development, children actively construct their own cognitive world

Crying present at

birth

Height and weight

body fat increases in middle adulthood. Declines in strength. ◦ Exercise: cardio fitness, lung capacity, muscle strength, immune functioning, anxiety and depression, Osteoporosis: bones become brittle and thin, lack of calcium and genetics. Eat calcium and exercise.

Preterm Infants

born prior to 37 weeks' gestation (also known as premature infants), are at high risk for illness and death. a. The main factor in determining the extent of danger is the child's weight at birth. (1) The average newborn weighs 3,400 grams (7 1/2 pounds). (2) LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT INFANTS weigh less than 2,500 grams (5 1/2 pounds). (3) Although only 7 percent of all newborns in the U.S. are low-birthweight, they account for the majority of newborn deaths. (4) SMALL-FOR-GESTATIONAL-AGE INFANTS, because of delayed fetal growth, weigh 90 percent or less of the average weight of infants of the same gestational age. b. Premature infants are susceptible to respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) because of poorly developed lungs. c. Low-birthweight infants are put in incubators, enclosures in which oxygen and temperature are controlled. (1) easily chilled, susceptible to infection, sensitive to environment d. Preterm infants develop more slowly than infants born full-term. (1) Sixty percent eventually develop normally. (2) Thirty-eight percent have mild problems (learning disabilities, low IQ). 3. VERY-LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT INFANTS weigh less than 1,250 grams (2 1/4 pounds) or, regardless of weight, have been in the womb less than 30 weeks and are in grave danger because of the immaturity of their organ systems. a. Medical advances have pushed the AGE OF VIABILITY, or point at which an infant can survive a premature birth, to about 22 weeks. b. A baby born earlier than 25 weeks has less than a 50/50 chance of survival. c. Costs of keeping very-low-birthweight infants alive are enormous. d. Research shows that children who receive more responsive, stimulating, and organized care are apt to show more positive outcomes than children whose care was not as good. 4. What Causes Preterm and Low-Birthweight Deliveries? a. fifty percent are unknown causes b. multiple births c. young mothers (under age 15) d. too closely spaced births e. general health and nutrition of mother f. African-American mothers have double the number of low-birthweight babies that Caucasian mothers do.

Particia Kuhl

by the age of 6 months, infants gradually lose the ability to recognize differences in sounds that are not important to their language

A major study that focused on campus sexual assault and involved a phone survey of 4,446 women attending two- or four-year colleges found the following about stalking:

c. Most women knew their stalkers.

According to the U.S. government's Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-2009, which of the following areas of work are expected to account for the most new jobs in the next decade?

c. Service industries

Lea, a college freshman, is experiencing a lot of anxiety about not doing well enough in her classes. She reports that she is often depressed and needs help. Large scale studies and a recent national survey conducted by the American College Health Association of more than 90,000 students on 177 campuses indicate that Lea's feelings:

c. are not uncommon in college students.

Mini wants to know what activities would be most conducive to creative thinking. Based on what people reported in Csikszentmihalyi's research, you would suggest that Mini would be at her creative best during activities that:

c. are semiautomatic.

Yoko is reluctant to marry since she is worried that her husband might cheat on her. You would tell her that adultery is:

c. clearly the exception rather than the rule.

"Many emerging adults are optimistic about their future, and, for emerging adults who have experienced difficult times while growing up, emerging adulthood presents an opportunity to direct their lives in a more positive direction." These are the two ways described by Jeffrey Arnett in which emerging adulthood can be viewed as:

c. the age of possibilities.

The invisible barrier to career advancement that prevents women and ethnic minorities from holding managerial or executive jobs regardless of their accomplishments and merits is known as:

c. the glass ceiling.

Affects of Birth control or fertility pills in utero

can affect brain structures in the fetus

Newborns recognize sound ___.

changes

Humanist approach

cognitive and __________ approaches look more at what people think than what they do

Humanistic perspective

contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. 1. According to this approach, each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential. 2. This perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives. a. Carl Rogers suggests that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. b. Abraham Maslow suggests that self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique ways, is a primary goal in life. 3. Assessing a. Has not had a major impact on the field of lifespan development. b. It has not identified any sort of broad developmental change that is the result of age or experience. c. The contribution of self-actualization, however, has been widely discussed in many fields.

Which of the following is a way in which the division of responsibility for work and family changed with the emergence of dual-earning couples?

d. U.S. men are showing greater interest in their families and parenting.

In early adulthood, individuals often switch from acquiring knowledge to applying knowledge as they pursue success in their work. This reflects the idea that:

d. adults do progress beyond adolescents in their use of intellect.

According to a recent survey, _____ of all full-time college students and _____ of part-time college students are employed.

d. almost half; the vast majority

A longitudinal study revealed that most bad health habits engaged in during adolescence _____ in emerging adulthood.

d. increased

The critical-period hypothesis could explain:

d. why sexual orientation is difficult, if not impossible, to modify.

Dementia

declines in memory and other psychological functions. ◦ Prevalence? 1/3 people over 85. ◦ Alzheimer's disease: loss of memory and confusion. Most common dementia. Genetics! Blood pressure and diet may also contribute. 2/3 of residents in nursing homes.

Small-for-gestational-age infants

delayed fetal growth, weigh 90 percent or less of the average weight of infants of the same gestational age.

In middle adulthood

deterioration of senses begins, particularly with vision and hearing. Typically little impact on functioning due to limited nature and compensation. Time when most people first become aware of gradual changes in body that mark aging process. Reactions to physical changes of middle adulthood depend in part on self-concept.Signs of aging they see in the mirror signal not just a reduction in their physical attractiveness, but also aging and mortality

developed country with the highest murder rate?

Nancy Bayley

devised the most commonly used infant intelligence test

Some biologically oriented developmentalists, using ______________ theory, believe that gender roles developed because forceful males and nurturing females were more likely to find partners, have offspring, and pass on these traits to their babies.

evolutionary

sensorimotor stage

first of Piaget's stages, lasts from birth to 2 years of age, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motoric actions

Evolutionary perspective

focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development.

Referential style

frequently using words that refer to objects. Describe events, people, animals, and food

In adolescence most know rules for appropriate __use.

language

Behavioral View

language is reinforced chain of responses; a complex skill that is learned

child-directed speech

language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences

Disengagement Theory

late adulthood often involves a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical(slow down), psychological(withdraw from world around them), and social levels( less pressured by social norms). -This gradual withdrawal isn't a bad thing and can actually lead to more reflection on life and less pressure to behave based on social pressures.

Lateralization

one hemisphere versus the other. Related to gender and culture. Left: sequential, verbal competence. Right: global, spatial relationships, patterns, music, emotion. Tandem operation. LATERALIZATION, the process whereby certain functions are located more in one hemisphere of the brain than the other, becomes more pronounced in early childhood. a. The left hemisphere focuses on verbal competence (speaking, reading, thinking, reasoning), and processes information more sequentially. b. The right hemisphere concentrates on nonverbal areas (spatial relations, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, emotional expression), and processes information more globally. c. The 2 hemispheres of the brain act in tandem.

accommodation

refers to changes in existing ways of thinking, under- standing, or behaving in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. For instance, when a child sees a flying squirrel and calls it "a bird with a tail," he is beginning to ac- commodate new knowledge, modifying his scheme of bird.mental process of modifying existing schemes and creating new ones to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information The modification of internal representations in order to accommodate a changing knowledge of reality. It refers to an important aspect of learning for young children, as they alter and adjust existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.What did Piaget call the process in which changes occur in the existing way a child thinks in response to encounters with new stimuli or events?

Evolutionary perspectives

seek to identify behavior in today's humans that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. 1. Grew out of the work of Charles Darwin, who argued in The Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment. 2. Argue that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as skin and eye color, but certain personality traits and social behaviors. 3. Draws on the field of ethology (Konrad Lorenz 1903-1989), which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. 4. Encompasses one of the fastest-growing areas within the field of lifespan development: behavioral genetics, which studies the effects of heredity on behavior.

Correlational research description

seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists but does not address cause-and-effect relations. a. The strength and direction of a relationship between two factors is represented by a mathematical score, called a correlational coefficient, which ranges from +1.0 (positive) to -1.0 (negative). (1) A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one factor increases, it can be predicted that the value of the other will also increase. (2) A negative correlation informs us that as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor declines. b. Finding that two variables are correlated proves nothing about causality. Association between variables, two variables occur together

Piaget's six substages of sensorimotor development

simple reflexes, birth to 1 month first habits and primary circular reactions, 1-4 months secondary circular reactions, 4-8 months coordination of secondary circular reactions, 8-12 months tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity, 12-18 months internalization of schemes, 18-24 months

Average weight and length by the end of its second year

the average child weighs four times its birthweight. the average child is three feet tall.

Average weight and length at 5 months

the average infant's birthweight has doubled to about 15 pounds.

Norms

the average performance of a large sample of individuals of a certain age and mask substantial individual differences.

Gender Constancy

the belief that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors.

Cerebral cortex

the upper layer of the brain. responsible for higher-order processes such as thinking and reasoning, become more developed and interconnected.

Telegraphic Speech

the use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles,auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.

Slow-to-warm babies

these babies are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment. Their moods are generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly. -Approximately 15 percent of infants are slow to warm.

People who feel that they are trapped in the body of the other gender are referred to as______

transsexuals. Pg 362

Vygotsky

Which developmental psychologist believed that the nature of the partnership of children, adults, and peers is determined through cultural and societal factors such as preschools, play groups, and the emphasis on certain tasks that are valued by the culture and society—that even the toys that children play with reflect the nature of the society in which the child lives?

Bandura

Which developmental psychologist developed an approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model?

Those who are cheerful, cooperative and outward-reaching.

Which group of individuals has been noted to predict rapid deterioration and early death in elderly relocated to nursing homes?

androgen, leptin, and estrogen

Which hormones play important roles in puberty?

very-low-birthweight infants

Which is considered the most extreme case of prematurity?

macrosystem

Which of Bronfenbrenner's five levels represents the larger cultural influences on an individual?

Concrete operations

Which of Piaget's stages occurs around age seven to eleven and is marked by a decline in egocentrism demonstrating an understanding of classifications of classes and sub-classes when the child can carry out reversals?

Sensorimotor

Which of Piaget's stages shows how a child's thinking is dominated by what it sees rather than by logical principles and is key on egocentrism?

a female adolescent who matured later than her peers

Which of the following adolescents is NOT likely to develop an eating disorder? 1. a male adolescent who is clinically depressed 2. a female adolescent who is already dieting 3. a female adolescent who matured later than her peers 4. a male adolescent who desires control and success

child-proofing

What is the term used to describe a caregiver placing covers over electrical outlets, child locks on cabinets, using child car seats, and preventing long-term hazards such as lead poisoning?

birth control

What prescriptions, when taken by women before they were aware they were pregnant, could also cause fetal damage?

random assignment

What technique ensures that personal characteristics that might affect the outcome of the experiment are divided proportionally among the participants in the different groups, making groups equivalent?

Humanistic

What theory contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and to control their own behaviors?

applied

What type of research is designed to provide practical solutions to immediate problems?

Age-graded influences

When age groups experience similar influences regardless of when/where (ex: puberty & menopause)

Brianna's IQ scores are nearly the same as those of her identical twin Suzanna

Which of the following can be seen as an indication that intelligence has a strong genetic basis

Psychological Factors with Aging and Illness

sense of control over life and environment.

Marriage Gradient

the tendency for men to marry women who are slightly younger, smaller, and lower in status, and for women to marry men who are slightly older, larger, and higher in status.

Principle of Homogamy

the tendency to marry someone who is similar in age, race, education, religion, and other basic demographic characteristics.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid The substance that determines the nature of every cell in the body and how it will function. A complex molecule that has a double helix shape and contains genetic information.

Correlation coefficient

Describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two sets of variables and is represented by a mathematical score ranging from +1 to -1.

One possible biological explanation of gender differences is that the bundle of nerves that connects the hemispheres of the brain, called the ______________, is proportionally larger in females than in males.

corpus callosum

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development suggests that developmental change occurs throughout life in ____ distinct stages, starting in infancy.

eight

DECISION/COMMITMENT COMPONENT

embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another person and the longer-term determination to maintain that love.

Trying to think differently about a situation you've encountered to make it feel less troubling is a strategy used in

emotional self-regulation

INTIMACY COMPONENT

encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness.

Traits

enduring dimensions of personality characteristics that differ from person to person.

Personal Fable

an exaggerated sense of one's own uniquness

crying

at birth

overall IQ scores

The closer the genetic link between two individuals, the greater the correspondence between their

Social speech is the term for speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that person. True of False?

True

1. Change difficult words to easier ones and put in many explanations. 2. Talk with the child about what is going on in the story. 3. Ask the child to identify pictures in the story. DO NOT: Read at a mid-to-faster pace so that children can see how sentences should flow.

When reading to a toddler

In one estimate, _____ of college freshman women report having been date raped or having experienced an attempted date rape at least once.

c. two-thirds

Aunt Alice is speaking in normal tones until she is handed her new baby niece. Aunt Alice's voice immediately changes into a higher pitch, and she begins using baby-talk phrases like " goo-goo" and "ba-ba" . this change in aunt alice's language behavior is an example of :

child-directed speech

History-graded influences

environmental and biological influences that are relation to a specific time and place.

conceptual categories

formed about 7-9 months

For many people, middle adulthood brings increased sexual enjoyment and freedom because they are suddenly _______________________

free to have sex without fear of interruption by children.

The marriage gradient motivates women to seek men who are ______________ than they are.

higher in status

Noam Chomsky

humans are biologically prewired to learn language

Chomsky

humans biologically prewired for language

Negative correlation

informs us that as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor declines.

Potty wars

new norm is no norm.

Spoken vocabulary

words the child uses

Child Abuse Victims: Similarities?

(1) Children who are fussy, resistant to control, slow to adapt to new situations, overly anxious, frequent bed wetters, or who have developmental delays are more prone to being victims of abuse. (2) Children between the ages of 3 to 4 and 15 to 17 are more likely to be abused than other age groups. d. Labeling children as being at a higher risk for abuse does not make them responsible for their abuse.

Sexual maturation in boys

(1) Growth of the penis and scrotum accelerates around age 12, reaching adult sizes about 3 or 4 years later. (2) Spermarche, a boy's first ejaculation, usually occurs around the age of 13, although the body has been producing sperm for about a year at that point. (3) Other primary and secondary changes in boys also occur at this time.

expanding

restating

Rubella

(German measles) prior to the eleventh week can cause blindness, deafness, heart defects, or brain damage.

Elements of the Nervous System

-Neurons -Dendrites -Axons -Neurotransmitters -Synapses

first spoken word

13 months

Nonhuman Studies

1. Scientists put laboratory animals bred to share genetic backgrounds in different environments to explore the effects of these environments. 2. Conversely, they use genetically different animals in similar environments to determine the role of genetics.

Which stage of labor is the longest?

1st, about 16-24 hours but does widely vary

Infants demonstrate empathy, an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person at what age?

cooing

2-4 months

Cooing occurs at

2-4 months of age

Secure attachment pattern

2/3 of 1-year-olds have a style of attachment in which children, around age 1, use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset. -based on findings of Ainsworth's strange situation scenario.

Consequences of Adolescents' Use of Formal Operations

Ability to reason abstractly, embodied in the use of formal operations, leads to a change in everyday behavior Questioning parents and authority figures Exhibiting greater idealism and impatience with imperfections Experiencing indecision

What triggers the process of birth?

About 266 days after conception, a protein called corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

deferred imitation

One of the important developments in Piaget's Substage 6: Beginnings of thought stage is the child's ability to demonstrate

Continuous change

Gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels.

Association

They are related to each other (ex: as ice cream sales go up, incidences of violence goes up)

Why do men have a higher risk for x-linked disorders?

They lack a second X chromosome to counteract the genetic information that produces the disorder.

Postformal Thought

Thinking that acknowledges that adult predicaments must sometimes ne solved in relativistic terms.

Generalized slowing hypothesis

processing in all parts of the nervous system, including brain, is slower and less efficient. ◦ Slowed reaction and processing time, slowed decision-making processes...drivers over 70 have as many fatal accidents as do teenagers!

Little lisa points to a ball and says"Color that ball". Her Father responds with " what color is the ball?" this an example of

recasting

risk factors relating to prematurity and low birthweight?

1. poor nutrition 2. lack of medical care 3. high level of stress

Late adulthood

65-onward. Many remain active, some do not.

change from universal linguist to language specific listener

7-11 months

osteoporosis

A condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a lack of calcium in the diet, is called

dialect

A variety of language that is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation.

Binge Drinking

A. Men and Women 1. For men, binge drinking was defined as consuming five or more drinks in one sitting; for women, the total was four or more. B. Teenagers 1. Binge drinking in teenagers linked to damaged brain tissue.

1. Radiation therapy 2. Chemotherapy 3. Surgery NOT: Holistic therapy

Acceptable treatment for cancer

Meta-linguistic Awareness - Middle Childhood

An understanding of one's own use of language. Explicit understanding of rules governing language. Helps children achieve comprehension by asking for clarification.

Pragmatics

Appropriate use of language in context; can be very complex

low

Brain plasticity in infants is relatively ____.

Exosystem

Broader influences: societal institutions (local government, community, religious systems, etc.)

What forces the head of the fetus against the cervix?

Contractions

Behavioral approach

Emphasizes overt behavior

Rapid Bloom - Preschool Years

From late 2's to mid 3's, sentence length increases, and syntax becomes more complex.

Evolutionary perspectives

Grew out of the work of Charles Darwin, who argued in The Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment.

passive voice; conditional sentences

In middle childhood, the use of both _________ and _________ increases.

compliant agents

Infants see others as ______________ _____________, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and respond to the infant's requests.

SELF-AWARENESS

Is defined as, the knowledge of oneself, begin to grow around 12 months.

Active gene-environment correlation

Kayla inherited genes for mathematical ability and has been taking extra math and science courses in college.

build fat layers to prevent chilling and help the baby regulate body temperature.

Keeping a neonate in the hospital to gain weight is important to help the baby

Twins

Less than 3 percent of all pregnancies produce ________; the odds are slimmer for 3 or more children.

Neurons

Like all cells in the body, neurons have a cell body containing a nucleus. But unlike other cells, neurons have a distinctive ability: They can communicate with other cells, using a cluster of fibers called dendrites at one end.

TRUE

Many middle-aged people view cancer as a diagnosis for death.

Types of twins

Monozygotic and Dizygotic

Selective Optimism

Oder people as a group, have developed a more narrow focus on what it takes to be satisfied and happy with life; making the most of what you have is referred to as ________ _________.

state

One of the major body rhythms, the degree of awareness to both internal and external stimulation, is known as an infant's ______________. What term refers to an infant's various levels of wakeful behaviors, such as alertness, fussing, crying, and different levels of sleep?

Theoretical vs Applied Research

Opponent 1: Knowing something for the sake of knowing Opponent 2: Taking research and applying to study

Equilibration

Piaget's term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation. This is the mental process that motivates humans to keep schemes in balance with the real environment.

Ethics

Principles: -Do no harm -Informed consent -Deception must be justified -Privacy

Dendrite

Responsible for receiving messages from other neurons

Which aspect of language deals with the meaning of words and sentences?

Semantics

Psychosexual development

Series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part. There are five stages: Oral (birth to 12-18 months) Anal (12-18 months to 3 years) Phallic (3 years to 5-6 years) Latency (5-6 years to adolescence) Genital (adolescence to adulthood) Freud suggests that if children are unable to gratify themselves sufficiently or receive too much gratification, a fixation-behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development may occur.

Vygotsky

Sociocultural theory

X-linked Genes

Some recessive genes are _____ ____, meaning they are located on the X chromosome. 1.) Males have a higher risk for a variety of X-linked disorders because they lack a second X chromosome to counteract the genetic information that produces the disorder. 2.) Hemophilia is a blood disorder produced by X-linked genes. 3.) Red-green color blindness is another.

Behavioral perspective

Suggests that keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. 1. They reject the notion that people universally pass through a series of stages. 2. Development occurs as the result of continuing expose to specific factors in the environment. 3. Development is viewed as quantitative rater than qualitative. *Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive learning theory

Joe is a native English speaker. He is having a hard time learning to speak Spanish because he intuitively wants to put adjectives before nouns. Joe is having a problem with: _________

Syntax

Collectivism

The notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual

Rapid eye movement (REM)

The period of sleep that is found in older children and adults and is associated with dreaming.

Bioecological perspective

The perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals

Klinefelter's syndrome

The presence of an extra X chromosome in male babies produces ______________, a disease characterized by genetic abnormalities.

Milgram and Zimbardo

The reason ethics are in place.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

The study of the relationships amoung the brain, immune system, and psychological factors.

Chronosystem

The way the passage of time affects children's development (9/11 attacks, women to work)

Cognitive neuroscience approach

This approach is on the forefront of cutting-edge research that has identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders.

possible selves

What adolescents hope to become as well as what they dread they will become.

multifactorial transmission

What term determines traits by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors, in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed?

Physical Maturation and Exposure to Relevant Experiences

What two factors interact to determine the timing of stage progression?

transverse position

When the baby lies crosswise in the uterus during delivery, this is called

Confidence

Which of the following is a positive part of growing older?

secure attachment style

An attachment style that describes adults who have positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned or stressed out about their romantic relationships.

What is an eclectic theoretical orientation?

An eclectic theoretical orientation does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects and uses from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.

ethnic identity

An enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.

-.97

An example: Represents the correlation coefficient that indicates the strongest relationship between two variables?

insecure resistant babies

Babies who might cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away.

insecure avoidant babies

Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the mother.

Is least to be the first word of a child born in the US?

a verb

Adolescence Self Esteem: How do I like myself?

a. Knowing and liking your self are two separate things. b. Adolescents increase their accuracy in self-concepts. c. As they distinguish separate aspects of the self, they evaluate those aspects in different ways.

Wernicke's area

brain's LEFT hemisphere involved in language comprehension

Which of the following is true of work patterns in the U.S.?

c. More than a third of Americans work 40 hours a week.

An individual's sexual orientation is most likely determined by:

c. a combination of factors.

Sexual harassment is a manifestation of:

c. power of one person over another.

disequilibrium

cognitive conflict, counterexamples to existing schemes, inconsistencies

Gender Schema

cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender.

concepts

cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people or ideas

Quality

Because the average life span has increased, there is a concern about the _____ of life for the elderly

monozygotic

Because the genetic backgrounds of _____________ twins are identical, researchers can conclude that variations in their behavior must be due to environmental factors.

exosystem

Jose and Maria are preparing for the arrival of their first child, and are considering moving from their small rural town to a larger city to gain access to more social services, better schools, and a greater variety of local newspapers and television stations. This is an example of which of Bronfenbrenner's five levels?

metalinguistic awareness

Knowledge about language.

Race: Threat to Adults

linked to poverty and violence.

Social Networks with Aging and Illness

loneliness is poison!

Pointing to a tree, young Ramal says, "bird flied away." Ramal's inaccurate use of the "ed" word ending shows that he is trying to learn the ___________ rules of language.

morphological

Most 4 year olds can print their __.

names

Children acquire __ language without explicit teaching;some without encouragement

native

Reversibility

the fact that when only the appearance of a substance has been changed, it can be returned to its original state

sex

the father's sperm determines the ____ of the baby

Generalized Slowing Hypothesis

the theory that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient.

Underextension of words

to apply a word too narrowly ; when children fail to use a word to name a relevant event or object. a child might use the word "boy: to describe a 5yr old neighbor but not apply the word to a male infant or to a 9 year old male.

theory of mind

understanding of and beliefs concerning how the mind operates.

Specialists in lifespan development share one concern:

understanding the growth and change that occurs during the course of life.

Michael Tomasello

young children are intensely interested in their social worlds; early in development they can understand the intentions of other people

Child Abuse: Statistics

(1) Five children are killed by their caretakers every day. (2) Approximately 140,000 others are physically injured every year. (3) Three million children are abused or neglected annually in the U.S.

Difference in Adult and Newborn Sleep

-2 hour spurts; periods of wakefulness -Cyclic pattern: During periods of sleep, infants' heart rates increase and become irregular, their blood pressure rises, and they begin to breathe more rapidly -By 16 weeks sleep about 6 continuous hours; by 1 year sleep through the night -By 1 year need about 15 hours of sleep

Influences on Puberty

-Nutrition -Health -Environmental stress

Basic Skilss and phonics approach

-instruction should teach phonics and its basic rules -reading should involve simplified materials

What are three sources of contextual characteristics?

1. Normative age 2. Normative history 3. Normative life events

Resilience

1. Personality characteristic associated with lower rate of stress-related illness. 2. Resilient young adults: a. Tend to be easy-going b. Good-natured c. Have good social and communication skills d. Independent e. Feel that they can shape their own fate and are not dependent on others or luck f. They work with what they have and make the best of whatever situation in which they find themselves.

What are three main cognitive theories?

1. Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory 2. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory 3. The Information-Processing Theory

Late Adulthood

1. Primary aging 2. Secondary aging

Mortality and Stillbirth

1. STILLBIRTH is the delivery of a child who is not alive and occurs in less than 1 delivery in 100. 2. The rate of stillbirths has been declining since 1960s. 3. INFANT MORTALITY is defined as death within the first year of life. a. The overall rate is 7.0 deaths per 1,000 live births. b. Parents grieve in the same manner as if an older loved one had died. c. Depression is a common aftermath.

Ainsworth's 4 types of attachment

1. Secure attachment 2. Avoidant attachment 3. Ambivalent attachment 4. Disorganized/Disoriented attachment

Coping style

1. The habitual way of handling stress

An infant's first word is usually spoken, on average, at about _________ months of age

two word utterances, rapid expansion of understanding

18-24 months

Hearing of Elderly

30% between 65-74 have hearing loss, 50% over 75. Few wear hearing aids.

Around ____ percent of men and women age 45 to 59 report having sexual intercourse about once a week or more.

50. pg 366

reversibility

7-year-old Alice is working with clay in art class, and she rolls a round ball of clay between her hands until it becomes a long rope of clay. However, she decides that she doesn't want the rope of clay, but would prefer that the clay is in the shape of a ball again. Alice knows that this is possible. Piaget would say that Alice is demonstrating the knowledge of

Recent research shows that around ____ percent of adolescents have had sex before the age of 20.

70. Pg 361

Turner syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.

Klinefelter syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY. 1 in every 400 Produces underdeveloped genitals, extreme height, and enlarged breasts.

XYY syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome.

laboratory

A controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the "real world" are removed.

What characterizes research journals?

A journal publishes scholarly and academic information. Most journal articles are reports of original research.

fast mapping

A process that helps to explain how young children learn the connection between a word and its referent so quickly.

Anorexia Nervosa

A severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse to eat, while denying that their behavior and appearance—which may become skeletal—are out of the ordinary.

miscarriage

A spontaneous abortion is also known as

slow-to-warm-up child

A temperament style in which the child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

perception

A woman's attribution of physical symptoms will impact her ____ of the rigors of menopause.

Morphemes

A word ending in ing is an example of ______________.

Age-Related macular degeneration (AMD)

Affects the macula.

Playground

Alan has decided to conduct a naturalistic observation of children and friendships. Which location would produce the most accurate results?

Clear-cut boundaries

All age ranges for developmental periods have

Gregor Mendel

An Austrian monk, in the mid-1800s, discovered while working with peas that when two competing traits are present, only one can be expressed.

Deferred Imitation

An act in which a person who is no longer present is imitated by children who have witnessed a similar act.

Broca's area

An area of the brain's left frontal lobe that is involved in producing words.

Wernicke's area

An area of the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension.

avoidant attachment style

An attachment style that describes adults who are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and, once in a relationship, tend to distance themselves from their partner.

anxious attachment style

An attachment style that describes adults who demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive.

State

An infant's _____ is the degree of awareness (feelings) it displays to both internal and external stimulation. Change in ____ alterns the amount of stimulation required to get an infant's attention. Electrical brain waves can be measured by electroencephalogram (EEG).

stranger anxiety

An infant's fear of and wariness toward strangers; it tends to appear in the second half of the first year of life.

Gag reflex

An infant's reflex to clear its throat. Age of Disappearance: Remains Possible Function: Prevents choking

lateralization

As children grow, the two halves of the brain become increasingly differentiated and specialized in a process called ________________.

Infant's experience

As the infant's experience in the world increases, neurons that do not become interconnected become unnecessary and die off—a process called SYNAPTIC PRUNING. a. Infants are born with between 100 and 200 billion neurons. b. Neurons increase in size. (1) Neurons become coated with MYELIN, a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds transmission of nerve impulses. (2) The brain triples its weight in the first two years of life. (3) The infant's brain is three-quarters of its adult size by age 2. As they grow, neurons become arranged by function: a. Some move into the CEREBRAL CORTEX, the upper layer of the brain. b. Others move to subcortical levels, which regulate fundamental activities such as breathing and heart rate and are below the cerebral cortex. -As time passes, however, the cells in the cerebral cortex, which are responsible for higher-order processes such as thinking and reasoning, become more developed and interconnected. -The subcortical levels, which regulate such fundamental activities as breathing and heart rate, are the most fully developed at birth

Weight and height: Race

Asian infants are smaller than North American Caucasians. African-American infants are slightly bigger than North American Caucasians.

Sexual

Assuming one remains healthy, research has shown no loss in the ability to derive _____ pleasure as one ages.

Oral stage

Birth to 12-18 months, Psychosexual development

Brain Development and Thought: Cognitive Growth

Brain produces an oversupply of gray matter during adolescence which is later pruned at a rate of 1 to 2 percent per year Myelination increases and continues to make transmission of neural messages more efficient Brain changes: Size Maturity Growth spurts: Different part of brain Different times No clear 1:1 correspondence With specific changes in brain size With structures and intellectual changes in adolescence As the number of neurons (the cells of the nervous system) continue to grow, and their interconnections become richer and more complex, adolescent thinking also becomes more sophisticated. *Image shows: This three-dimensional view of the brain shows areas of gray matter that are pruned from the brain between adolescence and adulthood.

Challenges of Work

Burnout, Unemployment, and Age

25-30; 36 inches

By age 2, the average youngster in the U.S. weighs around _______ pounds, and is close to ________ tall.

1 out of 7; 1 out of 2

By age 8, _________ Caucasian American girls and ________ African American girls develop breasts or pubic hair.

90%

By age five, a child's brain weighs ____ of an average adult's brain.

Syphilis and gonorrhea

Can be transmitted to child

Infant/Child Smell

Can distinguish mother's smell by 2 weeks.

Multiple Births

Can form from either Monozygotic or Dizygotic fertilization.

Motor Development

-Shape and proportions of newborns are simply not conducive to easy mobility -Young infants lack the strength to raise large heads -Movement is further impeded because limbs are short in relation to the rest of the body Infant bodies are mainly fat, with a limited amount of muscle; the result is a lack of strength BUT Newborns have an extensive repertoire of behavioral possibilities brought about by innate reflexes, and their range of motor skills grows rapidly during the first two years of life

neurotransmitters; synapses

Communication with other neurons is done by means of _________ that travel across the small gaps called __________.

active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations

Correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating.

passive genotype-environment correlations

Correlations that exist when the biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child.

Universal expressions

Darwin argued that humans and primates have an inborn, universal set of emotional expressions, a view consistent with today's evolutionary approach to development.

nature-nuture issue

Debate about whether devlopement is primilary influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to to an organism's biological inhertiance, nuture to its environmental experiences.

stability-change issue

Debate as to whether and to what degree we become older renditions of our early experience (stability) or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development (change).

Theoretical research

Designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge.

Experimental research

Designed to discover causal relationships between various factors. Cause and effect

Ultrasound

During a checkup, another test, the _____ uses sound waves to create pictures of the baby.

cohort effect

Effects due to a person's time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age.

psychosocial development

Erikson's _____________ theory was created as an alternative psychodynamic view emphasizing social interaction with other people.

Ethology

Examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences behavior. (Konrad Lorenz 1903-1989)

Andrew sees a cat on the lawn and says to his mother, " Kitty run" . His mother resonds, " yes, the kitty is running" . This is an example of _________>

Expanding

Research shows that the divorce rate for second marriages is lower than first marriages. True or False?

False, it is slightly higher. Factors for this may be: Strain of blending different families, may be less committed to relationships and more ready to walk away from unsatisfactory ones, and they may have personality and emotional characteristics that don't make them easy to live with.

Most children are unable to demonstrate social speech, until they are at least ten years of age. True or False?

False. The preschool years mark the growth of social speech.

emotion

Feeling, or aff ect, that occurs when a person is engaged in an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being.

negatively

Fertility is ________ correlated with age.

ego

Freud believed that the _____ is the part of the personality that is rational and reasonable.

reality principle

Freud believed that the ego operates on the

maximize satisfaction and reduce tension.

Freud believed that the goal of the pleasure principle was to

Freud and attachment

Freud suggested that attachment grew out of a mother's ability to satisfy a child's oral needs.

First Words - Timing

Generally 10-14 months

guided participation

Guided participation occurs when a person engages in learning activities alongside a skilled partner who provides the support and encouragement needed to acquire new skills and new understanding

9 and 12

Guidelines of the American Academy of pediatrics suggest that babies should start eating solid foods between ___________________months

Different cultures and subcultures

Have their own views of appropriate and inappropriate childrearing just as they have different developmental goals for their children.

Organization

How individuals systemize and combine information into generalizations and coherent general systems. Piaget called these "schemes".

first-trimester screen

Huela is pregnant and talks to her physician about assessing the health of her unborn child. The physician recommends a test, which combines a blood test and ultrasound sonography. Which procedure was recommended?

labeling

Identifying the names of objects.

cognitive

If a developmental researcher is studying what the earliest memories that can be recalled from infancy are, or what the intellectual consequences of watching television are, in what developmental area is the researcher interested?

Joint problems, fertility problems, mobility problems

If a person is overweight what are some consequences?

secondary appraisal

If a student assesses the situation to determine how much time he/she has available to devote to studying for an upcoming exam, this is an example of

3, 20

In 1870 only _____ percent of the American population were over 65 years of age, by the year of 2040, that number will reach ____ percent.

Disequilibrium

In Piaget's theory, the "out of balance" state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation. New knowledge has be to integrated with the old knowledge to restore balance. In short, a perceived discrepancy between an existing scheme and something new.

First Words - Language "Explosion"

In a few weeks between 16 and 24 months, vocab increases from an average 50 words to 400 words.

longitudinal

In a study of the behavioral adjustment of a group of children placed in foster care, the children were assessed once a year over a period of 10 years. This is an example of a ______ study.

Identity vs. shame and doubt

In adulthood, Erikson describes three stages and psychological and physiological well-being, which of the following is NOT one of the adult stages.

independent variable; dependent variable

In an experiment where researchers manipulate the ______, the variable that the researchers measure to see if it changes is the ______.

Past adolescence because people are faced with complexities of life throughout adulthood.

In contrast to Piaget, Labouvie-Vief believes that the nature of thinking continues to change__________.

Survey

In order to learn about children's toy preferences, researchers interview children at a local preschool and base their inferences on the children's responses. This is an example of _______ research.

sociodramatic play

In sociodramatic play children adopt roles and attempt to recreate a real life situation. Contributes to children's cognitive and social development.

fetal

In which stage of development does the child undergo astoundingly rapid change, and increase some 20 times in size, including dramatic changes in proportion and weight?

can disrupt the development of the fetus

Increasing evidence suggests that small amounts of alcohol and nicotine

Swimming reflex

Infant's tendency to paddle and kick in a sort of swimming motion when lying face down in a body of water. Age of Disappearance: 4-6 months Possible Function: Avoidance of danger

Infant/Child Vision

Infants initially see up to 20 feet clearly. By 6 months, 20/20. Hell no to the visual cliff! Genetically programed to prefer complexity, learn to prefer particular sights.

Evolutionary Theory of Development

Influenced by Darwin, natural selection, genetic inheritance, and maturation. - Helped us survive in past

Exercise

Involvement in active exercise program retards effects of aging, producing several important outcomes. Many benefits accrue from maintaining a high level of physical activity throughout life.

Physical Development

Involves the body's physical makeup, includes the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep as a determinant of behavior. Body changes over time will influence behavior. Example Questions: *What determines the sex of a child? *How do adults cope with stress? *What leads to obesity in adulthood? Changes to the body and its systems. These can be changes in size, complexity and motor skills.

Object Permanence

Jean Piaget's idea that children of about eight or nine months of age develop awareness/the idea that objects continue to exist even when one cannot see them. Before this stage, as far as the infant is concerned, items that are not within eyesight range do not exist.

Universal Grammar

Languages share a similar underlying structure, universal.

Macrosystem

Larger cultural influences (society in general, religious and political value systems, etc.)

precede

Linguistic production will always _____ linguistic comprehension.

Cognitive neuroscience approaches

Look at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes. a.) Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity. b.) This approach is on the forefront of cutting-edge research that has identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders. focus on the brain activity that underlies cognition. -Seek to specify regions and functions - Inroads into autism, and identification of genes associated with physical problems and mental disorders. -But perhaps better at describing than explaining phenomena

1. Education and training 2. Changes in the environment

Many of problems of old age can be eliminated by?

fertility

Menopause marks the end of a woman's natural _______________________

natural childbirth

Method attempting to reduce the mother's pain by decreasing her fear through education about childbirth stages and relaxation techniques during delivery.

_____________ fire not only when a child enacts a particular behavior but also when the child simply observes another person carrying out the same behavior.

Mirror neurons

2001

Molecular biologists succeeded in mapping the human genome—the specific sequence of genes on each chromosome in the year ___.

Rooting reflex

Neonate's tendency to turn its head toward things that touch its cheek Age of Disappearance: 3 weeks Possible Function: Food Intake

enlargement of the prostate gland

One change that occurs frequently during the male climacteric is ______________.

Enlargement of the Prostate Gland

One change that occurs frequently during the male climacteric is _____________________________

egocentric thought

One hallmark of the preoperational stage is _____________, thinking that does not take into account the viewpoints of others.

Primary sex characteristics

Organs and structures related to reproduction are developed. -Testes in males -Ovaries in females

Primary

Our physical development throughout adulthood is typically broken into three stages, according to the film, which of the following is not one of the stages?

Obesity

Over the last decade, which of the following condition has become a global epidemic?

Information processing approach

Pays little attention to behavior such as creativity and doesn't take into account the social context in which development takes place.

epigenetic view

Perspective that emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.

Language is innate, Noam Chomsky proposed that children are biologically pre-programmed to acquire language.

Principles that lends support to the idea that children go through the same language and tend to make the same language mistakes

separation protest

Reaction that occurs when infants experience a fear of being separated from a caregiver, which results in crying when the caregiver leaves.

Rhythms

Repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior.

recasting

Rephrasing a statement that a child has said, perhaps turning it into a question, or restating a child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical sentence.

Comparing Individuals to Group Norms

Represent the average performance of a large sample of children of a given age Permit comparisons between a particular child's performance on a particular behavior and the average performance of the children in the normative group Must be interpreted with caution

Superego

Represents a person's conscience, distinctions between right/wrong. Begins to develop around age 5 or 6 and is learned from an individual's parents teachers and other significant figures.

Psychophysiological methods

Research that focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior.

Sequential Studies

Researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time. a. This combines longitudinal and cross-sectional research. b. It can provide information about age changes and age differences.

cognitive

Researchers in the early learning department of a university are conducting a long-term study to see how problem-solving skills change over time as school-age students move from elementary school to high school to college. What type of development are the researchers most likely to be studying?

think about and frame a task

Scaffolding involves helping children to __________________ appropriately.

Goal Directed Behavior

Several schemes are combined and cooridinated to generate a single act to solve a problem

Gametes

Sex cells: sperm and ova, which are formed during meiosis. Contain half the number of chromosomes (not in pairs).

shared environmental experiences

Siblings' common experiences, such as their parents' personalities or intellectual orientation, the family's socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live.

psychoanalytic

Sigmund Freud is responsible for revolutionary ideas and the __________ theory.

Synapses

Small games between neurons

triangular theory of love

Sternberg's theory that love includes three components or dimensions—passion, intimacy, and commitment.

Sample

Subset of population. A group of participants chosen for the experiment.

osteoporosis

Sue's bones have become brittle, fragile, and thin. Her doctor would be likely to tell her that she has

Psychoanalytic Theory

Suggest that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. -Id, Ego, Superego, Psychosexual development, Fixation -Birth - adolescence is formative period Freud (1856-1939)

Vygotsky

The development of the sociocultural theory is attributed to

EEG

The device that uses electrodes placed on the outside of the skull to record electrical activity within the brain, and is used in psychophysiological research, is called a(n) __________.

Lorenz

The evolutionary perspective draws from the field of ethology, which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. Who is/was a primary proponent of ethology?

voluntary control

The eye-blink reflex is taken over by ____ ____ when infants are more able to control their muscles.

self-esteem

The global evaluative dimension of the self. Self-esteem is also referred to as self-worth, or self-image.

scaffolding

The guidance, support and tutelage provided by a teacher during social interaction designed to advance students' current level of understanding. (O'Donnell et al., 2016, p. 117)

self-understanding

The individual's cognitive representation of the self, the substance of selfconceptions.

Presbyopia

The loss of near vision in middle adulthood is referred to as

goodness of fit

The match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with.

semantics

The meanings of words and sentences.

functional age

The method of defining how old a person is taking into account a person's physical and psychological well-being is called ______________.

obesity

The most common nutritional concern during adolescence and adulthood is

development

The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span.

Gender Identity

The perception of oneself as male or female.

Transformation

The process in which one state is changed into another.

mitosis

The process of _______ accounts for the replication of most types of cells, so nearly all the cells of the body will contain the same 46 chromosomes as the zygote.

Amniocentesis

The process of identifying genetic defects by examining a small sample of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn fetus.

Ego

The rational and reasonable buffer between environment and id. Operates on the reality principal in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society.

Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are categorized by the development of a new skill.

generativity versus stagnation

The seventh stage in Erikson's life-span theory; it encompasses adults' desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation.

phonology

The sound system of a language—includes the sounds used and how they may be combined.

Scaffolding

The support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth.

anger and annoyance; anger and depression

The surge in hormone production that triggers the beginning of adolescence may lead to rapid mood swings. Boys may have feelings of ________, while girls may feel _________.

Psychoanalytic perspective

The theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior.

satire

The use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness.

Syntax - Preschool Years

The ways words and phrases are combined to create sentences

self talk/ private speech

Thought spoken out loud, especially during the engagement of a learning activity (O'Donnell et al., 2016, p. 116)

_________ are enduring dimensions of personality characteristics along which people differ.

Traits

Axon

Transmitts messages to other cells surrounded by myelin sheathe. At their opposite end, neurons have a long extension called an axon, the part of the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons.

A Civil Solidarity Pact in France can be more easily dissolved than a legal marriage. True or False?

True

American infants are generally more expressive than European, American, and Japanese infants. True or False?

True

goal-directed behavior

When several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem, this is called

identity

Who a person is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding.

Social

_________ development involves the way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life.

Dendrites; axon

_________ receive messages from other cells, and at their opposite end there is a long extension called a(n) ________ which carries the messages toward other neurons.

Semantics

__________ are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.

memory

a central feature of cognitive development, pertaining to all situations in which an individual retains information over time

Growth Spurts

a period of very rapid growth in height and weight.

According to William Perry, an adolescent's cognition would likely lead him to make statements like:

a. "What's right is right, and what's wrong is wrong."

Manny has contracted a virus that is destroying his body's immune system. Manny most likely has _____.

a. AIDS

Emerging adults have _____ chronic health problems, and they have _____ colds and respiratory problems than when they were children.

a. few; fewer

Average newborn weight and length

about 7 pounds; length about 20 inches

1. trust vs. mistrust stage (infant)

according to Erikson, the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers. Birth-18 months a. If infants develop trust, they experience a sense of hope that their future needs will be met. b. Mistrust leads infants to see the world as harsh and unfriendly, and can have trouble forming bonds with others later.

Punishment

an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus; it decreases the probability that a behavior will occurs in the future.

pragmatics

appropriate use of language in different contexts, situational use, manners

Women

are actually more likely to die of heart and circulatory disease

Wernicke's area

area in the left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension

Nicotine is a(n) _____.

b. stimulant

The prevalence of obesity in U.S. adults 20 years of age and older was _____ in 2006.

c. 33 percent

Today, it is more accepted to view sexual orientation as:

c. a continuum from exclusive male-female relations to exclusive same-sex relations.

The main cognitive change between the fourth and fifth stages of cognitive development is _____ thinking.

c. reflective

The weight you maintain when you make no effort to gain or lose weight is called your:

c. set point weight.

Obesity is _____ prevalent among women with low incomes than among women with high incomes.

c. several times more

Interaction view

children interested in their social worlds

Handedness

clear preference for the use of one hand over another

PASSION COMPONENT

comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance.

Karen Wynn

conducted an early experiment on infants sense of number

In William Perry's view, the _____ thinking of adolescence gives way to the _____ thinking of adulthood.

d. absolutist; relativistic

College students' failure to develop health-promoting habits is due to their:

d. failure to think about how their lifestyle will affect them later in life.

Lewis wants to know what academic path he should follow to get into the fastest growing job market, and the highest paying. You would suggest that Lewis:

d. get at least a college degree.

Carolyn Rovee-Collier

demonstrated detailed memory in 2-3 month old infants

Lifestyle with Aging and Illness

diet (taste), smoking, exposure to environmental threats, exercise (problematic), etc.

orienting/investigative process

directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment and recognizing objects and their features

infants see objects as bounded, unitary, solid and separate from their background

earlier than Piaget envisioned

Adults should encourage __ writing.

early

interaction view

emphasizes that children learn language in specific contexts

1. the economic status of the country in which the girl lives and the affluence of the group the girl is part of. 2. environmental stress and high levels of family conflict. 3. proportion of fat to muscle in the girl's body.

factors with regard to the age of menarche in girls

Adults learn ___than children. attainment not as high as children's

faster

Tobacco

fewer smoke today, but on the rise among girls. ◦ Who? Poor children and white children more likely to experiment and start at younger age.

While sexual orientation refers to the direction of one's sexual interests, ______________ refers to the gender that a person believes he or she is psychologically.

gender identity. Pg 362

Midlife

generally a period of good health.

SES with Aging and Illness

healthcare

During sleep an infants?

heart rates increase and become irregular, blood pressure rises, and they begin to breathe more rapidly

Labeling

identifying the names of object.

labeling

identifying the names of objects

Artificial insemination

is a process of fertilization in which a man's sperm is placed directly into a woman's vagina by a physician.

Laboratory Study

is a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant.

Dependent variable

is the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation.

Development of mentalinguistic awareness

knowledge about language; improves considerably during elementary school years.

Genes with Aging and Illness

many illnesses have a genetic component.

The ability to think about language is called:

metalinguistic awareness.

Gender: women

more susceptible to nuisance health problems, men to serious illness. Men live more dangerous lifestyles, more likely to die.

five systems of rules for language

phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics

Senescence

physical decline due to age. Self-concepts dictate reaction.

Long term stress

physical deterioration. A world of stress:

2-3 year olds emerge from scribbling to begin __ letters.

printing

Erikson's theory is built on the __________________, which suggests that unconscious influences affect our behavior.

psychodynamic perspective

Subcortical levels

regulate fundamental activities such as breathing and heart rate and are most fully developed at birth. Below the cerebral cortex

Interest in Sexuality

remains fairly high across life span.

Recasting

rephrasing a statement that a child has said, perhaps turning it into a question, or restating a child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical sentence

Sociocultural-graded influence

social and cultural factors impacting specific individual, depending on variables as ethnicity, social class, and sub-cultural membership.

At 8-9 months, infants begin to use _______________, the intentional search for information about others' feelings, to help clarify the meaning of uncertain situations.

social referencing

Gerontologists

specialists who study aging.

Andrew Meltzoff

studied imitation and deferred imitation by infants

Behavioral Genetics

studies effects of heredity on behavior. -Through socialization (division of labor) -Hard to prove or disprove because development already happened

Carl Rogers

suggests that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected.

Abraham Maslow

suggests that self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique ways, is a primary goal in life.

Seriation

the arrangement of items in a particular order

semantics

the meanings of words and sentences, vocabulary

social speech

the term for speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that person

Continuity Theory

the theory suggesting that people need to maintain their desired level of involvement in society in order to maximize their sense of well-being and self-esteem. For example, people with high activity and social levels, need to continue doing that into late adulthood to remain happy, but people who enjoy a slower pace of life should continue that into late adulthood to feel happy and satisfied in that season of life.

Empathy

the understanding of what another individual feels—lies at the heart of some kinds of moral behavior.

Independent variable

the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment.

morphology

units of meaning involved in word formation, suffixs, plurals etc modify word meaning

Dilaect

variety of language distinguished by vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation

Deferred Imitation

when toddlers imitate behaviors of models that are no longer present

Do all reflexes, such as the eye-blink reflex, last a lifetime?

Replication

Do studies at different times/place to see similar results

sense organs

It is time for Margaret to give her baby his bath. The water is warm and she adds bubble bath to the water. When she puts her baby in the water, the baby splashes around and plays with the bubbles, and genuinely appears to enjoy himself because his _________ is/are being stimulated.

Plasticity

the degree to which a developing structure (e.g., the brain) or behavior is susceptible to experience and is relatively great for the brain. responsiveness to experience

Extroversion

the degree to which a person seeks to be with others, to behave in an outgoing manner, and generally to be sociable.

separation anxiety

the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs. usually begins around 7-8 months of age and peaks at 14 months. largely attributable to the same cognitive skills as stranger anxiety

Average weight and length at 1

the infant's birthweight has tripled to approximately 22 pounds. the average baby stands 30 inches tall.

Social Referencing

the intentional search for information about others' feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events. first occurs around the age of 8 or 9 months.

Social Referencing

the intentional search for information to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events. a. first occurs in infants at about 8 to 9 months b. Infants make particular use of facial expressions in their social referencing. c. This ability is used to understand the meaning of others' behaviors within specific contexts.

Presbyopia

the loss of near vision in midlife. A nearly universal change in eyesight during middle adulthood is the loss of near vision

Naturalistic observation

the observation of a naturally occurring behavior without intervention in the situation. (a) This type of study has the advantage of showing children in their natural habitats. (b) However, researchers cannot control factors of interest and may be unable to see enough behavior to draw any conclusions. (c) Children may know they are being watched and modify their behavior in response. (2) Naturalistic observation employs ethnography.

4. industry vs. inferiority stage (middle childhood)

the period from age 6 to 12 characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern world. a. This stage involves not only gaining much knowledge and many skills, but also making a niche for themselves in the social world. b. Difficulties in this stage lead to feelings of failure and incapability, and children may withdraw from both academics and interactions with peers.

Phonology

the sound system of language is refered to as ____________.; how the sounds are used, combined)

COMPANIONATE LOVE

the strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved.

Personality

the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another, begin in infancy.

Activity Theory

the theory suggesting that successful aging occurs when people maintain the interests, activities, and social interactions with which they were involved during middle age. For example, when it becomes necessary to retire from work, finding a replacement activity is the key to remaining happy in this stage of late adulthood.

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

the theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others'—and their own—behavior. 1. Erikson argues that personality is largely shaped by infants' experiences with other people. 2. Built upon psychodynamic perspective, this theory posits that changes occur throughout one's life in 8 distinct stages, beginning in infancy. -Stages of theory: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust stage (infant) 2. autonomy vs. shame/doubt stage(infant) 3. initiative vs. guilt stage(infant) 4. industry vs. inferiority stage (middle childhood) 5. identity vs. identity confusion stage (adolescence) 6. intimacy vs. isolation stage (middle adulthood) 7. generativity vs. stagnation stage (middle adulthood) 8. Ego integrity vs. despair stage (late adulthood)

Suicide in Adolescence

the third most common cause of death for 15 to 24 year olds, after accidents and homicide. Other risk factors linked to suicide are: -Depression -Family conflicts -History of abuse or neglect -Drug or alcohol abuse -access to a gun 1. Adolescent suicide rates have tripled in the last 30 years a. The current rate is 1 teenage suicide every 90 minutes. b. This may be an underestimate of the true number. c. More girls attempt suicide than boys, but more boys succeed. (1) Males tend to use more violent methods. (2) There are estimates of as many as 200 attempts for every successful suicide. d. One reason for an increased rate is the increase in teenage stress—but that is not the whole picture. Other factors include: (1) depression (2) social inhibition, perfectionism, high stress, and anxiety (3) family conflicts (4) history of abuse and/or neglect (5) drug and alcohol abuse

Postmature Infants

those still unborn 2 weeks after the mother's due date, face several risks. (1) Blood supply to the baby's brain may be decreased and cause brain damage. (2) Labor and delivery become more difficult.

Asian child learns __ earlier than child learning English.

verbs

Sexually transmitted infections (STI)

viral, HIV gay and racial minorities. ◦ HPV: viral, most common STI, genital contact, cancer. ◦ Herpes: viral, sores ◦ Chlamydia: bacterial, burning urination, discharge, pelvic inflammation, sterility. ◦ Gonorrhea and Syphilis: bacterial

Low-Birthweight Infants

weigh less than 2,500 grams (5 1/2 pounds). Although only 7 percent of all newborns in the U.S. are low-birthweight, they account for the majority of newborn deaths.

40%

what percent of people diagnosed with cancer are alive 5 years later.

PERMISSIVENESS WITH AFFECTION

where premarital intercourse is viewed as permissible for both men and women if it occurs in the context of a long-term, committed, or loving relationship.

Receptive vocabulary

words the child understands

How can gender, cultural, and ethnic bias affect the outcome of a research study?

• Gender bias—it is important to keep in mind that you cannot generalize research conducted on one gender to the other gender. • Cultural and ethnic bias can be fought by including more people from diverse ethnic groups in research. • The tendency to overgeneralize about ethnic groups is referred to as ethnic gloss.

What are researchers' ethical responsibilities to the people they study?

• Informed consent: Participants in research are told what their participation will entail and any risks that might be involved. If younger than 7 years of age, informed consent must be provided by the parent or legal guardian. • Confidentiality: All data is kept completely confidential and anonymous. • Debriefing: Upon completion, participants are informed of the purpose and methods used in the study. • Deception: Hiding true purpose to avoid unnatural results due to participants knowledge of purpose that may cause them to behave differently .

8 months

At what age is a baby able to grasp with its thumb and fingers?

2 ways genetic disorders occur?

1.) Inherited (ex: PKU) 2.) Genes have been physically damaged.

Maturation

The predetermined unfolding of genetic information.

Piaget's Preoperational

- Preschool years (2 - 6 years) At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They may struggle with understanding the idea of constancy or conservation (for example, a lump of clay is divided into two equal pieces. One piece is rolled into a small ball, the other is smashed flat into a pancake. The child is given the choice of which piece to play with. As the flat shape looks larger, a preoperational child will generally choose it- even though the pieces are the same size.) They are not capable of operations and unable to mentally reverse actions. They do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot mentally manipulate information. They are also unable to take the point of view of other people (egocentrism).

a language disorder resulting from brain damage that involves a loss of the ability to use words is

...aphasia

Obesity

1. a. Obesity is the most common nutritional concern in adolescence and adulthood. 2. Causes a. Poor diet b. Lack of Exercise c. Sedentary activities d. Genetic and social characteristics 3. Statistics: a. 31% of the adult population is classified as overweight. b. 7% of men and 10% of women between the ages of 20 and 25 are obese. 4. Obese people may have a higher WEIGHT SET POINT, the particular level the body strives to maintain. 5. Most people who diet eventually gain back the weight more than 20% above average for age and height. ◦ Effects: excess fat cells, possibly adult obesity, heart disease, diabetes, etc. ◦ Due to: genetics and/or diet.

Handedness:

10% left, and that's ok!

anal stage

12-18 months to 3 years, Psychosexual development

theories

Explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest are called _________________, and provide a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles.

Weight and height: Boys versus girls

Girls are slightly shorter and weigh less (a difference through childhood and adolescence).

recasting

rephrasing something the child has said

Lifespan age ranges

Prenatal period: conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to age 3 Preschool period: age 3-6 Middle childhood: ages 6-12 Adolescence: ages 12-20 Young adulthood: ages 20-40 Middle adulthood: ages 40-60 Late adulthood: age 60 to death These periods of development are social constructions.

socioemotional processes

Processes that involve changes in an individual's relationships with other people, emotions, and personality.

cognitive processes

Processes that involve changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language.

Sexuality in Old Age

Related to physical and mental health and previous sexual activity Evidence suggests that people are sexually active well into their 80s and 90s Previous sexual activity increases the desire for sex Having sex regularly is associated with lower risk of death Sex in Old Age: Use It or Lose It Evidence suggests that people are sexually active well into their 80s and 90s. Good physical and mental health are necessary. Previous sexual activity increases the desire for sex - "Use it or lose it." Studies show that 43 percent of men and 33 percent of women over age 70 masturbate. Two-thirds of men and women over age 70 had sex with their spouses on average about once a week. It takes men longer to get an erection and women's vaginas become thin and inelastic, and they produce less lubrication.

Reflexes

Unlearned involuntary responses. Survival value. unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli, represent behavior that has survival value for the infant. a. Some reflexes stay throughout life; others disappear over time. b. Reflexes are genetically determined and universal and may be remnants from the past. c. Some researchers believe reflexes stimulate the brain toward development.

Reflexes

Unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli.

Under-extension - Linguistic Inaccuracies

Using words too restictively, thinking that occurs to a specific instance of a concept rather than al examples. They don't get that there are other meanings that refers to all blankets.

apprentices

Vygotsky viewed children as ______________ who learn cognitive strategies and other skills from adults and peer mentors.

1. Take care of themselves 2. Lead a healthy and active life 3. Have a flexible attitude

Werner Schaie, studied the elderly and his research indicates that people who do well when they get old tend to do which of the following?

neo-Piagetian

What approach builds on Piaget's research and views cognition as made up of different types of individual skills, while using terminology from information-processing approaches?

contextual

Which perspective considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds?

Environmental Hazards-Radiation

_____ can cause problems with fetal development, such as spina bifida, cleft palate, blindness, abnormalities of the arms and legs, or microcephaly, which is a condition where the brain is too small. The type of abnormality that develops depends on the dose the pregnant woman receives, and how far along the pregnancy is.

Intelligence

_____ is determined by many, many genes, according to "The Human Genome" video?

Surrogate Mother

a woman who agrees to carry the child to term; may be used in cases where the mother is unable to conceive.

Approaches to infertility

a. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION is a process of fertilization in which a man's sperm is placed directly into a woman's vagina by a physician. b. IN VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF) is a procedure in which a woman's ova are removed from her ovaries and a man's sperm are used to fertilize the ova in a laboratory. c. A SURROGATE MOTHER is a woman who agrees to carry the child to term; may be used in cases where the mother is unable to conceive.

Ups and downs of physical transitions

a. In most respects, physical development and maturation are complete by early adulthood. b. Most people are at the peak of their physical capabilities. c. Although SENESCENCE, the natural physical decline brought about by aging has begun, these changes are not very obvious until later. 2. Negative change is often first confronted in early adulthood. a. In cultures that value youthfulness, physical changes take on new significance. b. Psychological reactions may exceed the relatively minor and gradual changes a person experiences. c. Individuals with self-concepts closely tied to physical appearance may find middle adulthood difficult. d. Many older persons remain agile and fit long into old age—but outer and inner changes are unavoidable at this time.

Burnout

a. Job satisfaction is not universal in middle adulthood. b. Some experience BURNOUT, which occurs when highly trained professionals experience dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustration, and weariness from their jobs. c. One consequence is growing cynicism about one's work, indifference, lack of concern about quality of their work, pessimism, and the attitude that meaningful problem solutions are unattainable. d. To combat burnout, people can develop new, feasible goals to accomplish at work, or restructure their jobs to attend to small victories in daily work. e. Idealism with which a worker may have entered profession is replaced by pessimism and attitude that it is impossible to provide any kind of meaningful solution to problem.

The transition from adolescence to adulthood has been referred to as emerging adulthood, which occurs from approximately _____ years of age

b. 18 to 25

Muscle tone and strength usually begin to show signs of decline around the age of _____.

b. 30

An estimated _____ percent of individuals who become alcoholics are believed to have a genetic predisposition for it.

b. 50 to 60

Which of the following is NOT a strategy for building exercise into one's life?

b. Avoid tracking your progress too closely

The obesity rate has _____ in the United States since 1900.

b. doubled

More than 1,000 colleges in the United States offer cooperative (co-op) programs, which are:

b. paid apprenticeships in a field that you are interested in pursuing.

The three characteristics shared by these "late-bloomers"—individuals who were still showing maladaptive patterns in emerging adulthood but had gotten their lives together by the time they were in the late twenties and early thirties—were being planful, showing positive aspects of autonomy, and _____.

b. support by adults

In interviews with 12- to 22-year-olds about finding their purpose in life, William Damon found that:

b. the largest percentage had engaged in some potentially purposeful activities but still did not have a real commitment or any reasonable plans for reaching their goals.

scheme

an organized pattern of sensorimotor functioning

In a recent study, both parents and college students agreed that taking responsibility for one's actions and _____ are important aspects of becoming an adult.

c. developing emotional control

Rhett is looking for the most effective way to lose his excess weight and to keep it off. You would tell him that the most effective weight-loss programs invariably include:

c. exercise.

In developing countries, the most widely recognized marker of entry into adulthood is:

c. getting married.

The obesity rate has dramatically increased in the United States since 1900. This dramatic increase in obesity is likely due to all of the following EXCEPT:

c. marked changes in the human genome.

Results from the "Sex in America" study suggest that adult sexual behavior is dominated by _____ and _____.

c. marriage; monogamy

The mortality rate of emerging adults is _____ the mortality rate of adolescents.

c. more than twice

By the end of emerging adulthood (age 25), _____ individuals have had sexual intercourse.

c. most

Identical human twins have similar weights, even when they are reared apart. This indicates:

c. the genetic component of a person's weight.

Carol, a mid-level manager at Pegasus Incorporated, has not received a promotion in the last three years despite good performance and good ratings at performance appraisals. If she were to be promoted, she would be the only female employee at top management level. Carol seems to have hit:

c. the glass ceiling.

Gender ______________, the awareness that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed biological factors, develops by age 4 or 5.

c0nstancy pg357

Myelin Sheathe

covers the axon, controls the speed at which the signals (chemicals) transmit

Depression

cumulative losses and physical decline.

Which of the following is true of rape?

d. Rapes are underreported.

About _____ college men admit to forcing sexual activity.

d. half

The transition from elementary school to middle or junior high school, and the transition from high school to college:

d. have many parallels.

When you look at the creative achievements of famous inventors, writers, and scientists, it is clear that creativity:

d. takes a developmental course that varies depending on the person's type of work and individual situation.

Kendra was overweight as a child and continues to be overweight as an adult. This might in part be due to _____ fat cells in her body.

d. the higher number of

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

developed by Nancy Bayley, widely used to assess infant development. cognitive, language motor- administered directly to infant socioemotional and adapative given to caregiver

attention

focusing of mental resources on select information

deferred imitation

imitation that occurs after a delay of hours or days

Metaphors

implied comparison of unlike things

Vocabulary often continues to _______ throughout adult years until late adulthood.

increase

Caricatures are an example of a

satire

Satire

use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness

telegraphic speech

use of short and precise words without grammatical markers

eclectic approach

use several views simultaneously

Vygotsky; sociocultural

The concept of "reciprocal transaction" is attributed to what developmentalist and theory?

achievement

According to Schaie, what is the mission of young adulthood?

15 months

At about what age can a child build a tower of two cubes?

Affect of aspirin on fetus

Bleeding

patience

The Type B behavior pattern is characterized by ______________.

Attachment styles continue into adulthood and affect the nature of relationships. True or False?

True

How can fathers affect the prenatal environment?

(1) Secondhand smoke can affect the mother's health. (2) Alcohol and illegal drugs can lead to chromosomal damage at conception. (3) Stress may produce an unhealthy environment for the mother. (4) Sperm damage may result from a father's exposure to environmental toxins in the workplace.

Lamaze

(1) The goal is to learn how to deal positively with pain and to relax at the onset of a contraction. (2) Low-income and minority groups may not take advantage of these natural childbirth techniques.

Linguistic comprehension

1. Definition: The understanding of speech. a. Comprehension precedes production

Emotion-focused coping

1. Involves conscious regulation of emotion.

Forging Relationships: Intimacy, Liking, and Loving During Early Adulthood

1. Young adulthood is a time of relationship formation. a. Erikson regards young adults as being in the INTIMACY-VERSUS-ISOLATION STAGE, which is the period of young adulthood that focuses on developing close, intimate relationships with others. b. Many young adults link their happiness to their relationship status. 2. Falling in Love: When Liking Turns to Loving a. Most relationships develop in a surprisingly regular progression. (1) Two people interact with each other more often, and for longer periods of time. (2) Two people increasingly seek out each other's company. (3) They open up more and more, and begin to share physical intimacies. (4) The couple is more willing to share positive and negative feelings, criticism and praise. (5) They begin to agree on the goals they hold for the relationship. (6) Their reactions to situations become more similar. (7) They begin to feel their psychological well-being is tied to the success of the relationship, viewing it as unique, irreplaceable, and cherished. (8) They begin to see themselves as a couple rather than separate individuals. 3. Passionate and Companionate Love: The Two Faces of Love a. Love differs qualitatively from liking. (1) It involves intense physical arousal. (2) It involves an all-encompassing interest in another person. (3) It involves recurrent fantasies about the other individual. (4) It involves rapid swings of emotion. (5) It includes elements of closeness, passion, and exclusivity. b. Not all love is the same. (1) PASSIONATE (OR ROMANTIC) LOVE is a state of powerful absorption in someone. It involves intense interest and arousal, and caring for another's needs. (2) COMPANIONATE LOVE is the strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved. c. According to Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid's LABELING THEORY OF PASSIONATE LOVE, individuals experience romantic love when 2 events occur together: intense physiological arousal and situational cues suggesting that the arousal is due to love. (1) This is plausible in Western cultures because romantic love is desirable and an experience to be sought. (2) In many cultures, passionate, romantic love is a foreign concept. 4. Sternberg's Triangular Theory: The Three Faces of Love a. Robert Sternberg's triangular theory of love hypothesizes that love is made up of 3 components. (1) The INTIMACY COMPONENT encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness. (2) The PASSION COMPONENT comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance. (3) The DECISION/COMMITMENT COMPONENT embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another person and the longer-term determination to maintain that love. (4) Eight unique combinations of love can be formed. (a) Nonlove occurs in the absence of all 3 components. (b) Liking develops when only intimacy is present. (c) Infatuated love exists for those who only feel passion. (d) Empty love is when only decision/commitment is present. (e) Romantic love occurs when both intimacy and passion are present. (f) Companionate love is when intimacy and decision/ commitment are present. (g) Fatuous love exists when passion and decision/ commitment are present. (h) In consummate love, all 3 components are present. (5) Decision/commitment and intimacy can continue to grow over time; however, passion tends to peak early, decline, and level off.

Pre-moral Stage

According to Piaget, this is the stage where very young children are unaware of right and wrong and the concept of rules.

Strange Situation

Ainsworth's observational measure of infant attachment to a caregiver that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order.

the reduction in gray matter makes the aging brain less efficient.

All of the following reflect internal changes due to aging EXCEPT

FALSE

All stress-related events are unpleasant?

Intellectual ability

Along with genetic characteristics, which of the following is NOT considered a contributor to heart and circulatory disease? 1. cigarette smoking 2. intellectual ability 3. lack of exercise 4. diet high in fats and cholesterol

affectionate love

Also called companionate love, this type of love occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person.

Babinski reflex

An infant fans out its toes in response to a stroke on the outside of its foot. Age of Disappearance: 8 to 12 months Possible Function: Unknown

contemporary life-events approach

Approach emphasizing that how a life event influences the individual's development depends not only on the event but also on mediating factors, the individual's adaptation to the life event, the life-stage context, and the sociohistorical context.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Approach that states behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control. -Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory

Monozygotic Twins

Are genetically identical, form when a cluster of cells in the ovum splits off within the first 2 weeks following fertilization.

At approximately ___ years old, a child can follow the principles of grammar most of the time.

14 weeks

At approximately what age does laughter begin to develop?

catecholamines

What is the stress-related hormone that newborns need in their bloodstream to avoid, for example, breathing problems?

mitosis

Cellular reproduction in which the cell's nucleus duplicates itself; two new cells are formed, each containing the same DNA as the original cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes. All cells other than sex cells replicate the genetic code by a process called mitosis.

Secondary aging

Changes in physical and cognitive functioning that are due to illness, health habits, and other individual differences, but that are not due to increased age itself and are not inevitable.

Betty Hart and Todd Risley

Children whose parents are on welfare have a smaller vocabulary than children whose parents are professionals

Universal grammar

Chomsky's analysis suggests that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure he calls

universal grammar

Chomsky's analysis suggests that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure he calls

language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment enabling the child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax and semantics theoretical construct, not a physical part of the brain

socioeconomic status (SES)

Classification of a person's position in society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.

What are some contributions and criticisms of the psychoanalytic theories?

Contributions - developmental framework - family relationships - Unconscious mind Criticisms - Lack of scientific support -sexual underpinnings are given too much importance (freud) - These theories present a negative image of humans (especially freud)

What is the correct sequence in which a babies produce sounds and gestures during their first year?

Crying-cooing-babbling- gestures

Classical Conditioning

Developed by Watson, who argued that by effectively controlling a person's environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behavior. neutral stimulus, learned response Learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally dos not bring about that type of response.

What characterizes ecological theory?

Ecological theories emphasize the impact of environmental contexts on development. Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory consists of five interacting environmental systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem).

Toliet Training

Few child-care issues raise so much concern among parents as toilet training Brazelton -Suggests flexible approach -Advocates waiting until child shows signs of readiness Rosemond -Suggests rigid approach -Advocates early and quick training American Academy of Pediatrics Current Guidelines -Dry at least 2 hours during day or after nap -Regular, predictable bowel movements -Indications that bowel movement or urination is about to occur -Ability to follow simple directions -Ability to get to bathroom and undress in time -Discomfort with soiled diapers -Asking to use toilet -Desire to wear underwear -Begin only when children are ready

Lifespan Development

Field of study that examines the patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occurs throughout the lifespan. *Employs Scientific Method *No Single Dominant Period

Psychophysiological methods

Focus on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. Examples: EEG, CAT, fMRI

1. young old 2. old old 3. oldest old

Functional ages

goal-directed behavior

In substage 4 of the sensorimotor period, infants begin to use __________, in which they combine and coordinate several schemes to generate a single act or solve a problem.

Piaget

He suggested that children's understanding of the world can be explained by assimilation and accommodation.

Focus of Lifespan Development

Human development *Universal principles of development *cultural, racial, ethnic differences *individual traits and characteristics

In the embryonic stage, every part of the body is formed from one of ____ layers.

Homozygous

Inheriting from parents similar genes for a given trait. Having two identical alleles for a trait

Cognitive Development

Involves the ways that growth and change in learning, memory, problem-solving, and intelligence influence a person's behavior. The changes that occur in intellectual ability over time Example Questions: *How does creativity relate to intelligence? *What are the earliest memories that can be recalled from infancy? study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate, and remember

Personality Development

Involves the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the lifespan. Changes occur in characteristics that are different from one to the other. Example Questions for personality/social development: *Do newborns respond differently to their mothers than to others? *How can we promote cross-race friendships?

Experiment

Is a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for subjects or participants.

Field Study

Is a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting.

Bulimia

Is an eating disorder characterized by binges on large quantities of food, followed by purges of the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives. ______________, an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging, poses real risks, including the possibility of a chemical imbalance that can trigger heart failure. Stella is a 16-year-old adolescent female who privately eats large quantities of food but then purges herself right after consuming the food by vomiting and taking laxatives. Stella is suffering from

SELF-ESTEEM

Is defined as, an individual's overall and specific positive and negative self-evaluation.

Gender

Is defined as, our sense of being male or female. Gender is often incorrectly used in the place of the term sex.

Self-Concept

Is defined as, the identity or set of beliefs about what they are like as individuals

THEORY OF MIND

Is defined as, the knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it influences behavior.

Language development begins at birth and the next ______ years are the most crucial for a child's language development.

Symbols

Language is most accurately defined as a system of _______ that allow for communication with others.

child-directed speech

Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences.

Fast Mapping - Preschool Years

New words are associated with meaning after only a brief encounter

Myelin

Neurons become coated with a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds transmission of nerve impulses. Myelin: Axons of neurons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that, like the insulation on an electric wire, provides protection and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses. Contributes to increased weight of brain Even though many neurons are lost, the increasing size and complexity of the remaining ones contribute to impressive brain growth. A baby's brain triples its weight during his or her first 2 years of life, and it reaches more than three-quarters of its adult weight and size by the age of 2.

Neurotransmitter

Neurons do not actually touch one another. Rather, they communicate with other neurons by means of chemical messengers, neurotransmitters, that travel across the small gaps, known as synapses, between neurons.

synaptic pruning

Neurons that do not become interconnected become unnecessary and die off. Allows established neurons to build more elaborate communication networks with other neurons. Development of nervous system proceeds most effectively through loss of cells.

3; 50

The average financial costs of medical care for a very-low-birthweight infant during the first three years of life may be between ______ and ______ times higher than medical costs for a full-term child.

7-10

The average preschool child has __________ colds and other respiratory illnesses in each of the years from age 3 to 5.

culture

The behavior, patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation.

X-linked genes

The blood disorder hemophilia is an example of a disease that is produced by

genes.

The blueprints for creating a person are stored and communicated in our

Social Development

The way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change and remain stable over the course of life. Changes in interactions and relationships (ie: Friends and family)

gender

The characteristics of people as males or females.

Infant/Child Sight

Prefer certain sound combinations at birth. Localization good, perfected at 1 year.

What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory?

The way we resolve crises at the five stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genitals) determines our adult personality.

boys and girls have similar motor skills

Research has found that during middle childhood, __________.

Cross-sectional research

Research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time.

formal operational

Research indicates that people who live in unsophisticated, non-technologically based cultures are incapable of attaining the _____ _____ stage of thinking, as described by Piaget.

corpus callosum

Research indicates that there are minor structural differences in the male and female brains. For example, a section of the __________ is proportionally larger in women than in men.

Applied research

Research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems.

social cognitive theory

Theoretical view that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development.

Conservation

The understanding that a given quantity of matter remains the same if it is rearranged or changed in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away Piaget believed this to be a part of concrete operational reasoning. According to Piaget, young children do not have this concept until the moved out of the concrete operational stage of development.

intersubjectivity

The unique product that arises from social interaction in which the interaction partners come to a shared understanding of how to manage the problem solving situation (O'Donnell et al., 2016, p. 120)

Sex in Middle Adulthood

Sexuality remains an important part of life for most middle-aged people Frequency of sexual intercourse decreases with age Adults have more freedom Women no longer need to practice birth control Although frequency of sexual intercourse decreases with age, sexual activities remain vital part of most middle-aged adults' lives. With children grown and away from home, middle-aged adults have more freedom.With menopause, women no longer need to practice birth control. Men typically need more time to get erection. Volume of fluid in ejaculation and production of testosterone declines. In women, walls of vagina become less elastic and thinner and the vagina shrinks, potentially making intercourse painful.

Gerontologists

Specialists who study aging.

1. Wernicke's area in the Temporal Lobe 2. Broca's area in the Frontal lobe 3. Motor areas of the brain

Specialized areas of the brain responsible for language

hypotheses

Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.

Particular Period

Specific periods of life from childhood and adolescence Part of the debate with Lifespan Approaches.

Social Speech - Preschool Years

Speech directed towards another person

telegraphic speech

The use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.

Female Climacteric

Starting about age 45, the transition from being able to bear children to being unable to do so. Lasting about 15 to 20 years. Most notable sign is Menopause, the cessation of menstruation. Process may begin as early as age 40 or as late as age 60. Production of estrogen and progesterone drop. Symptoms such as "hot flashes," headaches, feeling dizzy, heart palpitations, and aching joints are common during menopause. Half of women report no symptoms at all. Perimenopause is period beginning around 10 years prior to menopause when hormone production begins to change. After year without a menstrual period, menopause is said to have occurred

Social Constructivism

The view that meaningful learning is achieved through interaction with more knowledgeable persons, particularly if the interaction is designed to fall within the learner's zone of proximal development.

female climacteric

The ____ _____begins the transition from being able to bear children to being unable to do so.

cerebral cortex; subcortical levels

The ________ includes the upper layer of the brain, and the _________ lie(s) below it.

superego

The ________ is Freud's representation of incorporating the distinction between right and wrong

behavioral perspective

The __________ suggests that keys to understanding development are observable actions and outside stimuli in the environment.

Although the research is mixed, it is generally accepted that the quality of attachment style in a child has nothing to do with the quality of relationships the child forges as an adult. True or False?

True

At approximately 3 years old, a child can follow the principles of grammar most of the time. True or False?

True

Babies across diverse cultures express at least some of the same basic facial expressions. True or False?

True

Linguistic production will always precede linguistic comprehension. True or False?

True

It always involves the learners creating their own representations of new information.

Vygotsky believed that children construct knowledge and do not passively reproduce what is presented to them. He believed that learning is much more than mirroring and by saying this he meant

Shouting at them and spanking them

Will make four to five-year-olds learning to use speech to express anger worse?

Dualistic Thinking

William Perry The pattern of thinking that you either are for or against a person, place, or thing. (Ex: Assuming that experts have all the answers)

Brazelton

With regard to the best time to start toilet training preschoolers, the American Academy of Pediatrics supports which researcher's position?

chronosystem

Within Bronfenbrenner's bioecological approach, which system underlies each of his system levels and involves the way the passage of time, including historical events, affects children's development?

Psychological Consequences of Menopause

Women who expect to have difficulties during menopause are more likely to attribute every physical symptom and emotional swing to it. Women with more positive attitudes may be less apt to attribute physical sensations to menopausal physiological changes. Attribution of physical symptoms may affect perception of rigors of menopause—and ultimately actual experience of period. Women in non-Western cultures often have vastly different menopausal experiences from those in Western cultures. Early research Menopause was linked directly to depression, anxiety, crying spells, lack of concentration, and irritability Current research Normal part of aging that does not, by itself, produce psychological symptoms Effects influenced by personal and cultural expectations of menopause

glaucoma

Your eyes are filled with a thin fluid called aqueous humor. The fluid is made in the back of the eye, where it then passes through to the front and drains through tiny holes called outflow channels. When something stops the flow of this fluid, pressure builds up inside the eye, causing problems with vision a condition where pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain properly or because too much fluid is produced. (a) About 1 to 2 percent of those over 40 are affected. (b) African Americans are particularly susceptible. (c) It can be treated if caught early enough. (d) If left untreated, it can cause blindness.

Menopause

____ is the cessation of menstruation.

Women

____ seem to be more prone than women to a risk of osteoporosis.

Disease-Syphilis

_____ bacteria cells infect the fetus from the blood supply and are very often fatal. If the baby is born alive, it may suffer malformations and damage to the nose, eyes, ears and bones as a result of a heightened inflammatory response to the early infection.

Charles Darwin

argued in The Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment.

Developmental norms

average performance at a given age. NBAS: interactions with others, motor behavior, physiological control, responses to stress. Development of norms?

Heteronomous Morality

based on rules and consequences

Neo-Piagetian theory

builds on Piaget's research assumes that cognition is made of different individuals' skills.

Which of the following is included in the patterns of heterosexual behavior for males and females in emerging adulthood?

d. Emerging adults have sex less frequently than young adults.

Sustained exercises such as jogging, swimming, or cycling that stimulate heart and lung activity are known as:

d. aerobic exercises.

Visual Impairment

legally defined as difficulties in seeing that may include blindness (less than or 20/200 after correction) or partial sightedness (20/70 after correction). a. Visual impairments can also include the inability to see up close and disabilities in color, depth, and light perception. b. Blindness is acuity below 20/200 after correction. (1) Partial sightedness is visual acuity of less than 20/70 after correction. (2) Visual impairment affects school performance in a way that legal definitions do not consider. a. The legal criterion pertains solely to distance vision, while most educational tasks require close-up vision. In addition, the legal definition does not consider abilities in the perception of color, depth, and light—all of which might influence a student's educational success. About one student in a thousand requires special education services relating to a visual impairment.

1. indirect health-related behaviors. 2. harmful behaviors. 3. physiological effects

major consequences produced by stresS

Health and illness in Infants/Children

majority of US children relatively healthy. ◦ Benefits of illness: immunity, understand bodies, coping skills, empathy and understanding

A child's expansive vocabulary is directly correlated with:

maternal language and literacy skills.

morpheme

minimal unit of meaning

developmental quotient (DQ)

overall score that combines subscores in motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants

Naomi Baron

parents should be active converstional partners with their infants, talk as if their infant understands them and use language in a style they are comfortable with

In middle childhood, the use of both _________ and _________ increases.

passive voice; conditional sentences

Adolescent Emotional Development

-emotions are most intense during early adolescence. -emotions are more negative and more extreme than in middle childhood. -mood can change very quickly -Adolescence also develop emotional self-regulation: the capability to adjust one's emotions to a desired state and level of intensity. -Adolescents practice self-regulation by: 1. Changing thoughts about situation -realizing the "break-up" means you are no longer tied down or 2. Suppressing troubling emotions - this is when a teen tells self to "Chill!" Or, learning to "put on" a face appropriate to a social situation.

Lorenz's theory of attachment

-he observed newborn goslings, who would follow their mother because of an innate tendency to follow their mother or the first moving object they see after birth. When he raised eggs in an incubator, the goslings would follow him because he was first object that they saw. This process that Lorenz observed is called imprinting-behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed. -His theory suggested that attachment is based on biological reasons, like a child's need for food.

George Valliant

-stage happening between ages of 45-55. -"keeping the meaning vs. rigidity" -they keep the meaning in their life by accepting the strengths and weaknesses of others and practicing contentment. If they aren't able to do this, they risk becoming rigid and isolated from others.

Moro

What is the term for the reflex that scientists feel represents a leftover response that humans inherited from their nonhuman ancestors?

scaffolding

What is the term for the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth?

Hypnobirthing

(1) involves a self-hypnosis during delivery (2) produces peace and calm, thereby reducing pain

During the first stage of labor what occurs?

(a) Uterine contractions occur every 8-10 minutes and last about 30 seconds. (b) Contractions increase to their greatest intensity, a period known as transition. (c) The mother's cervix fully opens. (d) For first babies, this stage can last 16-24 hours (this varies widely). (e) Subsequent children involve shorter periods of labor.

Ambivalent attachment pattern

-20% have -a style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers, they show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her.

Harlow's theory of attachment

-Harlow's research showed that monkeys preferred the terry-cloth, soft "mother" who didn't provide any food over the wire "monkey" that provided food. -this theory disproved Lorenz's theory of attachment and suggested that attachment is based on a child's innate need for "contact comfort". Food is not only need involved in attachment between a child and parent.

Disorganized-disoriented pattern

-a style of attachment in which children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior. For example, they may run to the mother when she returns but not look at her, or seem initially calm and then suddenly break into angry weeping. -Their confusion suggests that they may be the least securely attached children of all. -About 5 to 10 percent of all children fall into this category

Bowlby's theory of attachment

-his theory stated that attachment is based mostly on a child's need for security and safety. -the person that the child feels safe and secure with, will act as a "home-base" for the child. -As child gets older and becomes more independent, they slowly move farther away from their "home-base". - This "home-base" individual tends to be the mother. -Since the mother provides safety and security, this attachment is different from others.

Whole language approach

-instruction to parallel child's natural language -learning; reading should be meaningful

Funtionality

...

Adult Obesity

1. Twelve percent of people between 18 and 29 years old are obese. 2. Later in adulthood, the number rises even higher.

doula

A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.

Cohort

A group of people born at around the same time in the same place.

Appraising Piaget: Support, Challenges and Alternatives

A. Most developmentalists agree that Piaget's descriptions of how cognitive development proceeds during infancy are accurate. 1. Piaget was a master observer. 2. Studies show that children do learn about the world by acting on objects in their environment. 3. The sequence of cognitive development and observation of accomplishments occurring in childhood described by Piaget are used by many schools to guide instruction. B. However, specific aspects of Piaget's theory have been criticized. 1. Particularly his arguments concerning: a. Timing of Mastery of Object Permanence (1) Some developmentalists question the stage concept, thinking that development is more continuous. (2) Piaget's notion that development is grounded in motor activity ignores the importance of infants' sensory and perceptual abilities. (3) Recent work shows object permanence may occur as early as 3 1/2 months of age. (4) Piaget underestimated the skills of infants and young children in part because of his narrow methods of experimentation. b. Children's Understanding of Numbers (1) Piaget argued that until around the age of 7, children have little understanding of numbers. (2) Recent studies suggest that children may have a universal, genetically endowed, innate ability to count. c. Training can improve children's performance in conservation tasks. d. Cultural Issues (1) Some development is universal, and some appears to be subject to cultural variations. (2) Children in other cultures may differ from Westerners in their demonstration of certain cognitive skills. 2. Despite criticisms, most agree that Piaget's work has inspired a stream of research and classroom reforms. C. Developmentalist Giesela Labouvie-Vief suggests that the nature of thinking changes qualitatively during early adulthood. 1. Adults exhibit POSTFORMAL THOUGHT, thinking that goes beyond Piaget's formal operations. a. Adult predicaments are sometimes ambiguous and are solved by relativistic thinking rather than pure logic. b. Postformal thought also encompasses dialectical thinking, an interest in and appreciation for argument, counterargument, and debate. c. Postformal thought acknowledges that the world sometimes lacks purely right and wrong solutions; adults must draw upon prior experiences to solve problems. 2. William Perry examined the way students grew intellectually and morally during college. a. Students entering college tended to use dualistic thinking; something is right or wrong, good or bad, and others are for them or against them. b. As they encountered new ideas and points of view, they began to hold multiple perspectives on an issue: multiple thinking. c. Finally, they began to show relativistic thinking; rather than believing that there are absolute standards and values, they begin to see that different cultures, societies, and individuals can have different standards and values, all of them equally valid. 3. K. Warner Schaie suggests that adults' thinking follows a set pattern of stages. a. The ACQUISITIVE STAGE encompasses all of childhood and adolescence, and the main developmental task is to acquire information. b. The ACHIEVING STAGE is the point reached by young adults at which intelligence is applied to specific situations involving the attainment of long-term goals regarding careers, family, and societal contributions. c. The RESPONSIBLE STAGE is the stage wherein the major concerns of middle-aged adults relate to their personal situations, including protecting and nourishing their spouses, families, and careers. d. The EXECUTIVE STAGE is the period in middle adulthood when people take a broader perspective than earlier, addressing more global concerns. e. The REINTEGRATIVE STAGE is the period of late adulthood during which the focus is on tasks that have personal meaning.

Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions

Baby Jimmy's parent places a brand new rattle in his crib, and Jimmy immediately picks it up and tries to mouth the rattle. When it shakes, it makes noise. Jimmy immediately tries shaking the rattle in different ways to see how the sound changes. He seems to enjoy this activity. Piaget would say that this is an example of

Behavioral perspective

Development occurs as the result of continuing expose to specific factors in the environment.

First Words - Holophrases

One word utterances that stand for whole phrases. Mom-could mean pick me up, Mom.

Experimental research

Research designed to discover causal relationship between various factors.

Epigenetic effects

Tamara was abused as a child and this seems to have made her stress response system overly reactive.

Cognitive perspective

The approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world.

seventeenth

The concept of childhood as a special period did not exist until the ________ century.

Menarch

The onset of menstruation.

regardless of weight, an infant who was in the womb less than 30 weeks

What factor can classify an infant as meeting the criteria of very low birthweight?

Environmental Hazards-Pollutants

_____ worldwide contaminant of seafood and freshwater fish, is known to produce adverse nervous system effects, especially during brain development; lead exposure in pregnancy include miscarriage, low birth weight, neurological delays, anemia, encephalopathy, paralysis, blindness; and Compounds such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide all have the potential to cause serious damage when inhaled such as low birth weight, preterm birth, intrauterine growth retardation, and congenital abnormalities.

semantics

__________ are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.

Personality and the Interactions of Genetics and the Environment

a. Traits related to temperament are not the only personality characteristics affected by heredity. b. Behavioral geneticists and evolutionary psychologists believe that combinations of inherited genes determine personality much the way that height or eye color are shaped by contributions of genes from ancestors. c. Studies of identical twins raised apart illustrate the importance of heredity in personality development. d. Environmental influences also have significant effects on the consistency of traits throughout the lifespan. e. Other times, inherited traits influence the environment. f. But temperament and traits are not destiny. Some individuals show little consistency in temperament from one age to another.

The Role of Work in Shaping Identity During Adulthood

a. Valliant posited that adults reach a stage of development called CAREER CONSOLIDATION, a period between 20 and 40 when young adults become centered on their careers. Career concerns supplant focus on intimacy b. based on a longitudinal study of male students at Harvard University in the 1930s c. In their early 20s, these men tended to be influenced by their parents' authority. d. In their late 20s and early 30s, they began to act with greater autonomy (marriage, children, gaining careers). e. Vaillant argues that the career consolidation stage should be added to Erikson's intimacy-versus-isolation stage of psychosocial identity. (1) In Vaillant's view, career concerns supplant the focus on intimacy. (2) Career consolidation marks a bridge between intimacy-versus-isolation and generativity-versus-stagnation.

Domestic Violence: Cultural Roots

a. Wife battering is particularly prevalent in cultures in which women are viewed as inferior to men. (1) Original English law allowed husbands to beat their wives. (2) This law was amended to permit beating only with a stick that was no thicker than a man's thumb (which is where the phrase "rule of thumb" comes from). (3) Wife beating was not made illegal until the late nineteenth century. b. Some suggest that traditional gender stereotypes of power structures lie at the root of abuse. (1) When women have low status, they become easy targets; when they have high status, they are threatening to their husbands.

Your professor argues that homosexuality in males is the result of exposure of the fetus to hormone levels characteristic of females in the second to fifth months after conception, causing the individual to become attracted to other males. This indicates that your professor believes in the _____ of the factors in homosexuality.

a. critical period hypothesis

A number of college and universities describe the "red zone" as a period of time _____ of college when women are at especially high risk for unwanted sexual experiences.

a. early in the first year

Orthodox Jews and Mormons have especially low rates of alcohol use, underscoring the:

a. environment's role in alcoholism.

What Causes Preterm and Low-Birthweight Deliveries?

a. fifty percent are unknown causes b. multiple births c. young mothers (under age 15) d. too closely spaced births e. general health and nutrition of mother f. African-American mothers have double the number of low-birthweight babies that Caucasian mothers do.

In the United States, the most widely recognized marker of entry into adulthood is:

a. holding a permanent, full-time job.

A recent national survey of U.S. adults identified the leading source of stress at the workplace as:

a. low salaries.

In 1994, Robert Michael and his colleagues conducted a comprehensive survey of American sexual patterns. Results from this "Sex in America" survey suggested that Americans' sexual lives are _____ than previously believed.

a. more conservative

In developing countries, marriage, the marker for entry into adulthood usually occurs _____ the adulthood markers in the United States

a. much earlier than

A possible genetic explanation for obesity in humans is:

a. reduced production of leptin.

All of the following are key features identified by Jeffrey Arnett as characterizing emerging adulthood, EXCEPT:

a. stability.

Job satisfaction depends on a number of factors.

a. status b. the nature of the job itself c. job satisfaction increases when workers have input into the nature of their jobs. d. variety e. supervisors have more influence, and hence more job satisfaction.

Screening for Future Problems

a.) Involves testing parents for the possibility that they will transmit diseases to children b.) Presents a range of possibilities, rather than a simple "yes" or "no" answer c.) Huntington's disease and more than a thousand other disorders can be predicted based on genetic testing. d.) Prediction is complicated, because environment as well as genes determine a person's actual likelihood of becoming ill. e.) Researchers as well as medical practitioners are actively working to change flawed genes for intervention and manipulation.

According to psychologist Laura Brown, how can lesbians and gay males adapt to a world in which they are a minority?

b. By balancing the demands of the minority lesbian/gay male culture and the majority heterosexual culture.

Child abuse: Where?

b. Child abuse can occur in any home, but is most prevalent in homes with stressful environments. (1) poverty (2) single-parent homes (3) families with high levels of marital discord (4) discord among partners (5) Most parents don't intend to abuse their children.

Binge drinking would be most common among which of the following groups?

b. College men staying in fraternity houses

How strong is the evidence for a fifth, postformal stage of cognitive development?

b. Critics argue that research has yet to document that postformal thought is a qualitatively more advanced stage than formal operational thought.

Which of the following statements about the benefits of exercise is true?

b. Exercise can be as effective in reducing depression as psychotherapy.

Which of the following statements accurately reflects a key finding from the 1994 "Sex in America" survey?

b. Married and cohabiting couples have sex more often than noncohabiting couples.

Rene wants to lose weight and is considering going on the latest high-protein diet. She wants to know if this diet is a good way to lose weight and to keep it off. What would you tell her?

b. Some individuals on diets do lose weight and keep it off, however, how often this occurs and whether some diet programs work better than others are still open questions.

Which of the following athletes would be most likely to peak earliest?

b. Swimmer

Gina's boyfriend forced her to have sexual intercourse with him during their last date. Gina has encountered:

b. date rape.

When Franklin composes musical concertos, he becomes totally absorbed and experiences extreme happiness. This is called _____.

b. flow

Lloyd, 30, is a busy lawyer and is always in a hurry. He skips breakfast, grabs lunch on the go, snacks and drinks coffee constantly at his desk, and finds no time to exercise. He is at risk for being overweight and has high cholesterol and blood pressure. Research indicates that Lloyd:

b. is likely to have lower life satisfaction at age 70.

Some theorists have pieced together cognitive changes in young adults and proposed

b. postformal thought

There is a "one-third rule'' for alcoholism: by age 65, one-third are dead or in terrible shape, one-third are abstinent or drinking socially, and one-third are _____.

b. still trying to beat their addiction

Piaget stressed that young adults are more quantitatively advanced in their thinking than adolescents because:

b. they have more knowledge.

Researchers have found that male rapists share the following characteristics: aggression enhances their sense of power or masculinity; they are angry at women in general; and _____.

b. they want to hurt and humiliate their victims.

Ishmael is experiencing a lot of stress at the workplace. Trends indicated in a recent national survey of U.S. adults suggest that Ishmael:

b. will be less productive because of stress.

Dana, 10, is a gymnast. In terms of performance, Dana is probably:

b. yet to peak.

Gilbert, 20, is a marathon runner. In terms of performance, Gilbert is probably:

b. yet to peak.

phoneme

basic unit of sound in a language

Ever since she passed out of college, Jane has been working long hours at her job as an accountant with a small company in the hope that her hard work will pay off and that she will achieve good career growth and economic stability. Jane obviously believes in what Phyllis Moen describes as the:

c. career mystique.

Risks of legal and illegal drugs on the unborn child

c. A mother's use of legal and illegal drugs poses serious risks to the unborn child. (1) Aspirin can lead to bleeding. (2) DES (diethylstilbestrol) later caused cervical and vaginal cancer in daughters. (3) Exposure to birth control or fertility pills in utero can affect brain structures in the fetus. d. Both alcohol and cigarettes can disrupt the development of the fetus. (1) FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER (FASD) is a disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation, delayed growth, and facial deformities. (2) Even smaller amounts of alcohol can produce FETAL ALCOHOL EFFECTS (FAE), a condition in which children display some, although not all, of the problems of FAS due to their mothers' consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. (3) Just two drinks a day has been associated with lower intelligence. (4) Smoking reduces the oxygen content and increase carbon monoxide. (a) Babies can miscarry or are born with abnormally low birth weight. (b) Babies born to smokers are shorter and may be 50 percent more likely to have mental retardation. e. Fathers can affect the prenatal environment. (1) Secondhand smoke can affect the mother's health. (2) Alcohol and illegal drugs can lead to chromosomal damage at conception. (3) Stress may produce an unhealthy environment for the mother. (4) Sperm damage may result from a father's exposure to environmental toxins in the workplace.

Before Jasmine has sex with her boyfriend, she asks if he has tested positive for HIV and also requires that he use a condom. Given what we know about HIV and the sexual behavior and attitudes of most adults, we can say that Jasmine's practice is:

c. not completely safe, because condoms can fail and many people lie to have sex.

This concept, recently described by Phyllis Moen, reflects ingrained cultural beliefs that engaging in hard work for long hours through adulthood will produce a path to status, security, and happiness

c. The career mystique

Emerging adulthood is a time frame during which most individuals are:

c. sexually active and unmarried.

Coronary heart disease

leading cause of death in middle age men. Genetics and environment. Lifestyle choices (smoking, exercise, diet). ◦ Type A behavior: competitiveness, impatience, hostility.

Secondary Aging

involves changes in physical and cognitive functioning that are due to illness, health habits, and other individual differences, but which are not due to increased age itself and are not inevitable.

Attachment

is the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular, special individual. The nature of our attachment during infancy affects how we relate to others throughout the rest of our lives. A close emotional bond between two people. The most important form of social development

Perception

is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving the sense organs and brain.

Physical disorders

leading cause of death in elderly are heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Most elderly at least one chronic health disorder.

Bradley Method

(1) known as "husband-coached childbirth" (2) principle: childbirth should be as natural as possible (3) involves no medication or medical interventions

blindness

(20/200)

Older women are at risk for having children with:

(a) premature birth (b) low birth weight (c) Down syndrome

Identity

...

Fine Motor Skills

1. By 3 months, infants can coordinate the movements of their limbs. 2. Infants can grasp a small object by 11 months. 3. By age 2, toddlers can drink from a cup without spilling. 4. Motor skill development follows a sequential pattern in which simple skills are combined with more sophisticated ones. 5. As children move through the school years, their fine motor skills become more delicate body movements. a. By age 4, children can fold paper in triangles and print their names with crayons. b. By age 5, they can use a thin pencil. c. By 6 or 7, they can tie shoes and fasten buttons. d. By 8, they can use each hand independently. e. At 11 or 12, they can manipulate objects almost as well as adults. 6. These changes are due in large part to myelination, which increases the speed of neural message transmission to muscles for coordination. 7. Handedness: Separating Righties from Lefties a. Most preschool children show a clear preference for the use of one hand over another—the development of HANDEDNESS. b. By 7 months of age, infants seem to favor either their left or right hands, but many don't show a preference until the end of the preschool years. c. Ninety percent are right-handed, and more boys than girls are left-handed. d. There is no scientific basis for myths that suggest there is something wrong with being left-handed; in fact, some evidence exists that left-handedness may be associated with certain advantages, such as higher SAT scores and art abilities.Scientists have found that the brains of left-handed people are shaped differently than those of right-handed people. Right-handers usually have asymmetric brains; their left cerebral hemispheres tend to be larger than their right hemispheres. In particular, Broca's and Wernicke's areas, two regions involved with language, are likely to be much larger in the left hemisphere than in the right. In contrast to right-handers, left-handers generally have more symmetrical brains, with similarly sized language centers in each hemisphere 8. Art: The Picture of Development a. Developmentalists argue that art plays a role in honing fine motor skills. b. Art involves practice and manipulation with tools that will help as they learn to write. c. Art also teaches planning, restraint, and self-correction. d. Howard Gardner theorizes that art represents the equivalent of linguistic development. e. Others suggest art develops in stages from scribbling, shape formation, and a design stage, to a stage of recognizable objects. 9. It is important to keep in mind that developmental NORMS are the average performance of a large sample of individuals of a certain age and mask substantial individual differences. a. BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (NBAS) is a measure used to determine infants' neurological and behavioral responses to their environment. (1) It includes 27 categories of responses. (a) interactions with others (b) motor behavior (c) physiological control (d) response to stress b. Norms should be based on large, heterogeneous samples. c. The time at which specific motor skills appear is in part determined by cultural factors. d. There are certain genetic constraints on how early a skill can emerge.

Reasons for Addiction

1. Genetics 2. Stress 3. Environment

Topical areas in lifespan development

1. Physical development 2. Cognitive development 3. Personality development 4. Social development

Basic Reflexes in Infants

1. Rooting Reflex 2. Sleeping Reflex 3. Swimming Reflex 4. Moro reflex 5. Babinski reflex 6. Startle reflex 7. Eye-blink reflex 8. Sucking reflex 9. Gag reflex

vocabulary spurt

18 months

Complex sentences at

2-3

Adulthood

20-40, physical peak. Maturation largely complete.

Labor proceeds in how many stages?

understands first word

5 months

latency stage

5-6 years to adolescence, Psychosexual development

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

A measure designed to determine infants' neurological and behavioral responses to their environment.

recessive.

A trait within an organism that is present but not expressed is called

temperament

An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.

An infant's vision is about one-tenth to one-third that of an average adult until the baby is ____ months old.

object permanence

Baby Nicholas watches as his mother leaves the room, but he does not cry because he understands that his mother still exists even though he cannot see her. This is an example of which reaction concept?

Autonomous Morality

Based on mutual respect and recognition

Genetic inheritance and maturation Race

Biology influences development through _______ ___________ and __________, and ____.

Shaken Baby Syndrome

Brain sensitive to forms of injury. Shaking can lead to -brain rotation within skull -Blood vessels tear -leading to severe medical problems -long-term disabilities -sometimes death

Theory

Broad explanations, and predictions about phenomena.

connectedness

Characteristic consisting of two dimensions: mutuality, sensitivity to and respect for others' views; and permeability, openness to others' views.

cross-cultural studies

Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and to the degree to which it is culture-specific.

General Rule

Comprehension precedes production. (ie: kids understand before they speak)

What are the contributions and criticisms of the behavioral and social cognitive theories?

Contributions • They provide an emphasis on the importance of scientific research. • They focus on the environmental determinants of behavior. Criticisms • Skinner's theory allows for too little emphasis on cognition. • There is inadequate attention to developmental changes.

Social-cognitive learning theory

Developed by Bandura, learning by observation. 1. Observer must pay attention and preserve the most critical features of a models behavior 2. Observer must successfully recall the behavior. 3. Observer must reproduce the behavior accurately 4. Observer must be motivated to learn and carry out the behavior.

Cognitive development

Development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior.

Progression of Formal Operations

Emergent Early adolescence Variable usage depends on conditions surrounding assessment Established Late adolescence Consolidated and integrated into general approach to reasoning

primary emotions

Emotions that are present in humans and other animals, emerge early in life, and are culturally universal; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.

self-conscious emotions

Emotions that require consciousness and a sense of "me"; they include empathy, jealousy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt, most of which first appear at some point in the second half of the first year through the second year.

psychosocial moratorium

Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their identity exploration.

Multimodal approach to perception

Eventually infants use the MULTIMODAL APPROACH TO PERCEPTION, in which information collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated.

Microsystem

Everyday immediate environment (home, caregiver, friends)

Darwin

Evolutionary Theory of Development

Reflexes

First emerge in infancy and are at the center of the infants physical and cognitive lives.

primary appraisal

If a student assesses the situation to determine whether or not an upcoming exam is a positive, negative or neutral event, this is an example of

primary appraisal.

If a student assesses the situation to determine whether or not an upcoming exam is a positive, negative or neutral event, this is an example of

between the ages of 6 and 8.

One reason for the advancement of fine motor skills is that the amount of myelin in the brain increases significantly

Maturation

Predetermined unfolding of genetic information

80s and 90s

Research finds that many older adults continue to have an active and healthy sex life well into their ________.

reinforcement

Roger likes to buy lottery tickets regularly, and he occasionally wins. This is an example of

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)

Sensorimotor SubStage Stage 2: Coordinating sedation and new schemas. At this age infants begin to coordinate what were separate actions into single, integrated activities. Actions are repeated because infant finds them pleasurable such as sucking thumb. An infant might combine grasping an object with sucking on it, or staring at something with touching it. 1 to 4 months of age Beginning of coordination of what were separate actions into single, integrated activities Activities that engage baby's interests are repeated simply for the sake of continuing to experience them Circular reaction Primary circular reaction Example: For instance, an infant might combine grasping an object with sucking on it, or staring at something while touching it. This repetition of a chance motor event helps the baby start building cognitive schemes through a process known as a circular reaction. Primary circular reactions are schemes reflecting an infant's repetition of interesting or enjoyable actions, just for the enjoyment of doing them, which focus on the infant's own body. Thus, when an infant first puts his thumb in his mouth and begins to suck, it is a mere chance event. However, when he repeatedly sucks his thumb in the future, it represents a primary circular reaction, which he is repeating because the sensation of sucking is pleasurable.

Nurture

Social and environmental influences that shape behavior (experiences had through biological, social, and societal origins). Part of the debate with Nature.

Bandura developed

Social-cognitive learning theory.

Explaining Gender Differences: Social-Learning

Social-learning approaches argue that children learn gender-related behavior and expectations from direct training and from their observation of others. a. This includes children's experiences with gender messages presented by the media. b. These images and messages mostly represent women and men in stereotypical ways.

Natural Selection

Society associates with a group similar to each other

Evolutionary perspective

Some developmentalists criticize it for paying insufficient attention to environmental and social factors. Others argue that there is no good way to experimentally support theories derived from evolution.

Shyness and jealousy

Some evolutionary developmentalists suggest that behaviors such as ______ ________ are produced in part by genetic causes because they helped increase the survival rates of humans' ancient relatives

Erikson's Theory-Strengths and weaknesses

Strengths: -influential -it covers the entire life span -states that not everyone passes through stages at the same time. Weaknesses: -contemporary research provides evidence that allows for alternative theories of psychosocial development

Behavioral genetics

Studies the effects of heredity on behavior. One of the fastest-growing areas within the field of lifespan development.

Case study

Study that involves extensive in-depth, interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals.

operant conditioning.

Susan learned at a young age that developing good study habits, such as doing her homework, brought about good grades, and made her want to work harder in school. This is called

Gene-environment interaction

Sydney inherited a gene that can cause intellectual disability but only in children who do not receive enough folic acid in this diet

The Relation Between Language and Thought

Symbolic function: Ability to use symbols, words, or objects to represent something that is not physically present Language allows preschoolers to: Represent actions symbolically Think beyond the present to the future Consider several possibilities at the same time Symbolic function is at the heart of one of the major advances that occurs in the preoperational period: the increasingly sophisticated use of language. Use of symbolic thought, allows preschoolers to represent actions symbolically, permitting much greater speed.

_____________ refers to how children behave rather than what they do or why they do it.

Temperment

Threats to Development

Teratogen an environmental agent such as a virus, chemical, or other factor that produces a birth defect. a. Timing and quantity of exposure to teratogens are crucial factors in assessing risk. b. At some phases of prenatal development, a teratogen may have minimal impact; at other periods, consequences can be severe. (1) A mother's diet clearly plays an important role in bolstering the development of the fetus. (2) Research shows that mothers over 30 and adolescent mothers are at greater risk for a variety of pregnancy and birth complications including premature birth. (3) About 90 percent of women's eggs are no longer normal at age 42. Older women (relative to younger women) are at risk for having children with: (a) premature birth (b) low birth weight (c) Down syndrome (4) Rubella (German measles) prior to the eleventh week can cause blindness, deafness, heart defects, or brain damage. (5) Chicken pox and mumps may cause birth defects and miscarriage, respectively. (6) Syphilis and gonorrhea can be transmitted to the child. (7) Babies may acquire AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) from their mothers through the placenta. c. A mother's use of legal and illegal drugs poses serious risks to the unborn child. (1) Aspirin can lead to bleeding. (2) DES (diethylstilbestrol) later caused cervical and vaginal cancer in daughters. (3) Exposure to birth control or fertility pills in utero can affect brain structures in the fetus. d. Both alcohol and cigarettes can disrupt the development of the fetus. (1) FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDER (FASD) is a disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation, delayed growth, and facial deformities. (2) Even smaller amounts of alcohol can produce FETAL ALCOHOL EFFECTS (FAE), a condition in which children display some, although not all, of the problems of FAS due to their mothers' consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. (3) Just two drinks a day has been associated with lower intelligence. (4) Smoking reduces the oxygen content and increase carbon monoxide. (a) Babies can miscarry or are born with abnormally low birth weight. (b) Babies born to smokers are shorter and may be 50 percent more likely to have mental retardation. e. Fathers can affect the prenatal environment. (1) Secondhand smoke can affect the mother's health. (2) Alcohol and illegal drugs can lead to chromosomal damage at conception. (3) Stress may produce an unhealthy environment for the mother. (4) Sperm damage may result from a father's exposure to environmental toxins in the workplace.

SIDS

The American Academy of Pediatrics now suggests that babies sleep on their backs rather than on their sides or stomachs to prevent

does not

The IQ scores of dizygotic twins ____________become increasingly similar over the course of time.

gag

The ____ reflex lasts throughout a lifetime.

multimodal

The _____________ approach to perception considers how information that is collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated.

Nativist

The ______________ approach to language acquisition posits that children are born with the innate capacity to use language, which emerges as they mature.

nativist

The ______________ approach to language acquisition posits that children are born with the innate capacity to use language, which emerges as they mature.

The due date of the baby is calculated by taking the first day of the last menstrual period, then counting back _____ months and adding seven days.

Sample

The group of participants chosen for the experiment.

dominant

The one trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present is called

embryonic stage

The period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell diff erentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear. a. At this point, the child is called an embryo. b. By the end of this phase, the embryo is about an inch in length, with a tail-like structure and the beginnings of eyes, lips, teeth, arms, and legs. The head and brain begin rapid development. c. The developing child is now composed of three layers. (1) The ectoderm is the outer layer forming the skin, hair, teeth, sense organs, brain, and spinal cord. (2) The endoderm is the inner layer producing the digestive system, liver, pancreas, and respiratory system. (3) The mesoderm is sandwiched between the inner and outer layers and forms the muscles, bones, blood, and circulatory system.

germinal stage

The period of prenatal development that takes place during the first two weeks following conception; it includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus. a. It is characterized by methodical cell division and the attachment of the organism (blastocyst) to the wall of the uterus. b. The baby is called a zygote at this stage. c. The cells become specialized with some forming a protective layer around the zygote, while others create: (1) PLACENTA, the conduit between the mother and fetus, providing nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord.

Rapid Eye Movement (REM)

The period of sleep found in adults and children that is associated with dreaming.

life-span perspective

The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together.

Adaptation

The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs. Involves how individuals adapt their thinking to an environment or situation in which their schemes change This is an umbrella term for assimilation and accommodation.

Freud

The psychodynamic perspective is closely associated with the original work of

psychoanalytic theories

Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized.

ethology

Theory stressing that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.

Erikson's theory

Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.

How can theory and hypotheses be defined?

Theory- interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps explain and make predictions. Hypotheses - specific predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.

Intuitive thought

Thinking that reflects pre schooler's use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world Curiosity blossoms and answers to a wide variety of questions are sought Children often act as authorities on particular topics Intuitive thought leads preschoolers to believe that they know answers to all kinds of questions, but there is little or no logical basis for this confidence Some highlight "deficiencies" during this period, actually time of considerable cognitive developmentintuitive thought Intuitive thought refers to preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world. Often act as authorities on particular topics, feeling certain that they have the correct—and final—word on an issue. If pressed, they are unable to explain how they know what they know. In other words, their intuitive thought leads them to believe that they know answers to all kinds of questions, but there is little or no logical basis for this confidence in their understanding of the way the world operates. Late Stages of Intuitive Thought Slowly certain qualities prepare children for more sophisticated forms of reasoning Begin to understand the notion of functionality Begin to show an awareness of the concept of identity Functionality, the idea that actions, events, and outcomes are related to one another in fixed patterns. Identity is the understanding that certain things stay the same, regardless of changes in shape, size, and appearance.

The proportion of men who are married at 65 is far greater than that of women. True or False?

True

AIDS

What disease may be passed on to the fetus through the blood that reaches the placenta?

Common cold

What is considered the most common illness in preschool children?

Reinforcement

a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

Stuttering

a substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech, is the most common speech impairment

Religion in the Final Stages of Life

a. In late adulthood, stronger religious beliefs are related to greater life satisfaction. b. Racial differences play a role in the effect of religion in people's lives in late adulthood. (1) African-American adults report finding more meaning in religion than older Caucasians. (2) The relationships between meaning, satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism are stronger for African Americans than Caucasians. c. Prayer may produce positive benefits in older adults. (1) Higher rates of prayer are associated with greater happiness. (2) The question of whether prayer actually extends life remains unanswered. (3) Some studies show links between attendance at religious services and healthy lifestyles.

Older Workers: Combating Age Discrimination

a. Many people continue to work full- or part-time for some part of late adulthood. b. Age discrimination remains a reality despite laws making it illegal. c. Mandatory retirement is illegal (since the 1970s) with the exception of certain public safety jobs. d. Older adults continue to work because of the intellectual and social rewards, or for financial reasons. e. Little evidence supports the idea that older workers' ability to perform jobs declines enough to demand retirement at an arbitrary age. f. Market forces may help reduce the severity of age discrimination. 1.) As baby boomers retire and the workforce drastically shrinks, companies may begin to offer incentives to older adults to either remain in the workforce or to return to it after they have retired. g. Retirement remains the norm for most older adults, but not everyone wants or can afford to stop working.

Roles of the Mother and Father

a. Mothers are most often the attachment figure. b. Changing societal norms and current research show that some infants form strong initial attachments to their fathers and with multiple individuals simultaneously.

Reference Groups

a. Peers provide information about what roles and behavior are most acceptable. b. They present a set of norms, or standards, against which adolescents can judge their abilities and social successes. c. Membership in a particular group is not required for referencing.

Which of the following statements about the impact of unemployment on an individual is true?

a. Researchers have found that unemployment is related to homicide.

Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Self-Esteem

a. SES leads to more self-esteem (especially in late adolescence, when one can buy things of value).

Self: Cultural Influence

a. View of self is culturally bound 1. Collectivist Orientation: Asian 2. Individualistic Orientation: Western b. View of self is family tied c. View of self is individually directed

schemes

actions or mental representations that organize knowledge sucking, looking, opening doors, driving a car

Which of the following is a positive feature of the transition from high school to college?

b. Opportunities to explore different lifestyles and values

Bradford was of average weight throughout childhood and in college. But he has gained more than 30 pounds after he started working, and is now finding it very difficult to lose the excess weight and to maintain weight loss. His doctor tells him that one of the reasons that it is so might be because:

b. he may not be able to get rid of the fat cells he gained when he put on weight.

_____ individuals who drink continue the path to alcoholism.

c. A small percentage of

Vocabulary development linked to

comprehension

Which of the following are some of the Big Five personality traits?

conscientiousness and extroversion

operant conditioning

consequences of behavior produce changes

1. interactions with others 2. motor behavior 3. physiological control Not: language skills

constitutes four general aspects of infants' behavior, as measured by the Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale?

Cohabitation

couples living together without being married

Leptin acts as a(n):

d. antiobesity hormone.

Arnold Gesell

developed a clinical measure to assess potential abnormality in infants

Brain growth

faster growth rate than any other organ Increase in number of connections ◦ Myelination increases ◦ Neuron and synaptic pruning ◦ Repositioning: ◦ Plasticity: ◦ Sensitive periods: ◦ Lateralization ◦ Spurts in brain growth linked to cognitive advances.

Behavioral Theory of Development

focus on observable behavior and environmental stimuli. Personal patterns rather than stages (quantitative rather than qualitative change) -Look for links on environment -Social Learning more nuanced and dominant -Traditional behavioral accounts > black box

Double Standard

in which premarital sex was considered permissible for males but not for females, has largely been supplanted by a new norm—PERMISSIVENESS WITH AFFECTION, where premarital intercourse is viewed as permissible for both men and women if it occurs in the context of a long-term, committed, or loving relationship.

Elizabeth Spelke

infants whose mother speak often to them have markedly higher vocabularies

Aggression

is intentional injury or harm done to another person.

Control group

is the group that receives either no treatment or alternative treatment.

Sensitive periods

lack of experience may never be fully rememdied

Most 5 year olds can reproduce

letters/words

sustained attention/ focused attention

new stimuli elicit an orienting response followed by sustained attention

Rhythms

patterns of behavior (Eating - sleeping) Behavior becomes integrated through the development of various body RHYTHMS, which are repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior. Sleep, wakefulness, eating, elimination. It takes some time for infants to integrate the separate behaviors.

Adolescence

physical and sexual development ◦ Girls, spurt at 10, boys at 12. Adolescence is the developmental stage that lies between childhood and adulthood. It is generally viewed as starting just before the teenage years and ending just after them. It is a transitional stage. Adolescents are considered no longer children, but not yet adults. It is a time of considerable physical and psychological growth and change.

Goodness of fit

says that development is dependent on the degree of match between children's temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised. (1) Some temperamental styles are more adaptable than others. (a) Some difficult children are more likely to show behavior problems by school age than easy children. (b) A key determinant is the way parents react to the infant's behavior. (2) Culture also has a major influence on the consequences of a particular temperament.

Macular degeneration

scarring in middle area of retina

Masturbation

sexual self-gratification, is the initiation into sexuality for most adolescents.

1. increased use of nicotine, alcohol, and other drugs. 2.decreased nutrition. 3. decreased sleep.

stress can produce harmful behaviors such as

Peripheral slowing hypothesis

takes longer for information to reach the brain and longer for signals from the brain to reach the body.

Overextension of words

to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the words meaning. saying "dada" to every man they see

Syntax

ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases ans sentences

Animals and Language

1. It is symbolic in nature, it has unique features. 2. Animals use language and some animals can understand a few words. 3. Animals cannot discuss abstract ideas or have complex patterns of communication.

Native-like accent best learned before age

gestures

7-15 months, waving, nodding, pointing

fragile X syndrome

A chromosomal disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks producing mild to moderate mental retardation.

Down syndrome

A chromosomally transmitted form of mental retardation. A disorder produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on the 21st chromosome pair, once referred to as mongolism.

Miscarriage

A miscarriage—known as spontaneous abortion—occurs when pregnancy ends before the developing child is able to survive outside the womb. (1) Fifteen to twenty percent of all pregnancies end in miscarriage. (2) In many cases, the woman is not even aware that she was pregnant. (3) Typically, miscarriages are attributable to some sort of genetic abnormality.

Sensitive Period

A point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences. The window never closes. Represents the optimal period for particular capacity to marriage and children are particularly sensitive to environmental influences Part of the debate with Critical Period.

According to Freud, which part of everyone's personality operates according to the "pleasure principle"?

Zone of proximal development (ZDP)

According to Vygotsky, the level at which a child can almost, but not fully perform a task independently, but can do so with the assistance of someone more competent (ie: teacher or parent) Cognition increases through exposure to information that is new enough to be intriguing, but not too difficult Greater improvement with help: greater increases in zone of proximal development

everyday behavior(s)

Adolescents' ability to reason using formal operations also causes a change in their ____ _____

Becoming Sexual

Adolescence is not the first time individuals think about sex, but at the onset of puberty, sexuality becomes a central aspect of everyday life. 1. MASTURBATION, sexual self-gratification, is the initiation into sexuality for most adolescents. a. Boys' masturbation typically decreases in frequency as they get older, while in girls, frequency is lower initially and increases throughout adolescence. b. Racial patterns have been observed in frequency. c. Although it is widespread, it can still cause feelings of shame. d. Today masturbation is seen as normal, healthy, and harmless; this is opposite to its historical legacy of shame, guilt, and punishment. 2. Sexual intercourse remains a major milestone in the perceptions of most adolescents, and as such, it is the main focus of research on sexual behavior in teens. a. Most investigate heterosexual intercourse. b. Ages for sexual intercourse have been declining: 1 in 5 adolescents have had sex before the age of 15; over half begin having intercourse between ages 15 and 18; and 80 percent have sex before age 20. c. The old DOUBLE STANDARD, in which premarital sex was considered permissible for males but not for females, has largely been supplanted by a new norm—PERMISSIVENESS WITH AFFECTION, where premarital intercourse is viewed as permissible for both men and women if it occurs in the context of a long-term, committed, or loving relationship. 3. Sexual Orientation: Heterosexuality, Homosexuality, Bisexuality and Transsexualism a. The most frequent pattern of sexual orientation in adolescents' sexual development is heterosexuality, sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex. b. Some are homosexual, and their sexual attraction and behavior are oriented to members of their own sex. (1) Many homosexual men prefer the term gay; many homosexual women label themselves lesbians. (2) These terms can be used to refer to lifestyles and attitudes that are broader than sexual attraction and acts. c. Others report being bisexual: sexually attracted to people of both sexes. d. Many experiment with homosexuality in adolescence (20-25 percent of boys and 10 percent of girls report at least 1 encounter with same-sexed peers). e. Alfred Kinsey, sex researcher, argued that orientation should be viewed as a continuum of exclusivity from homosexuality to heterosexuality. f. Sexual orientation and gender identity are related in complicated ways. (1) Orientation refers to objects of one's interests and behaviors. (2) Gender identity is the person one believes the self to be psychologically. (3) The two are not always predictive of each other. g. Some people identify as transsexual; their psychological identity is trapped in the physical body of the wrong gender. Some transsexual people pursue sexual reassignment surgery to take on the physical characteristics of the sex that matches their psychological identity. 4. Causes for sexual orientation are not understood. a. Biological and genetic factors seem to play an important role. b. Psychological theories attributing cause to peers or family do not hold up because no one type of family or social dynamic is related to sexual orientation. c. Most experts believe that orientation develops out of complex interactions between genetic, physiological, and environmental factors. d. Homosexual adolescents often have a very difficult time, and they are at greater risk for depression and suicide. 5. Disclosing same-sex attraction to parents is not easy for adolescents. a. Many do tell at least one parent, though circumstances surrounding this disclosure vary from person to person. b. Most often, mothers are the parents that teens of both sexes choose to tell. c. When both parents are told, mothers are typically told first. d. Fathers are most likely to find out by accident or through someone else. e. Teens choose to not tell their mothers and fathers for different reasons.

Concrete Operational Stage (Stage 3 of 4)

Age 7 to 12 1. The school-aged child enters the concrete operational stage, the period of cognitive development between 7 and 12 years of age characterized by the appropriate use of logic. a. Concrete operational thought involves applying logical operations to concrete problems. b. Children at this stage can solve conservation problems. c. Because they are less egocentric, they can take multiple aspects of a situation into account, a process known as decentering. d. They attain the concept of reversibility, realizing that a stimulus can be reversed, returning to its original form. e. They can understand such concepts as relationships between time and speed. f. However, they are tied to concrete, physical reality and cannot understand abstract or hypothetical reasoning or use formal logic. Shift from preoperational thought to concrete operational thought does not happen overnight Children shift back and forth between preoperational and concrete operational thinking After concrete operational thinking is fully engaged, children show several cognitive advances They attain the concept of reversibility, which is the notion that processes transforming a stimulus can be reversed, returning it to its original form. Because they are less egocentric, they can take multiple aspects of a situation into account, an ability known as decentering.

Primary aging

Aging that involves universal and irreversible changes that, due to genetic programming occur as people get older.

Matured later than her peers

All of the following female adolescents are likely to develop an eating disorder EXCEPT one who 1. is clinically depressed. 2. is already dieting. 3. matured later than her peers. 4. desires control and success.

Levinson's seasons of life theory

At age 40-45, a midlife crisis, a stage of uncertainty and indecision brought about by the realization that life is finite, happens. Men begin to question their purpose in life and come to terms with idea that they might not accomplish all they want to before they die. --Despite widespread acceptance, evidence for midlife crisis does not exist. a. Studying 40 men (no women), Levinson suggests that adult men pass through a series of stages beginning with early adulthood at age 20 and continuing into middle adulthood. b. The theme of early adulthood is focused on leaving the family and entering the adult world. c. Between 40 and 45, people move into a period Levinson calls the midlife transition, or a time of questioning. d. This period of assessment may lead to a MIDLIFE CRISIS, a stage of uncertainty and indecision brought about by the realization that life is finite. (1) This is a painful and tumultuous period of questioning. (2) Facing signs of physical aging, men may also discover that even the accomplishments they are proudest of brought them less satisfaction than expected. (3) Looking toward the past, they may seek to define what went wrong and look for ways to correct their past mistakes. (4) Critics points out drawbacks of Levinson's theory. (a) His theory is based on a very small sample of men. (b) He later studied a group of women, but this, too, was a very small sample. (c) He overstates the consistency and generality of his findings.

Babies are able to sit upright without additional support at about _______ months of age.

insecure disorganized babies

Babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented.

securely attached babies

Babies who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment.

Cure

Baby Boomers display the attitude that they can _______ aging.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory

Bronfenbrenner's environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

Differentiation

By six months, babbling is distinct to language infant is exposed to

eight

By the 25th day after conception, the heart is already beating and for the next _____ weeks, the arms, legs, fingers, toes, and mouth develop.

functionality

By the end of the preoperational stage, children are able to understand the idea that actions, events, and outcomes are related to one another in fixed patterns, and this is called

By the time children reach age ______, their proportions are similar to those of adults.

experiment

Carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.

1. using child locks on cabinets. 2. encouraging the use of a bike helmet. 3. child-proofing.

Caregivers should take steps to decrease the chance of a child sustaining an injury or being involved in an accident by

Secondary sex characteristic

Changes in genitals and breasts. Growth of hair: -Pubic -Facial -Body In girls, the development of primary sex characteristics involves changes in the vagina and uterus. The development of breasts and pubic hair. Breasts begin to grow at around the age of 10, and pubic hair beings to appear at about age 11. Underarm hair appears about 2 years later. For some girls, indications of puberty start unusually early. One out of 7 Caucasian girls develops breasts or pubic hair by age 8. Even more surprisingly, the figure is 1 out of 2 for African American girls.

Jean Berko

Children can apply language rules to novel situations.

evocative genotype-environment correlations

Correlations that exist when the child's characteristics elicit certain types of environments.

Psychosocial Theory

Developed by Erikson, the approach encompasses changes in our understanding of individuals, their interactions with others, and their standing as members of society. 8 stages: 1. trust vs. mistrust (birth to 12-18 months) 2. autonomy vs shame and doubt (12-18 months to 3 years) 3. initiative vs. guilt (3 to 5-6 years) 4. Industry vs inferiority (5-6 to adolescence) 5. Identity vs. role diffusion (adolescence to adulthood) 6. Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) 8. Ego integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) Each stage: -Emerges in a fixed pattern and is similar for all people. -Presents a crisis or conflict that each individual must address sufficiently at a particular age. -No crisis is fully resolved, which makes life increasingly complicated. -Development continues throughout lifespan. -Childhood influences adult personality -Focused on males, vague and difficult to test -Good description of past behavior but not accurate prediction of future behavior A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.

Operant Conditioning

Developed by Skinner, a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by association with positive or negative consequences. Reinforcement- a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated. Punishment- an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus; it decreases the probability that a behavior will occurs in the future. Behavior modification-a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. When behavior receives no reinforcement it is likely to be discontinued or extinguished.

What is meant by the concept of development?

Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and co\ 'ntinues through the human life span.

Behavioral perspective

Development is viewed as quantitative rater than qualitative.

What is Erikson's psychoanalytic theory?

Eight psychosocial stages of development which unfold throughout the life span. Each stage represents a crisis must be resolved for healthy development to occur. - Trust v Mistrust - Autonomy v Shame and Doubt - Initiative v Guilt - Industry v Inferiority - Identity v Identity confusion - Intimacy v Isolation - Generativity v Stagnation - Integrity v Despair

glaucoma

Emanuel is told the pressure in his eyes has increased and that fluid in his eyes cannot drain properly. Emanuel has

Psychodynamic approach

Emphasizes emotions, motivational conflicts, and unconscious determinants of behavior.

identity versus identity confusion

Erikson's fifth stage of development, which occurs during the adolescent years; adolescents are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.

Common Aging Myths

False: 1. The majority of old people (age 65 and older) have defective memory, are disoriented, or demented. 2. The majority of old people have no interest in, nor capacity for, sexual relations. 3. The majority of old people are sick most of the time. 4. At least one-tenth of the aged are living in long-stay institutions (such as nursing homes, mental hospitals, and homes for the aged). 5. Older workers usually cannot work as effectively as younger workers. 6. The majority of old people are unable to adapt to change. 7. It is almost impossible for the average old person to learn something new. 8. In general, old people tend to be pretty much alike. 9. The majority of old people are socially isolated. True: 1. The five senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell) all tend to weaken in old age. 2. Lung capacity tends to decline in old age. 3. Physical strength tends to decline in old age. 4. Aged drivers have fewer accidents per driver than those under age 65. 5. Over three-fourths of the aged are healthy enough to carry out their normal activities. 6. Old people usually take longer to learn something new. 7. The majority of old people say they are seldom bored. 8. Older workers have fewer accidents than do younger workers.

Correct communication with adults

From the age of three and beyond, which of the following activities is NOT essential to contribute to language growth? 1. Dressing up and playing house, store, or school 2. Correct communication with adults 3. Playing with cars, locks, telephones, balls and puppets 4. Reading books, drawing and writing

Support

Gene related to speech production. Language processing in infants uses same brain structures used by adults.

Genes are arranged in specific locations and in a specific order along ____ different chromosomes.

Menopause

Hormone Therapy (HT) Women's expectations about menopause relate to their experience of menopause Variations by race and culture Using Hormone Therapy (HT), symptoms are alleviated and variety of problems are reduced, such as: Osteoporosis Heart disease Colon cancer Stroke Skin elasticity There may be risks associated with HT. Breast cancer Abnormal blood clots Cancer of the uterine lining About 10 percent of women had psychological problems associated with menopause. Depression Anxiety Crying spells Lack of concentration Irritability It is now believed that women's expectations about menopause relate to their experience of menopause. Indian women have few symptoms and look forward to the social advantages of being past the childbearing age. Mayan women also have few symptoms and look forward to the freedom of being past childbearing age. Estrogen and progesterone used to alleviate menopausal symptoms: Pro Changes ratio of "good" cholesterol to "bad" cholesterol Decreases thinning of bones Associated with reduced risk of stroke and colon cancer Con Increases risk of breast cancer and blood clots Higher risk for pulmonary embolism and heart disease In Hormone Therapy (HT), estrogen and progesterone are administered to alleviate the worst of symptoms experienced by menopausal women. Not simple all-or-nothing proposition; some women are simply better candidates for HT than others. Decision may be age related.

Depression levels

In gender comparisons of health conditions, which of the following not as likely to occur in men versus women?

logical operations

In middle childhood, children begin to apply __________ to solve concrete problems.

Discontinuous Change

Incremental and quantitative. Stages, leaps, and pauses. Caters to whatever theory is being studied Part of the debate with Continuous: Development is a not just a matter of quantitative change but of qualitative change. Development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages.

Nature

Influence from inheritance such as traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from parents. Encompasses maturation, any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information. Part of the debate with Nurture.

normative history-graded influences

Influences that are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances.

normative age-graded influences

Influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group.

Heterozygous

Inheriting from parents different forms of a gene for a given trait. An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

doula

Jennifer and Douglas are expecting the birth of their first child. They have hired a(n) __________, who provides emotional, psychological, and educational support for the two expectant parents. This person is not a licensed nurse, and her job is not to perform medical exams.

olfactory bulb

Joe is 82 years old and has noticed that food has lost quite a bit of its allure to him. It does not have the same level of taste that he used to experience, even when it is heavily seasoned. One reason for this decline is that the __________ in his brain may have begun to shrivel as he has aged.

Fundementals of Piaget's Theory

Knowledge is the product of action All children pass through a series of stages Universal Fixed order Physical maturation and exposure to experiences promote movement through the stages Naturalistic observation was Piaget's main method Schemes, assimilation, and accommodation play a central role in this theory

cognitive apprenticeship

Learning is a cognitive apprenticeship in which knowledge is passed from more able members of the culture to less able ones.

Male Climacteric

Male changes during middle age Period of physical and psychological change relating to male reproductive system that occurs during late middle age Enlargement of the prostate gland Problems with urination, including difficulty starting to urinate and frequent need to urinate during night Men still produce sperm and can father children through middle age

identity moratorium

Marcia's term for the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis, but whose commitments are either absent or vaguely defined.

identity foreclosure

Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.

identity diffusion

Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis (explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments.

identity achievement

Marcia's term for the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

Marta is pregnant and consumes substantial quantities of alcohol. She runs the risk of having a baby born with

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).

Marta is pregnant and consumes substantial quantities of alcohol. She runs the risk of having a baby born with

Auto-stimulation

Means for the brain to stimulate itself

Poverty and Race

Members of black, American Indian, and Hispanic households are more likely to live in poverty than members of white and Asian families

string beads

Most 4-year old students would be able to

10 years old

Most children are unable to demonstrate social speech, until they are at least

Steeping reflex

Movement of legs when held upright with feet touching the floor. Age of Disappearance: 2 months Possible Function: Prepares infants for independent locomotion

Brain Growth Spurt

Myelin increases, Cerebellum and cerebral cortex connection growth Myelination of the reticular formation, an area of brain associated with attention and concentration, is completed by the time children are about 5. May be associated with children's growing attention spans as they approach school age. The improvement in memory that occurs during preschool years may also be associated with myelination. During the preschool years, myelination is completed in hippocampus, an area associated with memory. Significant growth in nerves connecting the cerebellum, a part of brain that controls balance and movement, to cerebral cortex, the structure responsible for sophisticated information processing. The growth in these nerve fibers is related to significant advances in motor skills that occur during the preschool years, as well as to advances in cognitive processing. Figure shows Brain Growth Spurt According to one study, electrical activity in the brain has been linked to advances in cognitive abilities at various stages across the life span. In this graph activity increases dramatically between 1 1/2 and 2 years of age, a period during which language rapidly develops.

neurons

Nerve cells that handle information processing at the cellular level.

Neuron and Synaptic Pruning

Neurons Leave

Down syndrome

Older mothers are considerably more likely to give birth to children with _____ ____. Jose has an extra chromosome on the twenty-first pair of chromosomes. The disorder was once referred to as mongolism. This will cause him to have

Promoting Good Health in Old Age

People can do specific things to enhance their physical and psychological well-being - as well as their longevity - during old age Eat a proper diet Exercise Avoid threats to health, such as smoking

self-indulgence

People in a midlife crisis are in a state of _____, they want to give up on their commitments for one last fling, often for freedom or it's illusion, at the expense of security with others.

Cross Sectional Research

People of different ages are compared at the same point in time. a. The disadvantages of longitudinal research (e.g., expense, time to completion) are avoided in this situation. b. But differences observed between participants of different ages may be due to cohort effects rather than manipulated variables. c. Selective dropout is a risk, where participants in some age groups are more likely to quit participating than others. d. Changes in individuals or groups cannot be explained.

Language

Piaget believed that _____ is a result of thought, not as a source of it.

symbolic thought

Piaget believed the major achievement of the final substage in the sensorimotor stage is ____________.

Based on investigations Piaget's sequence of cognitive development is?

Piaget's broad view of the sequence of cognitive development is accurate.

object permanence

Piaget's term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard or touched

qualitative; quantitative

Piaget's view assumes that thinking undergoes ________ advances, but the information-processing approach assumes that development is marked by ________ advantages.

Action = Knowledge

Piaget's views of the ways infants learn could be summarized in a simple equation:

Approach to Cognitive Development

Piget (1896-1980) A. Knowledge is the product of direct motor behavior in infants (Action = Knowledge). 1. All children pass through a series of universal stages in a fixed order. a. sensorimotor b.preoperational c. concrete operations d. formal operations 2. Both the content and the quality of knowledge increase. 3. The focus is on the change in understanding that occurs as a child moves through stages. a. Movement through stages occurs with physical maturation and experience with environment. b. Piaget believed that infants have mental structures called SCHEMES, organized patterns of sensorimotor functioning. c. Two principles underlie the growth in children's schemes. 1.) ASSIMILATION is when people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. 2.) ACCOMMODATION is change in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

Puberty

Pituitary in brain signals release of androgens (males) and estrogens (females), leading to maturation of sex organs. Girls, 11-12, boys, 13-14.

Ethnic and Cultural Differences and Similarities in Reflexes

Reflexes -Genetically determined -Universal Cultural variations in ways displayed -Moro reflex Functions -Diagnostic tool -Social function Moro Reflex: Some differences reflect cultural and ethnic variations. -Caucasian infants show a pronounced response to situations that produce the Moro reflex. Not only do they fling out their arms, but they also cry and respond in a generally agitated manner. -Navajo babies react to the same situation much more calmly. Their arms do not flail out as much, and they cry only rarely. Diagnostic tools for pediatricians. Because reflexes emerge and disappear on a regular timetable, their absence—or presence—at a given point of infancy can provide a clue that something may be amiss in an infant's development.

Educational practices should develop an independent, self-regulating individual. Educational practices should work with others to use the lessons of the past to push the envelope of the present. Educational practices should enable children to master their own behavior and foster rousing minds to life.

Regarding education, Vygotsky indicated that understanding the zone of proximal development expands the way teachers can guide and influence a child's active learning by

correlational

Researchers who are interested in the relationship between televised aggression and subsequent behavior have found that children who watch a good deal of televised aggression (murders, crime shows, shootings, etc.) tend to be more aggressive than those who watch little of this type of television programming. This is an example of a(n) ____________ study.

expanding

Restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Assumes cognitive ability develops with physiological ability and opportunity to interact with environment.

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months)

Sensorimotor SubStage Stage 4: In this stage infants begin to use more calculated approaches to producing events, coordinating several schemes to generate a single act. They achieve object performance during this stage. 8 months to 12 months Beginning of goal-directed behavior Several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem Means to attain particular ends and skill in anticipating future circumstances due in part to object permanence An infant will push one toy out of the way to reach another toy that is lying, partially exposed, under it. Define: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen. It is a simple principle, but its mastery has profound consequences. Example: Child clearly has learned that the object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen. For the infant who achieves an understanding of object permanence, then, out of sight is decidedly not out of mind. The child starts to show intentional actions and will combine schemas to get desired effect. Will do intentional actions and imitate actions seen by others.

Substage 1 ( Simple reflexes)

Simple reflexes, encompassing the first month of life. During this time, various inborn reflexes are at the center of infants' physical and cognitive lives, determining the nature of their interactions with the world. At the same time, some of the reflexes begin to accommodate the infant's experience with the nature of the world.

Terminal Buttons

Small bulges at the end of axons that send messages to other neurons. -Contains neurotransmitters

Affects of smoking on fetus

Smoking reduces the oxygen content and increase carbon monoxide. (a) Babies can miscarry or are born with abnormally low birth weight. (b) Babies born to smokers are shorter and may be 50 percent more likely to have mental retardation.

Lev Vygotsky

Social Constructivist

Lifespan developmentalists

Test their assumptions about nature and course of human development by applying scientific method. View development as a lifelong, continuing process. Focus on change and growth in addition to stability, consistency, and continuity in people's lives. Interested in people's lives from the moment of conception until death.

6 to 14

The "visual cliff" study by Gibson & Walk indicates that most infants in the age range of _________ months cannot be coaxed to cross the "cliff."

The sex of a child is determined by?

The 23rd chromosome. a.) Females are XX. b.) Males are XY. c.) The father's sperm determines the sex of the child.

Plasticity

The degree to which a developing structure or behavior is modifiable due to experience.

Genetic Counseling

The discipline that focuses on helping people deal with issues related to inherited disorders. a.) Genetic counselors use a variety of data. b.) They can take a thorough family history, seeking any familial incidence of birth defects. c.) The ages of the mother and father will be taken into account. d.) Blood, skin, and urine may be used to isolate and examine specific chromosomes. e.) Possible genetic defects can be identified by assembling a karyotype, a chart containing enlarged photos of each of the chromosomes. f.) Other tests take place once the woman is already pregnant. (Ultrasound Sonography, Chorionic Villus Sampling *CVS, Amniocentesis)

personality

The enduring personal characteristics of individuals.

man's sperm

The fact that the ______ determines the gender of the child is leading to the development of techniques that will allow parents to increase the chances of choosing the child's gender.

Lifespan development

The field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occurs throughout the entire life span.

DNA

The human genetic code, transmitted at the moment of conception and stored in our genes, is composed of specific sequences of __________.

behavior genetics

The most recent approach to the study of the effects of heredity on behavior and development is called ____ ____. a.) This field merges psychology—the study of behavior—with genetics—the study of transmission of characteristics through heredity. b.) These researchers are learning how behavioral difficulties (such as schizophrenia) may have a genetic basis. c.) Researchers also seek to identify how genetic defects may be remedied.

Egocentric Thought or Egocentrism

Thinking that does not take into account the viewpoints of others. Two forms: lack of awareness that others see things differently from a physical perspective and failure to realize that others have different feelings and thoughts different than their own (Ex: 4 yr old recieves a gift of socks and frowns. Unaware his face can be seen by others and reveal hos true feelings. dEgocentrism lies at heart of several types of behavior during the preoperational period. Preschoolers may talk to themselves, even in the presence of others, and at times they simply ignore what others are telling them. Rather than being a sign of eccentricity, such behavior illustrates the egocentric nature of preoperational children's thinking: the lack of awareness that their behavior acts as a trigger to others' reactions and responses. Consequently, a considerable amount of verbal behavior on the part of preschoolers has no social motivation behind it but is meant for the preschoolers' own consumption.

Deductive

This type of thinking allows mastery of such complex systems as science, religion, and mathematics alright.

chromosomes

Threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

Hormone levels

To reach adulthood, according to the film, which of the following increases to stimulate height and weight, to help us reach full maturity?

1. Balanced diet and regular exercise 2. Access to health care 3. Safe living and working environment

To reach our full maturity and be our healthiest, which factors, according to the film do we need?

X-linked

What type of gene is considered recessive and located only on the X chromosome?

genes

Units of hereditary information composed of DNA. Genes direct cells to reproduce themselves and assemble proteins that direct body processes. The basic units of genetic information. Humans have over 25,000 genes. Genes are arranged in specific locations and in a specific order along 46 CHROMOSOMES, rod-shaped portions of DNA that are organized in 23 pairs.

nonnormative life events

Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual's life.

ethnic gloss

Use of an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is.

internalisation

Vygotsky believed, cognitive development results from an internalization of language. Vygotsky argued that 'the higher mental faculties' are internalised forms of social interaction particularly language use

information processing

What has become an important alternative to Piagetian approaches?

c-section

What is another term for a Cesarean birth?

fertilization

What is the process by which a sperm and an ovum join to form a single new cell?

group work

When individuals collaborate Peer-assisted learning Members of a group benefiting from cooperative learning, that enhances the total output of the activity than when done individually. It aims to cater for individual differences, develop skills, generic knowledge and socially acceptable attitudes or to generate conforming standards of behaviour and judgement.

Conception

When sperm enter the vagina, they go through the cervix and into the fallopian tube, where __________ may take place.

infant-directed speech

When talking to her infant son, José, Ms. Gomez includes amusing sounds that are not words and imitates his prelinguistic speech. Ms. Gomez is engaging in ___ _____

longitudinal

When the behavior of one or more study participants is measured as they age, this is called ________ research.

oxytocin

When the critical hormone ___________ is released in high enough concentration by the mother's pituitary gland, the mother's uterus begins periodic contractions.

extroversion

Which "Big Five" personality trait refers to the degree to which a person seeks to be with others, to behave in an outgoing manner, and generally to be sociable?

Bronfenbrenner's bioecological approach

Which approach to development suggests that there are five levels of the environment that simultaneously influence individuals?

psychoanalytic theory

Which of the following suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior?

Humanistic perspective

Which perspective has had a major impact upon the field of lifespan development. The theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior.

the following approach to reading instruction includes learning complete words or entire sentences?

Whole language approach

Women tend to weigh less than men, and therefore, their bodies cannot absorb alcohol as efficiently as men.

Why does binge drinking require a smaller amount of alcohol for women than men?

Conservation is problematic because children have not mastered conservation but centration is the key element in properational thought.

Why is conservation problematic for children in the properational stage?

Over-extension - Linguistic Inaccuracies

Words used too broadly, overgeneralizing their meaning. Doggy - all furry animals.

Drugs-Nicotine and Tobacco

_____ exerts its harmful effect on the fetus by constricting the blood vessels, which leads to less blood flow to the baby. Because blood circulating from the mother is the only way the fetus can get oxygen, this leads to hypoxia, or low oxygen, and the fetus effectively suffocates. The result can be low birth weight and even premature birth. These conditions can cause a variety of health problems that may last for the baby's lifetime.

Psychoneuroimmunology

______________ is the field that studies the relationship among the brain, the immune system, and psychological factors.

ethnicity

a characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language.

Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

a condition in which children display some, although not all, of the problems of FAS due to their mothers' consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.

Critics point to several weaknesses in Valliant's view that make his conclusions ungeneralizable.

a. The theory is based on a sample of an unusually bright group of men. b. People's views of the importance of work have shifted with societal change. c. Women were not included in the sample, and major changes in the role of work in women's lives have occurred.

Which of the following is NOT one of the steps toward a more creative life as identified by Csikszentmihalyi?

a. Wake up in the morning without a specific goal to look forward to.

In a recent survey of 2,000 college women, _____ reported that they had experienced sexual harassment while attending college.

a. a majority

One-year-olds show four major attachment patterns: secure, avoidant, ________ and disorganized-disoriented.

ambivalent

Broca's area

an area in the left frontal lobe that is involved in speech production

Teratogen

an environmental agent such as a virus, chemical, or other factor that produces a birth defect.

fetal period

begins about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth. a. The developing child from 8 weeks after conception until birth is called a FETUS. b. The fetus dramatically increases in size and weight. c. Organs become more differentiated and operational. d. By three months, the fetus swallows and urinates. e. By four months, the mother will be able to feel her fetus move. f. Brain growth continues as the left and right hemispheres of the brain develop and neurons become coated with an insulation called myelin. g. Hormones begin to flow differently to male and female fetuses.

Physical decline

begins in early 30's.

Broca's area

brain's left FRONTAL LOBE involved in speech production

Humanistic Theory of Development

choice and free will, conscious control of behavior, and self-actualization (becoming best you can be.) Rejects emphasis on unconscious, environment, or cognitive processing Questionable applicability to developmental change, limited impact on field.

Language acquisition device (LAD)

chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.

A-not-B error

error that occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar high place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B)

Imaginary Audience

group of admirers or critics that adolescents believe are always focused on them

Auditory Impairment

is a special need that involves the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing. a. It affects 1 to 2 percent of school-aged children and can vary across a number of dimensions. b. The loss may be limited to certain frequencies. c. Loss in infancy is more severe than loss after age 3. (1) Children who have little or no exposure to the sound of language are unable to understand or produce oral language themselves. (2) Abstract thinking may be affected.

Menarche

is the onset of menstruation, varies in different parts of the world and even with affluence levels. Menstruation is one of several PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS, which involve organs and structures of the body related to reproduction. SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS involve the visible signs of sexual maturity that do not involve sex organs directly. The timing of primary and secondary sex characteristic development and definitions regarding what is normal or abnormal are controversial among specialists.

Health

lifestyle decisions lead to environmental or secondary aging, substances, unprotected sex, etc.

Temperament

patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual. - refers to how children behave, as opposed to what they do or why they do it. -emerges at birth and remains fairly consistent into adolescence. a. Temperament refers to how children behave. b. Temperamental differences among infants appear from birth. c. Temperament shows stability from infancy through adolescence. d. But environmental factors can modify temperament. e. Some central dimensions of temperament include: (1) activity level: the degree of overall movement (2) Mood is another factor. (a) nature and quality of mood (b) Irritability is particularly important, and reflects the fact that some infants are easygoing while others are easily disturbed.

infantile amnesia

possibly caused by immaturity of prefontal lobes during early years of life

Yoshi is learning that there are many different ways to say "thank you" in Japanese. It depends on several things, such as the gender and social status of the recipient. This use of appropriate conversation demonstrates:

pragmatics

Hypothesis

predictions stated in a way that permits testingTestable prediction if my theory is true if "x" is done "y" should happen

Psychosomatic disorders

psychological, emotional, and physical contributors (ulcers, asthma, arthritis, high blood pressure)

Contextual Theory of Development

relationship between people and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds.

U.S students lag behind students in developed countries in learning a __ language.

second

Cancer

second leading cause of death in US. Genetics, environment, lifestyle.

Cognitive neuroscientists

seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity.

Correlation research

seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists but does not address cause-and-effect relations

Speech Impairment

speech that deviates so much from the speech of others that it calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or produces maladjustments in the speaker

infinite generativity

the ability to produce and endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules

Decentration

the ability to think of more than one dimension of a stimulus at a time

Emotions and the Brain

the amygdala is the central part of brain involved in experiencing emotions; amygdala is located in temporal lobe of brain. -neural links between the amygdala --> visual cortex ---> and hippocampus causes for there to be memories of emotional experiences. Ex. If one is frightened by a vicious dog, they will have an instant fear response when they see that dog again because of the memory involved.

Stranger anxiety

the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person. (1) appears in the second half of the first year (2) The same brain developments and cognitive advances that allow infants to respond so positively to those with whom they are familiar also mean they are able to recognize people who are unfamiliar. (3) As infants try to anticipate and predict events in their world, the appearance of an unknown person can bring on fear.

Class Inclusion

the construction of hierarchial relationships among related classes of items

Neuroticism

the degree of moodiness, touchiness, or sensitivity an individual characteristically displays

Temperament

the patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics, may represent MULTIFACTORIAL TRANSMISSION, traits that are determined by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed. Some genotypes are not as sensitive to the environment as others.

5. identity vs. identity confusion stage (adolescence)

the period during which teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves. -13-19 year olds a. At this time, adolescents explore roles, narrow choices, and find out who they really are. b. Adolescents who don't resolve this stage find it difficult to form and maintain close relationships

2. autonomy vs. shame/doubt stage (infant)

the period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (aged 18 months to three years) develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected. a. Parents who encourage exploration have children who feel safe within their boundaries. b. Children who are overly protected feel unhappiness and shame as well as self-doubt.

Language Advances: Preschool Years

1. Between the ages of 2 and 3, sentence length increases. 2. SYNTAX, the ways words and phrases are combined to form sentences, doubles each month. 3. There are enormous leaps in the number of words children use. By age 6, a typical child's vocabulary is around 14,000 words, and is acquired at a rate of nearly 1 new word every 2 hours, 24 hours per day. a. They manage this feat through a process known as FAST MAPPING, instances in which new words are associated with their meaning after only a brief encounter. b. By age 3, children use plurals and possessive forms of nouns (boys/boy's), employ the past tense (adding -ed), use articles (the, a), and can ask and answer complex questions ("Where did you say my book is?"). c. Preschoolers begin to acquire the principles of GRAMMAR, the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed. d. They also grow in PRAGMATIC ability, the aspect of language related to communicating effectively and appropriately with others. e. The ability permits children to understand basics of conversations. 4. Private Speech and Social Speech a. Preschoolers engage mostly in PRIVATE SPEECH, speech by children that is spoken and directed to themselves. b. Use of private speech allows children to practice the practical skills required in conversation. c. Vygotsky argues that private speech facilitates children's thinking, and helps them to control their behavior, solve problems, and reflect. d. Twenty to sixty percent of what children say is private speech. e. SOCIAL SPEECH, speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that person, increases.

Age and Racial Identity

1. By the time they are 3 or 4 years of age, preschoolers distinguish between members of different races, identify their own race, and begin to understand the significance of race in society. 2. Some youngsters begin to show mixed feelings about their racial and ethnic identity. 3. Many minority children experience ambivalence over the meaning of their racial identity. 4. Some may experience RACE DISSONANCE, the phenomenon in which minority youngsters indicate preference for majority values or people. a. Ethnic identity emerges somewhat later than racial identity, because it is usually less conspicuous than race.

Carol Gilligan: Sex and Morality

1. Carol Gilligan suggests that the way boys and girls are raised in our own society leads to differences in moral reasoning. a. Boys view morality primarily in terms of justice and fairness. b. Girls see morality in terms of responsibility and compassion toward individuals and a willingness to sacrifice for relationships. c. Gilligan sees morality in girls developing in 3 stages. (1) Orientation toward individual survival: Females concentrate on what is practical and best for them. (2) Goodness as self-sacrifice: Females think they must sacrifice their own wishes to what others want. (3) Morality of nonviolence: Women come to see hurting anyone, including themselves, as immoral. d. Not all research finds males and females differing in their moral reasoning.

Children's Self Esteem

1. Children don't view themselves in terms of a list of physical and psychological characteristics. a. Instead, they make judgments about themselves as being good or bad in particular ways. b. Children increasingly compare themselves to others through middle childhood. c. Children develop their own standards. d. Self-esteem, for most children, increases during middle childhood and becomes differentiated from the simple, global evaluations of their younger years. e. The self-esteem is higher for some areas, lower in others 1. As children progress into the middle childhood years, however, their self-esteem is higher for some areas and lower in others. a.) For example, a boy's overall self-esteem may be composed of positive self-esteem in some areas (such as the positive feelings he gets from his artistic ability) and more negative self-esteem in others (such as the unhappiness he feels over his athletic skills). b.) On the other hand, students with high self-esteem travel a more positive path, falling into a cycle of success. Having higher expectations leads to increased effort and lower anxiety, increasing the probability of success. In turn, this helps affirm their higher self-esteem that began the cycle.

Can genes influence the environment?

1. Children's genetic predispositions might influence their environment (Scarr). a. Children focus on aspects of their environment that connect with their genetically determined abilities, and attend less to environmental features that are less compatible with genetically determined traits. b. The gene-environment influence can be more passive and less direct in other cases. c. The genetically determined temperament of a child can evoke certain influences from the environment or parents. 2. The relative influence of genes and environmental factors can shift over the course of the lifespan.

Obesity in Infancy

1. Clear links between obesity in infancy and obesity later in life have not been established, which is defined as weight greater than 20 percent above the average for a given height, and later weight at age 16. 2. Research, although inconclusive, suggests an excess of fat cells (which remain in the body throughout life) early on may predispose an individual to be overweight as an adult. 2. Appropriate nutrition, rather than weight, should be the focus of parents 3. Weight concerns can be a large contributor to children's and parents' stress. a. Without proper nutrition, infants cannot reach their physical potential. b. They may suffer cognitive and social consequences.

cataracts

1. Cloudy or opaque spots in the eye's lens that block light and change vision. 2. Babies can be born with cataracts, but they usually affect older people and not kids. 3. No one knows what causes them, although too much sunlight exposure over the years may cause cataracts to form at a younger age in adults. 4. Treatment: a. Intraocular lens implants, eyeglasses, or contact lenses can be used to restore eyesight.

Thought shapes language

1. Critics argue that while language could cause particular thoughts, it is also possible that thoughts produce specific language. 2. This view that thinking shapes language is consistent with Piagetian views of development.

Getting to Know You: Dating and Falling in Love in the Twenty-First Century

1. Dating remains the dominant form of social interaction that leads to intimacy among adolescents. 2. Dating serves the functions of learning how to establish intimacy, entertainment, and developing one's own identity. a. Research indicates that most dating in early and middle adolescence is superficial; it does not help in learning to establish intimacy. b. True intimacy is more common in late adolescence, where it can be a potential prelude to marriage. c. For homosexual adolescents, dating presents challenges such as: (1) homophobic prejudice (2) finding partners willing to openly express their sexual orientation 3. Cultural influences affect dating patterns for minority adolescents, especially if the concept of dating is unfamiliar to parents.

Infant Directed Speech

1. Definition: A type of speech directed towards infants, characterized by short, simple sentences. 2. Previously called motherese a. Pitch of voice rises b. intonation may be varied takes on musical quality c. repetition of words d. Topics restricted to concrete items comprehensible to infants e. amusing sounds (not just words) f. similar to telegraphic speech with litle formal structure g. typically only used during first year 3. This pattern begins to show more adult qualities as infants get older. 4. Speech around 1-year-old babies is comprised of longer, more complex sentences. 5. Speech is still slow and deliberate. 6. Pitch still varies to focus attention on particularly important words. 7. Infants seem more receptive to this type of speech. 8. Use of this type of speech is related to the early appearance of words and linguistic competence. separate words carefully, short and simple sentences. Effects: Infants exposed to a great deal of this speech master language milestones earlier.

Metalinguistic Awareness

1. Definition: An understanding of one's own use of language. a. One of the most significant developments in middle childhood is the increase in ____ ____.

Prelinguistic Communication

1. Definition: Communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation (chomeleon effect), and other nonlinguistic means. a. Babbling is when infants make speech-like but meaningless sounds at about 2 to 3 months of age, and continuing to about 1 year. (1) Babbling is a universal phenomenon. (2) Babbling begins with easy sounds (b, p) and proceeds to more complex sounds (d, t). (3) By the age of 6 months, babbling differs according to the language to which the infant is exposed. b. Infants who cannot hear and are exposed to sign language babble with their hands instead of their voices.

Telegraphic Speech - Linguistic Inaccuracies

1. Definition: Leaving out words that aren't critical to the message. I put on my shoes - My shoes on. a. Under-extension b. Over-extension

Language

1. Definition: Systematic, meaningful arrangements of symbols used to communicate. a. It has several formal characteristics that must be mastered as linguistic competence is developed. b. It is closely tied to the way infants think and how they understand the world.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

1. Definition: The brain is wired with a neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit the understanding of language.

Morphemes

1. Definition: The smallest language unit that has meaning. a. --s for plural b. --ed for the past tense

Linguistic production

1. Definition: The use of language to communicate. a. Comprehension precedes production

Intonation

1. Definition: Tone of voice.

What research designs are used to study human development?

1. Descriptive Research 2. Correlational Research 3. Experimental Research

What are the eight main characteristics of the life-span perspective?

1. Development is lifelong 2. Development is multidimensional 3. Development is multidirectional 4. Development is plastic 5. Developmental science is multidisciplinary 6. Development is contextual 7. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss 8. Development is a co-construction of biology, culture, and the individual.

Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior

1. Diana Baumrind, Eleanor Maccoby, and their colleagues note different types of parenting or patterns of discipline. a. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS are controlling, punitive, rigid, and cold; their word is law; they value strict, unquestioning obedience from their children, and do not tolerate expressions of disagreement. (1) Children tend to be withdrawn, not friendly, and uneasy around peers. (2) Girls are especially dependent on their parents; boys are unusually hostile. b. PERMISSIVE PARENTS provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children. (1) Their children tend to be similar to children of authoritarian parents. (2) They also are dependent and moody. (3) These children tend to have low social skills and low self-control. c. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS are firm, setting clear and consistent limits, but try to reason with their children, giving explanations for why they should behave in a particular way. (1) Children of authoritative parents tend to fare best; they are independent, friendly with their peers, self-assertive, and cooperative. They have strong motivation to achieve and are likeable and successful. (2) These children regulate their own emotions and regulate their behavior in relationships with others. (3) Children whose parents engage in aspects of the authoritative style related to supportive parenting—which encompasses parental warmth, proactive teaching, calm discussion during disciplinary episodes, and interest and involvement in children's peer activities—show better adjustment and are protected from the consequences of later adversity. d. UNINVOLVED PARENTS show almost no interest in their children and indifferent, rejecting behavior. (1) In its most extreme form, this style results in NEGLECT, a form of child abuse. (2) Children of such parents are the worst off of their peer group. (3) They feel unloved and emotionally detached. (4) They may have physical and cognitive developmental disruptions. e. Most parents are not entirely consistent, and may switch from a dominant mode to another style as situations require.

Gender Identity: Developing Femaleness and Maleness

1. Differences in the ways boys and girls are treated begin at birth, continue during the preschool years, and extend into adolescence and beyond. 2. Gender, the sense of being male or female, is therefore well established in young children. 3. One way gender is manifested is in play. a. During the preschool years, boys increasingly play with boys in rough-and-tumble games. b. Girls tend to play with girls. c. Girls choose same-sex playmates a year younger (at age 2) than do boys (age 3). d. Gender outweighs ethnic variables when it comes to play in most countries. 4. Preschoolers also begin to develop strict expectations about appropriate behaviors for girls and boys. a. They are often more stereotyped than adults and less flexible in preschool than any other time period. b. This strong adherence to stereotypes increases until age 5 or so, but still remains somewhat rigid some years later. c. Like adults, preschoolers expect males to be more independent, forceful, and competitive, and expect females to be warm, nurturing, expressive, and submissive.

4 key issues in the field of lifespan development

1. Does development proceed in a continuous or discontinuous fashion? 2. Critical and sensitive periods: Gauging the impact of environment. 3. Lifespan approaches versus a focus on particular periods. 4. How much of people's behavior is due to their genetically determined nature and how much is due to nurture?

Primary Behavioral Transition States Between Sleep and Waking

1. Drowse: Infant's eyes are heavy-lidded, but opening and closing slowly. Low level of motor activity. *4.4% 2. Daze: Open, but glassy and immobile eyes. State occurs between episodes of Alert and Drowse. Low level of activity. *1.0% 3. Sleep-Wake Transition: Behaviors of both wakefulness and sleep are evident. Generalized motor activity; eyes may be closed, or they open and close rapidly. State occurs when baby is awakening. *1.3% (*Percentage of Time When Alone in State)

Why is it wrong to ask "which approach is right?

1. Each emphasizes different aspects of development. 2. The psychodynamic approach emphasizes emotions, motivational conflicts, and unconscious determinants of behavior. 3. Behavioral approaches emphasize overt behavior. 4. Cognitive and humanist approaches look more at what people think than what they do. 5. Contextual perspectives examine social and cultural influences. 6. The evolutionary perspective focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development. 7. Some employ an eclectic approach, using several views simultaneously.

3 Types of Temperament:

1. Easy babies 2. Difficult babies 3. Slow to warm babies 35% cannot be categorized consistently

Erikson's view of Middle Childhood

1. Encompasses the industry-versus-inferiority stage 2. Period from ages 6 to 12 years of age 3. Characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges related to: a. Parents b. Peers c. School d. Other complexities of the modern world

English Language Learners: Bilingual Education vs. Immersion

1. English language learners (ELLs), students who enter school with little or no English proficiency, may have slow academic progress and be isolated from their peers. 2. Educators are challenged by children speaking little or no English. 3. One approach is bilingual education, in which children are initially taught in their native language, while at the same time learning English. 4. An alternative approach is to immerse students in English-only education. 5. Being bilingual may have cognitive advantages. a. greater cognitive flexibility b. higher self-esteem c. greater metalinguistic awareness: understanding the rules of language more explicitly than students who speak only one language d. higher scores on IQ tests, according to some research 6. Instruction in a native language may enhance instruction in a second language.

identity versus identity confusion

1. Erikson's fifth stage of development, which occurs during the adolescent years; adolescents are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. a. Identity (1) Appropriate identity that sets foundation for future psychosocial development b. Confusion (2) Sense of self is "diffuse" with adoption of socially unacceptable roles Erik Erikson asserted that adolescents may encounter substantial psychological difficulties in their search for identity ("the adolescent identity crisis"). 2. Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE, where adolescents seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves. a. Those who do not find a suitable identity, tend to follow a dysfunctional path because their sense of self is "diffuse". b. There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure identity (or at least have clear career or major goals). (1) Which job track to follow? (2) Attend college? Which one? c. Now, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than adults.

Stressor

1. Events and circumstances that cause threats to our well-being. 2. Can be both pleasant events and unpleasant events. 3. Long-term, continuous exposure may result in a reduction of the body's ability to deal with stress. a. People become more susceptible to diseases as their ability to fight off germs declines.

Orgins of Stress

1. Events and circumstances that produce negative emotions are more likely to produce stress. 2. Situations that are uncontrollable or unpredictable are more likely to produce stress. Events and circumstances that are ambiguous and confusing produce more stress. 3. People who must accomplish simultaneously many tasks are more likely to experience stress.

Infertility

1. Fifteen percent of couples suffer from INFERTILITY, the inability to conceive after twelve to eighteen months of trying to become pregnant. 2. Infertility is produced by several causes. a. the age of the parents b. previous use of birth control pills, illicit drugs or cigarettes, or STDs c. men who have an abnormally low sperm count d. the woman's mother taking certain drugs during pregnancy e. The most common cause of infertility is failure to release an egg through ovulation—possibly caused by hormonal imbalance, damage to the fallopian tubes or uterus, or stress.

First Sentences

1. First sentences are formed when, around 18 months, infants link words together. a. These simple sentences convey a single thought. b. These occur 8 to 12 months after they say their first word. c. This linguistic advance allows children to label and indicate relations between things in the world. d. Most early sentences are observations about events occurring in the child's world.

Changes in Adolescence

1. Growth spurts during adolescence produce dramatic changes in height and weight. Girls' growth spurts start and stop 2 years earlier than boys'. a. On average, boys grow 4.1 inches a year and girls 3.5 inches a year. Some adolescents grow as much as 5 inches in a single year. b. Boys' and girls' adolescent growth spurts begin at different times. 1.) Girls begin their spurts around age 10. 2.) Boys start at about age 12. During the 2-year period starting at age 11, girls tend to be taller than boys. But by the age of 13, boys, on average, are taller than girls—a state of affairs that persists for the remainder of the life span. 2. PUBERTY is the period when sexual organs mature, beginning earlier for girls than for boys. a. Puberty begins when the pituitary gland in the brain signals other glands to begin producing androgens or estrogens at the adult level. b. Girls begin puberty about 11 or 12; boys begin at 13 or 14. Girls: 1. MENARCHE, the onset of menstruation, varies in different parts of the world and even with affluence levels. a. Menstruation is one of several PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS, which involve organs and structures of the body related to reproduction. b. SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS involve the visible signs of sexual maturity that do not involve sex organs directly. 1.) The timing of primary and secondary sex characteristic development and definitions regarding what is normal or abnormal are controversial among specialists. 2.) Boys' sexual maturation follows a different course. Boys: 1. Growth of the penis and scrotum accelerates around age 12, reaching adult sizes about 3 or 4 years later. 2. Spermarche, a boy's first ejaculation, usually occurs around the age of 13, although the body has been producing sperm for about a year at that point. 3. Other primary and secondary changes in boys also occur at this time. Wt and ht increase due to simultaneous release of growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and androgens; peak height velocity at adolescence and toddler years. Changes in composition of skeletal structure; closing of long bones; ethnic differences Height changes in torso rather than leg length Accelerated growth spurtextremities first (head, hands, feet) arms and legs torso and shoulder growth

What are some contemporary concerns in life-span development?

1. Health and well-being 2. Parenting and education 3. Sociocultural contexts and diversity 4. Social Policy

Development in Middle Childhood

1. Height and weight changes continue. Slow but steady growth. Increase in musculature strength. a. Elementary school-aged children in the U.S. grow 2-3 inches per year. b. At 11, girls are 4 feet, 10 inches tall, while boys average 4 feet, 9 ½ inches in height. c. This is the only stage of life where girls are taller than boys. d. This reflects the more rapid physical development of girls, who start their adolescent growth spurt around age 10. d. Weight gain follows a similar pattern. During middle childhood, both boys and girls gain around 5 to 7 pounds a year. Weight is also redistributed. As the rounded look of "baby fat" disappears, children's bodies become more muscular and their strength increases. 2. Cultural Patterns of Growth a. Inadequate nutrition, stress, and disease lead to children being shorter and lighter. b. Genetic patterns also bring about variations in height and weight. c. Familial stress *US: variations in height and weight inheritance, elsewhere, economics US: Has safety net, basic nurtrition Elsewhere: They do not have anything

Why is the study of life-span development important?

1. Helps prepare us to take responsibility for children. 2.Gives us insight about our own lives. 3. Gives us knowledge about what our lives will be like as we age.

Role of Genetics and Environment on Intelligence

1. Increasing evidence supports the conclusion that at least some personality traits have a genetic component. a. Neuroticism refers to the degree of moodiness, touchiness, or sensitivity an individual characteristically displays. b. Extroversion is the degree to which a person seeks to be with others, to behave in an outgoing manner, and generally to be sociable. c. Certain traits reflect the contribution of genetics more than others. (1) novelty-seeking tendencies (2) social potency (3) traditionalism d. Political attitudes, religious interests and values, and even attitudes toward human sexuality seem to have genetic components. e. Environmental factors such as parental nurturance also impact traits. (1) parents' attitudes and encouragement of high/low activity levels (2) Cultural contexts for parental attitudes shape differences in such traits.

Aggression and Violence in Infants and Preschool

1. Infants do not act aggressively; however, by the preschool years, children demonstrate true aggression. a. Aggressive acts in young children are often related to attaining a desired goal. b. Aggression declines as children move through the preschool years, as does the frequency and average length of episodes of aggressive behavior. c. This is due to personality and social developments.

Infant to Infant Interaction

1. Infants react positively to the presence of other infants. a. They laugh, smile, and vocalize. b. They show more interest in infants than inanimate objects. 2. By 1 year old, infants show stronger preferences for familiar people. a. more willing to share toys with familiar peers than unfamiliar peers b. This extends to communication exchanges and interactions with others later in childhood and adulthood. 3. Infants imitate each other more as they age. a. Fourteen-month-olds imitate each other. b. Infants can learn new behaviors, skills, and abilities from exposure to other children. c. Based upon the discovery of a class of neurons in the brain, some developmentalists believe imitation is an inborn ability. (1) Mirror neurons are neurons that fire not only when an individual enacts a particular behavior, but also when the individual simply observes another organism carrying out the same behavior. (2) Mirror neurons may help infants to understand others' actions and to develop a theory of mind, their understanding of and beliefs concerning how the mind operates. (3) Dysfunction of mirror neurons may be related to the development of disorders involving theory of mind and autism, a psychological disorder involving significant emotional and linguistic problems.

Defense coping

1. Involves unconscious strategies that distort or deny true nature of the situation. (1) emotional insulation (2) substance abuse to escape from stressful situations 2. Defensive coping: unconscious, distort or deny!

Nonorganic failure to thrive

1. Is a disorder in which infants stop growing due to a lack of stimulation and attention as the result of inadequate parenting.

Coping

1. Is defined as reducing or tolerating the threats that lead to stress.

ethnic identity

1. Is defined as, an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership. a. Emerges somewhat later than racial identity b. Usually less conspicuous than race c. Preschoolers who are bilingual, speaking both Spanish and English, are more apt to be aware of ethnic identity

Secondary appraisal

1. Is the assessment of whether one's coping abilities and resources are adequate to overcome the harm, threat, or challenge posed by the potential stressor.

Primary appraisal

1. Is thee assessment of an event to determine whether its implications are positive, negative, or neutral.

Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior: Lawrence Kohlberg

1. Lawrence Kohlberg suggests that people pass through a series of stages in the development of moral reasoning and their sense of justice. a. PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY (stages 1 & 2), in which the concrete interests of the individual are considered in terms of rewards and punishments. b. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (stages 3 & 4), in which people approach moral problems as members of society. c. POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY (stages 5 & 6), in which people use moral principles that are seen as broader than those of any particular society. (1) Kohlberg assessed people's moral reasoning using moral dilemmas. (2) According to Kohlberg, people move through these stages in a fixed order. (3) People are unable to reach the highest stage until adolescence, due to lacking cognitive development. (4) Kohlberg's theory is a good account of moral judgment but is not adequate at predicting moral behavior. (5) His theory does not generalize to non-Western cultures. (6) Because his theory was based on data from males, it does not accurately explain girls' development by placing their moral reasoning at a lower level than boys'.

Social Comparison

1. Leon Festinger proposed that when objective measures are absent, people rely on social reality, how others act, think, feel, and view the world. (Theory of Cognitive Dissonance) 2. Children look to others who are similar to themselves. 3. Sometimes children make downward social comparisons with others who are obviously less competent, talented or successful to raise or protect their self-esteem. 4. Social Comparison in Adolescence: The Importance of Peer Groups a. Peers become more important in adolescence as they continue in practices of social comparison used in childhood. b. Peers provide opportunities to compare and evaluate opinions, abilities, and physical changes. c. Parents are unable to provide social comparison. (1) Teens perceive parents as too far away from the changes of adolescence to understand. (2) Adolescents question adult authority. (3) Teens view the opinions of family and other adults as invalid as they seek to be more autonomous.

Auditory impairments

1. Loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing a. Affects 1-2 percent of school-age children b.Varies across number of dimensions, such as specific frequency loss c. Auditory impairments sometimes associated with speech impairments 2. Hearing losses affect a significant number of people, and range from a slight to a very severe loss. 3. Very few people with hearing impairments are totally deaf; most have some degree of residual hearing. 4. Some people with hearing impairments benefit from the use of amplification. However, in the majority of cases, even when a sound is amplified loud enough to be heard, the sound quality is affected; the sound may still be unintelligible. 5. People with hearing impairments communicate in a variety of ways, depending on several factors: amount of residual hearing, type of hearing impairment, language skills, age when the impairment began, speech abilities, speech-reading skills, personality, intelligence, family environment, and educational background

Marasmus

1. Malnutrition during the first year can produce marasmus, a disease in which infants stop growing. 2. Marasmus, attributable to a severe deficiency in proteins and calories, causes the body to waste away and ultimately results in death.

Malnutrition

1. Malnutrition is the condition of having an improper amount and balance of nutrients, produces several results, none good. 2. More common among children living in many developing countries a. Slower growth rate apparent by the age 6 months b. By 2 years, height and weight are only 95 percent the height and weight of children in more industrialized countries. 3. Chronically malnourished during infancy later score lower on IQ tests and tend to do less well in school. a. These effects may linger even after diet has improved substantially. 4. Malnutrition diseases: a. Marasmus b. Kwashiorkor Developing countries. ◦ Effects: slower growth, lower IQ scores, poorer school performance ◦ Undernutrition: some deficiency in diet. Less severe cognitive deficits.

The Course of Relationships

1. Marriage, Cohabitation, and Other Relationship Choices: Sorting Out the Options of Early Adulthood a. The past 3 decades have seen a dramatic rise in couples living together without being married, a status known as COHABITATION. b. Marriage remains the preferred alternative for most people during early adulthood. 2. Singlehood—living alone without an intimate partner—has increased in the last few decades (20 percent of women and 30 percent men are single).

Moral Behavior and Moral Reasoning: Why the Disconnect?

1. Most theories focus on moral reasoning. 2. One reason for this is that researchers assume reasoning lies at the heart of behavior. 3. Sometimes our behavior doesn't align with our beliefs. 4. Judgments are made in a variety of contexts, and it may be an oversimplification to expect similar morality judgments to be displayed in similar ways when domains and situations can vary so greatly. 5. SOCIAL DOMAIN APPROACH suggests that moral reasoning needs to be considered in the context in which judgments are being made at a given time, including: a. moral domains (contexts focused on concerns about justice) b. social-conventional domains (contexts involving the need for social groups to function well) c. personal domains (contexts involving matters of personal choice) 6. Prosocial Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior: The Other Side of the Coin a. Emerging work suggests that people become more sophisticated in thinking about different kinds of prosocial behaviors. b. Some behaviors are self serving, others are altruistic. c. Regarding reasoning: (1) Unusually altruistic individuals may have more sophisticated moral reasoning than others. (2) They are generally more sympathetic as well. (3) Females tend to demonstrate higher levels of prosocial reasoning than males. d. Regarding prosocial behavior, however, it is harder to generalize (e.g., only some become more helpful as they age). e. A complexity of specific personality traits or features of situations determine prosocial behaviors and helping displayed by individuals. 7. Gender and other cultural influences are linked to differences in prosocial behavior, and have been reported consistently. a. Girls are reported to be more helpful than boys. b. Boys are less willing to ask for help than girls. c. When behavior is public and visible to others and the target of the help is female, males are more likely to help. d. Gender patterns may be the result of cultural orientations. (1) Females tend to hold a communal orientation, centering on an interest in relationships and community, which leads to greater prosocial behavior. (2) Males are more likely to have an agentic orientation, focused on individuality and getting things done. e. Cultural values also have an impact on how much prosocial behavior is displayed by individuals. (1) Rights-based reasoning expects individual rights for every citizen. (2) Duty-based reasoning expects that individuals behave in certain ways due to their responsibility to the group. f. Parenting practices also influence the level of prosocial behaviors displayed by children. (1) Children taught to cooperate with family members show high levels of prosocial behaviors. g. Reciprocity—the idea that we should help because we expect to receive help from others in the future—is a culturally relative value, with some practicing it as a moral obligation, whereas others view it more of a personal choice.

Obesity in Young Adults

1. Most young adults know which foods are healthy, but ignore good nutritional practices. a. Young adults will put on weight if they do not eat sensibly. 2. Physical growth begins to decline 3. Calorie reduction is necessary Obese children 4. More likely to be overweight as adults 5. Greater risk of heart disease, diabetes, and other diseases

What are the three main developmental issues?

1. Nature and nurture 2. Stability and change 3. Continuity and discontinuity

Obesity in Adolescence

1. Obesity is the most common nutritional concern in adolescence and adulthood. 2. One in five adolescents is overweight; one in twenty is obese. 3. The proportion of obese females increases through adolescence. 4. Adolescent obesity is caused by factors similar to obesity in childhood, but the consequences are somewhat different. a. psychological effects of distorted body image b. physical health consequences 5. Obesity in children ages 6 to 12 has dramatically over the past four decades- more than threefold.

What methods do researchers use to collect data on life-span development?

1. Observation 2. Surveys and Interviews 3. Standardized Tests 4. Case Studies 5. Physiological Measures

The Myth and Reality of Aging

1. Old age used to be equated with loss: loss of brain cells, loss of intellectual capabilities, loss of energy, loss of sex drive. a. GERONTOLOGISTS are specialists who study aging. b. They now see late adulthood as a period of considerable diversity in which people change: growth in some areas, decline in others. 2. Late adulthood begins at 65 and ends at death. 3. We cannot define old age by chronological years alone; we must also take into account people's physical and psychological well-being, their functional ages. 4. Some researchers divide aging people into three groups. a. The young old are healthy and active (65-74 years old). b. The old old have some health problems and difficulties (between 75 and 84 years of age). c. The oldest old are frail and need care (85 and older). d. A greater proportion of people are living in late adulthood than any time in world history.

Wellness in Old Age

1. Older adults do not inevitably become ill. Factors influencing wellness are: a. genetic predispositions b. past and present environmental factors c. psychological factors d. Some diseases have clear genetic components (cancer, heart disease). e. Lifestyles may influence the occurrence of such diseases. f. Access to health insurance and potential financial burdens also must be considered. g. Psychological factors like a sense of control lead to better health outcomes. 2. Promoting Good Health a. To extend older people's active lifespans, professionals and family should aim both to ward off illness and to increase the amount of time they remain healthy and enjoy their lives. b. Some older adults are at risk of malnutrition and hunger. (1) Some estimate that 15 to 50 percent of this population are at risk. (2) Financial constraints prevent them from buying proper food. (3) Some seniors have little motivation to prepare and eat properly, particularly if they live alone or are depressed. c. declines in taste and smell d. lack of sufficient exercise 3. Sex in Old Age a. Why not?

Cesarean Delivery

1. Over a million mothers in the U.S. today have a CESAREAN DELIVERY, where the baby is surgically removed from the uterus, rather than traveling through the birth canal. 2. Several types of difficulties can lead to Cesarean delivery. a. Fetal distress is the most frequent reason for a Cesarean section. b. used for breech position, where the baby is positioned feet first in the birth canal c. used for transverse position, in which the baby lies crosswise in the uterus d. when the baby's head is large e. Mothers over age 40 are more likely to have Cesarean deliveries than younger ones. 3. Routine use of FETAL MONITORS, devices that measure the baby's heartbeat during labor, have contributed to soaring rates of Cesarean deliveries—up 500 percent from 1970s. Their use has evoked several criticisms. a. There is no association between Cesarean delivery and successful birth consequences. b. It involves major surgery and a long recovery for the mother. c. There is a risk of infection to the mother. d. Easy birth may deter release of certain stress hormones, such as catecholamines, which help prepare the infant to deal with stress outside the womb.

Trait Approaches

1. People have many TRAITS, enduring dimensions of personality characteristics that differ from person to person. 2. Trait approaches offer an alternative to Erikson's stage theory and psychodynamic perspectives. a. Trait approaches do not assume that some have a given trait and others do not. b. Instead, they suggest that all individuals possess a trait to one degree or another, along a continuum.

According to Eli Ginzberg's career choice theory

1. People typically move through a series of stages in choosing a career. a. The first stage is the FANTASY PERIOD, which lasts until age 11 and is the period when career choices are made and discarded without regard to skills, abilities, or available job opportunities. b. During the TENTATIVE PERIOD, which spans adolescence, people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit with them. c. Finally, in early adulthood, people enter the REALISTIC PERIOD, during which people explore specific career options. d. Critics argue that Ginzberg's theory is too simplistic. 1.) Non-representative sample 2.) Overstates choices and options to lower SES people 3.) Age demarcations may be too rigid

What are eight main developmental periods?

1. Prenatal period is the time from conception to birth 2. Infancy is the developmental period extending from birth to 18 or 24 months 3. Early childhood (preschool) extends from the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years 4. Middle and late childhood (elementary school) extends from about 6-11 years 5. Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, entered at approx 10-12 years and ending at 18-22 6. Emerging adulthood lasts from approx 18-25 7. Early adulthood begins in late teens or early twenties and lasts through 30s 8. Middle adulthood begins at approx 40-60 9. Late adulthood 60s or 70s to death

A Change in Perspective: How Adults View Work at Midlife

1. Productivity, Job Satisfaction, and Worker characteristics and attitudes a. For many, middle age is the time of greatest productivity, success, and earning power. b. The factors that make work satisfying undergo a transformation during middle age: (1) Middle-aged workers care more about the here-and-now qualities of work. (2) Changes in job quality are associated with changes in stress levels for both men and women. (3) The older workers are, the more overall job satisfaction they experience.

Physical Growth in the Preschool Years

1. Rapid Advances in Physical Ability a. By age 2, children in the US weigh 25-30 pounds and are close to 36 inches tall on average. b. By age 6, they average 46 pounds and 46 inches tall. c. There are large individual differences in these average changes: 10 percent of 6-year-olds weigh more than 55 pounds; another 10 percent weigh less than 35 pounds. d. Average differences in height and weight between girls and boys increase in preschool years. 2. Changes in Body Shape and Structure a. In preschool years, children become less round and more slender. b. Their arms and legs lengthen. c. The ratio of head-to-body size is more adult-like. d. Six-year-olds' proportions are similar to those of adults. 3. Economic factors such as nutrition and healthcare quality affect average changes

Religion and Spirituality in Adulthood

1. Religion is important in adults' lives as a way to make sense of events they experience, or to explain misfortunes in a way that brings comfort. 2. Religion also provides direct social support, as communities are built around shared ideas. 3. James Fowler posited a 4-stage view of faith development in which people proceed through various levels of faith, depending upon their degree of reflection and exposure to religious and spiritual thinking. a. In childhood, people hold a fairly literal view of God and biblical figures. b. In adolescence, the abstract view of spirituality contributes to a core set of beliefs and values, but many do not consider these views deeply or systematically. c. During early and middle adulthood, adults experience the individuative-reflective stage of faith, where people do reflect on their beliefs and values and come to understand that multiple perspectives on God are possible. Rather than just accept the views offered by a religious institution, these adults form a personal belief system that speaks to them. d. In late adulthood, people may move into a final stage of faith development: the conjunctive stage, where they build a broad, inclusive view of religion and all humanity as a whole (they work for a "common good"). e. Not all people proceed through all of the stages; some may stall at a particular level if they do not reflect on these issues.

Religion in Childhood and Adolescence

1. Religion plays a central role in determining values. 2. Piaget's view of cognitive development offers a way to organize religious thinking as it develops through childhood and adolescence, and is based on children's responses to Bible stories and pictures. a. Preoperational intuitive religious thought (up to age 7 or 8) is intuitive and unsystematic; children do not understand the stories well, or misinterpret their meaning. b. Concrete operational religious thought (ages 7 or 8 to 13 or 14) is focused on particular concrete details of the stories and pictures rather than the abstract lessons of the stories. c. Formal operational religious thought (ages 13 or 14 and older) enables children to think more abstractly about the meaning of stories and pictures and draw inferences about spirituality. 3. Teenagers may approach or avoid religion as they grapple with identity. a. Religiousness may be questioned as they become uncomfortable with their unquestioning acceptance of childhood beliefs; in response, they may distance themselves from formal religion. b. Others may be drawn to religious affiliation because it offers answers about the meaning of life and their personal purposes on earth.

Consequences of Stress

1. Researchers in the field of PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY (PNI), the study of the relationships among the brain, the immune system, and psychological factors, have found that stress produces several outcomes. a. Direct effects 1. Increased blood pressure 2. Hormonal activity etc... b. Harmful behaviors: People under a lot of stress are more likely to give into these unhealthy behaviors. 1. Drinking 2. Cutting back on sleep 3. Drugs 4. Smoking etc... c. Indirect health related behaviors 2. Stress may lead to PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS, medical problems caused by the interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. 3. Stress continues to have a significant impact on health during middle adulthood, as it did in young adulthood, although the nature of what is stressful may have changed.

How attachment pattern effects things in adulthood

1. Securely attached 1- year-old males show fewer psychological difficulties at older ages 2. Securely attached infants are more socially and emotionally competent later and more positively viewed. 3.Adult romantic relationships are associated with attachment style developed during infancy --There are exceptions to each of these findings, but this is most of the time the case based on early attachment patterns. -Attachment to mother is important, but attachment to father has also been seen to have an effect on things such as substance abuse or depression.

Coping Strategies

1. Seek control over the situation producing the stress. a. Putting yourself in charge of a situation that is producing stress can take you a long way toward coping with it. 1. For example, if you are feeling stress about an upcoming test, do something about it—such as starting to study. 2. Redefine "threat" as "challenge." a. Changing the definition of a situation can make it seem less threatening. "Look for the silver lining" is not bad advice. 1. For example, if you're fired, look at it as an opportunity to get a new, and potentially better, job. 3. Find social support. a. Almost any difficulty can be faced more easily with the help of others. 1. Friends, family members, and even telephone hot lines staffed by trained counselors can provide significant support. 4. Use relaxation techniques. a. Reducing the physiological arousal brought about by stress can be a particularly effective way of coping with stress. A variety of techniques that produce relaxation have been shown to be effective in reducing stress. : 1. Transcendental meditation 2. Zen and yoga 3. Progressive muscle relaxation 4. Hypnosis, have been shown to be effective in reducing stress.

Self-Concept: What Am I Like?

1. Self-Concept a. One's own assessment of who they are b. View self in terms of traits and multiple aspects 2. Developments a. Several developmental advances raise adolescent self-concepts above the level of self-concept maintained by younger children. b. These broader, multi-faceted concepts include: (1) the ability to separate others' views of self from one's own perceptions of identity (2) recognizing various aspects of the self simultaneously (3) a more organized and coherent sense of self (4) viewing their psychological traits as abstractions, not concrete entities. (5)The view of self becomes more organized and coherent. (6) Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of traits and can see multiple aspects of themselves (which can be confusing at first). c. In early adolescence they may be troubled by complexity, wanting to view themselves in a way that is contradicted by their behavior. d. But most teenagers recognize by the end of adolescence that sometimes behaviors and feelings change according to context and situation.

Self-Concept in the Preschool years

1. Self-concept in the Preschool Years: Thinking about the Self a. During the preschool-aged period, children's SELF-CONCEPT, their identity or set of beliefs about what they are like as individuals, is typically an overestimation of their real skills and knowledge. b. Because they do not compare their performance against others, their self-concepts are inaccurate and overly optimistic about the future, even just after failing at a task. c. This positivity is helpful as it motivates them to take chances and try new activities.

Universal stages of Children

1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete operations 4. Formal Operations * Both Content and the Quality of knowledge increase.

What are three main behavioral and social cognitive theories, and how can they be characterized?

1. Skinner's Operant Conditioning 2. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory 3. Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Behaviorist theories state that development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment.

Adolescent Stress: Late to Bed, Early to Rise

1. Sleep-deprived teens are an increasingly common sight. a. They require nine hours of sleep each night to feel rested. 2. Sleep deprivation affects attention, memory, cognition, and response time. a. Because they typically have early morning classes but don't feel sleepy until late at night, they end up getting far less sleep than their bodies crave. 1. Lower grades 2. Depression 3. Greater difficulty controlling their moods. 4. Greater risks of accidents

Social-Learning Approach

1. Social-learning approaches to morality focus on how the environment influences children's PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR, helping behavior that benefits others, rather than the moral reasoning they are capable of using to make decisions. a. In this view, moral conduct is learned through reinforcement and modeling. b. Preschoolers are more apt to model the behavior of warm, responsive adults and models viewed as highly competent or high in prestige. c. Children do more than simply mimic modeled behavior. (1) By observing others' behavior, they begin to learn society's norms. (2) This leads to ABSTRACT MODELING, the process by which modeling paves the way for the development of more general rules and principles.

Psychological Aspects of Sexual Maturation

1. Some aspects of puberty carry psychological weight for adolescents. a. Girls today view menarche positively, compared to girls of the past. b. Western society's views of menarche have become more positive than they used to be; girls tend to have higher self-esteem, a rise in status, and self-awareness when they begin menstruating. c. Boys' first ejaculation is roughly equivalent to girls' menarche, but it is rarely discussed. d. Girls are often unhappy with their developing bodies, a result of strong societal pressures regarding the ideal female shape. 2. The timing of puberty is a key factor for how adolescents react to it. 3. Early maturation is generally positive for boys. a. Early maturing boys tend to be better at athletics, be more popular, have more positive self-esteem, and grow up to be more cooperative and responsible. b. They also are more likely to have school difficulties and become more involved in delinquency and substance abuse with older friends. c. They may be more conforming and lacking in humor. 4. Early maturation is often difficult for girls. a. Early maturing girls tend to be more popular, but they may not be ready to deal with dating situations. b. Reactions depend on cultural norms (country and community). 5. Late maturation is difficult for boys. a. Smaller boys are seen as less attractive and have a disadvantage in sports. b. Their dating lives may suffer. c. These difficulties often lead to decline in self-concept, which can extend into adulthood. d. However, coping with these challenges may help late-maturing boys become assertive, insightful, and more creative. 6. For late-maturing girls, the picture is complicated. a. Late-maturing girls can be overlooked and have low social status at first. b. However, when they catch up their self-esteem is high, with higher body esteem because they are more slender and "leggy" than early-maturing girls.

Coping with Stress

1. Some people are better than others at COPING, reducing or tolerating the threats that lead to stress. a. Problem-focused coping is the attempt to manage a stressful problem or situation by directly changing the situation to make it less stressful. b. Emotion-focused coping involves the conscious regulation of emotion. c. Coping is also aided by the presence of social support, assistance and comfort supplied by others. d. Defense coping involves unconscious strategies that distort or deny the true nature of the situation. (1) emotional insulation (2) substance abuse to escape from stressful situations 2. Hardiness, Resilience, and Coping a. Hardiness is a personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness. b. Resilient young adults tend to be easygoing and good-natured, and to have good social and communication skills.

Thought and Language Influence one another

1. Some prefer this interactionist perspective to either of the other two views. 2. Lev Vygotsky (1962) argued that though language and thinking develop independently, they are intertwined and influence each other. -Language and thought are intertwined and influence one another.

Physical damage to genes can be caused by?

1. Sometimes genes spontaneously change their form, a process called spontaneous mutation. 2. Certain environmental factors, such as exposure to X-rays, can produce malformed genetic material.

Self-Understanding in Middle Childhood

1. Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings with it feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of competence a. Industry (1) Feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of competence b. Inferiority (1) Feelings of failure and inadequacy 2. Lasting from roughly age 6 to age 12, the industry-versus-inferiority stage is characterized by a focus on efforts to meet the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern world.

Learning Theory Approach

1. Suggests that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement (rewards) and conditioning. a. Through the process of shaping, children's language becomes more and more similar to adult speech. b. This theory does not explain how children learn to speak properly and correctly regarding grammar. c. It does not explain how children produce novel phrases, sentences, and constructions—such as nonsense words—using correct grammar. -Not good on it's own.

The Interactionist Perspective

1. Suggests that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental events.

Nativist Approach

1. Suggests that there is an innate mechanism that directs language development. a. proposed by Noam Chomsky b. Chomsky argues that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure called UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. c. The brain is wired with a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), a neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit the understanding of language. d. Support for Chomsky's approach comes from recent findings identifying a specific gene related to speech production. e. Recent research suggests that infants' and adults' speech processing is similar, suggesting an evolutionary basis for language. f. Critics argue that since primates can be taught to talk, the uniqueness of human linguistic capacity is called into question. g. Critics also suggest that although humans may be genetically primed to use language, social experience must be accounted for. h. An alternative approach combines both schools of thought. i. Theorists argue that neither learning theory nor nativist theory fully explains language acquisition.

Suicide Prevention Tips

1. Talk to person without judgement and talk about specific suicidal thoughts ("Have you bought a gun? Do you have pills? Do you have a plan of how to do it?) 2. Be supportive and let the person know they aren't alone. 3. Get professionals involved in helping the person and never keep suicide talk a secret. 4. Make a contract with the person, that they won't attempt suicide until you have talked some more.

Problem-focused coping

1. The attempt to manage a stressful problem or situation by directly changing situation to make it less stressful.

Brain Growth and Lateralization

1. The brain grows at a faster rate than any other part of the body. 2. By age 5, children's brains weigh 90 percent of their average adult brain weight. 3. Brain growth is so rapid because of the increase in the number of interconnections among cells, and the increase in myelin (the protective insulation that surrounds parts of neurons). 4. The corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain, becomes considerably thicker and develops as many as 800 million individual fibers that help coordinate brain functioning between the 2 hemispheres. 5. LATERALIZATION, the process whereby certain functions are located more in one hemisphere of the brain than the other, becomes more pronounced in early childhood. a. The left hemisphere focuses on verbal competence (speaking, reading, thinking, reasoning), and processes information more sequentially. b. The right hemisphere concentrates on nonverbal areas (spatial relations, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, emotional expression), and processes information more globally. c. The 2 hemispheres of the brain act in tandem. 6. Individual differences exist in lateralization—10 percent of left-handed and ambidextrous people have language centered in the right hemisphere, with no specific language center. a. There are many individual differences in the nature of lateralization, some of which are related to gender and culture. (1) Males show greater lateralization of language in the left hemisphere, whereas for females, language is more evenly divided between the 2 hemispheres. (This may explain why females' language development proceeds at a more rapid rate during early childhood.) (2) The differences in lateralization between males and females may be attributed to both genetic (corpus callosum differences) and environmental factors (girls typically receive greater verbal encouragement). b. Baron-Cohen's theory suggests that the differences between male and female brains may explain autism (primarily male). (1) Theory posits an extreme male brain. (2) Culture-based experiences may lead to differences in lateralization. (3) Ultimately, gender and culture-based arguments about differences in lateralization are difficult to assess, as they are speculative and do not rule out the possibility that some genetic difference may also be at work in determining differences. (4) Likely, a combined influence of heredity and experience explains the differences observed cross-culturally and sub-culturally (gender).

The Nervous System and Brain: Making Connections

1. The brain grows faster than any other part of the body. a. increased interconnections among cells that support complex functions and skills b. Myelin increases to speed transmission of brain cells. c. The nervous system comprises the brain and the nerves that extend throughout the body. (1) NEURONS, the nerve cells of the nervous system, communicate with other cells through dendrites on one end of the cell body, which receive messages from other cells. (2) Axons, at the other end of each cell, carry messages towards other neurons. (3) Messages are sent by chemical messengers, neurotransmitters, that travel across small gaps (synapses) between neurons. Birth: 100 to 200 billion neurons; Relatively few connections During first two years: Billions of connections established

Emotional Self Regulation

1. The capability to adjust one's emotions to a desired state and level of intensity, increases in adolescence. a. This ability requires both cognitive and physical effort. b. Several strategies employed by adolescents to regulate emotional responses include: (1) cognitive reappraisal of events that lead to emotional reactions (2) suppression of troubling emotions (a) This is often employed in the service of making others feel better. (b) This is an important social advance in this stage of development.

Cost of Obesity

1. The epidemic of obesity may be contributing to a decline in lifespan in the United States of America. 2. Genetic and social characteristics as well as diet influence obesity.

Nutritional Problems in Adolescence

1. The incidence of obesity among six- to eleven-year-olds in the US has more than doubled in the past 20 years 2. Most young people are not following recommendations set forth in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. a. For example, 67% of youths aged 6-19 exceed dietary guidelines for fat intake and 72% exceed recommendations for saturated fat intake. 3. Most nutritional problems in adolescents are related to the consumption of too much "junk food," or food with limited or no nutritional value. a. Most junk food is characterized by high levels of fats, particularly saturated fats, and refined sugar. b. The portion sizes of junk food also typically are very large. c. Most adolescents eat very few fruits and vegetables per day or chose items, such as iceberg lettuce, with low nutritional values. 4. The eating habits of today's adolescents will lead to future health care problems. a. Obesity is related to a number of health problems; 1.) Type 2 Diabetes 2.) Heart disease 3.) Stroke 4.) Cancer 5.) Osteoporosis also is a growing problem, even among adolescents. Poor nutrition and insufficient exercise both contribute to low bone density among teenagers.

Links Between Language Development and Poverty

1. The language children hear at home influences their language development. 2. Hart and Risley (1995) researched the effects of poverty on language. (1) Economic level was a significant factor in the amount of parental interactions, times spent in interactions, types of language children were exposed to, and kinds of language used. (2) Type of language exposure is linked to IQ test performance of children, as young as 3. 3. Reasons for the correlation between family affluence and frequency of children being spoken to in their homes may include: a. More affluent parents may spend more time with children and have more flexible work hours. b. less household stress, exhaustion 4. An increasing body of evidence suggests that family income and poverty impact children's general cognitive development and behavior. a. The longer children live in poverty, the more severe the effects: greater limitations in educational resources and less psychological support from parents to family members.

Hardiness

1. The personality characteristic associated with lower rate of stress-related illness. 2. Hardy individuals are take-charge people who revel in life's challenges. 3. People who are high in hardiness are more resistant to stress-related illness than those who show less hardiness. 4. Hardy people react to potentially threatening stressors with optimism, feeling that they can respond effectively. By turning threatening situations into challenging ones, they are less apt to experience high levels of stress.

Eating disorders:

1. The prevalence of disordered eating has increased over the last 20 years. 2. Some adolescents and adults have habits that have serious consequences for physical health. 3. ANOREXIA NERVOSA is a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse to eat, while denying that their behavior and appearance—which may become skeletal—are out of the ordinary. 4. BULIMIA is an eating disorder characterized by binges on large quantities of food, followed by purges of the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives. 5. Causes of Eating Disorders a. Biology, society, psychology—the usual culprits 6. Disorder in eating and body dissatisfaction reported across socioeconomic lines increased significantly in recent years. ◦ Anorexia nervosa: eating limited, primarily white attractive affluent girls from 12-40. ◦ Bulimia: binge eating followed by purging (vomiting or laxatives). ◦ Prone: girls who mature early, those who are depressed. ◦ Causes: inherited vulnerability, psychological and social factors, culture.

Roots of Aggression

1. There are varying explanations for aggressive behavior among children. a. Freud claimed we all have a death drive, which leads us to act aggressively. b. Konrad Lorenz argues that humans, like all animals, share a fighting instinct. c. Sociobiologists, scientists who consider the biological roots of social behavior, argue that aggression facilitates the goal of strengthening the species and the gene pool in general. 2. Social-learning approaches contend that aggression is based on prior learning, and on how social and environmental conditions and models teach individuals to be aggressive. a. Albert Bandura illustrated the power of models in a classic study of preschoolers—the Bobo doll experiment. b. Exposure to violence in children's communities has serious implications for children's own aggressive behavior patterns as they grow up.

Emotional Self-Regulation: Preschool

1. Throughout the preschool years, children develop EMOTIONAL SELF-REGULATION, the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity. a. Learning to talk about feelings and engage in strategies to regulate them begins at about 2 years of age. b. Self control and social skills also contribute to this ability. c. Negotiation through language continues to develop with age.

What increases the odds of multiple births?

1. Using fertility drugs. 1 in 10 are dizygotic. 2. Age: Older women are more likely. 3. Race: White American: 1 out of 86 dizygotic African American: 1 out of 70 dizygotic.

Race and Gender

1. Using the combination of race and gender together (ethgender), findings indicate that: a. African-American and Hispanic males had the highest self-esteem. b. Asian and Native American females had the lowest levels.

Sensory Changes in Late Adulthood

1. Vision a. Lenses become less transparent and the pupils shrink. b. The optic nerve becomes less efficient. c. Distant objects become less acute. d. More light is needed to see, and it takes longer to adjust to a change from light to darkness and vice versa. e. Driving at night becomes more challenging. f. Reading becomes more of a strain, and eyestrain occurs more easily. g. Cataracts, cloudy or opaque areas of the lens of the eye that interfere with passing light, frequently develop. 2. Hearing a. Thirty percent of adults between sixty-five and seventy-four have some hearing loss. b. Fifty percent of adults over seventy-five have hearing loss. c. High frequencies are the hardest to hear. d. Hearing aids would be helpful 75 percent of the time, but only 20 percent of people wear them. 1.) Are imperfect and amplify all sounds, so it is difficult to discern conversations 2.) There is a stigma attached to wearing a hearing aid 3.) Because they cannot hear, some people withdraw from society because they feel left out and lonely e. Overall, more than 10 million elderly people in the United States have hearing impairments of one kind or another 3. Taste and Smell a. Both senses become less discriminating in old age. b. This is due to the decline in taste buds on the tongue. c. Olfactory bulbs in the brain shrink and reduce the ability to smell. (1) People eat less and get poor nutrition. (2) Older people may over-salt their food and develop hypertension, or high blood pressure. 4. Game Over? a. The PERIPHERAL SLOWING HYPOTHESIS suggests that overall processing speed declines in the peripheral nervous system (spinal cord and brain). b. The GENERALIZED SLOWING HYPOTHESIS is the theory that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient. c. Older people have more accidents. d. Decision process is slowed down. e. Perception of time seems to increase with age. f. Old age brings a distinct declining in the sense organs of the body.

The Senses in Middle Adulthood

1. Vision a. Starting at age 40, visual acuity—the ability to discern fine spatial detail in both close and distant objects—begins to decline. (1) The eyes' lenses change shape and elasticity. (2) The lenses become less transparent, which reduces the amount of light entering. (3) A nearly universal change in eyesight during middle adulthood is the loss of near vision, called PRESBYOPIA. (4) Declines also occur in depth perception, distance perception, the ability to view the world in 3 dimensions, and night vision. (5) Sometimes changes in vision are brought on by a disease called GLAUCOMA, a condition where pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain properly or because too much fluid is produced. (a) About 1 to 2 percent of those over 40 are affected. (b) African Americans are particularly susceptible. (c) It can be treated if caught early enough. (d) If left untreated, it can cause blindness. 2. Hearing undergoes a gradual decline beginning in middle adulthood. a. The primary sort of loss is for sounds of high frequency, a problem called PRESBYCUSIS. (1) About 12% of people between 45 and 65 suffer from presbycusis. b. Men are more prone to hearing loss than women. c. Because the ears are not always equally affected by hearing loss, sound localization, the ability to detect the origin of a sound, is diminished. (1) Some hearing loss results from environmental factors, such as loud noises. d. The rest are caused by aging, which brings a loss of hair cells in the inner ear. e. Also, the eardrum becomes less elastic with age. 3. Reaction Time in Adulthood: Not-So-Slowing Down a. Reaction time increases slightly in middle adulthood. b. This is due to a gradual loss of muscle in the body and nervous system processing due to aging. c. People can compensate by being more careful and practicing the skill. d. Exercise can slow this loss.

Language Development: Middle Childhood

1. Vocabulary continues to increase during the school years. a. School-aged children's mastery of grammar improves, as does their pronunciation. b. Certain phonemes—units of sound—remain troublesome (j, v, h, zh). c. School-aged children may have difficulty decoding sentences when the meaning depends on intonation, or tone of voice. d. Children become more competent in their use of pragmatics, the rules governing the use of language to communicate in a social context. 2. One of the most significant developments in middle childhood is the increase in METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS, an understanding of one's own use of language. a. Language helps children to achieve comprehension when confronted with incomplete or unclear information. b. Increased sophistication helps school-aged children control behaviors as they learn negotiation strategies and self-regulation.

Self-Awareness at Birth

1. We are not born with the knowledge that we exist independently from others and the world.

The Ups and Downs of Marriage

1. What Makes Marriage Work? a. Partners in successful marriages display several characteristics. (1) They visibly show affection to one another. (2) They communicate relatively little negativity. (3) They see themselves as part of an interdependent couple rather than two individuals. (4) They experience social homogamy, a similarity in leisure activity and role references. b. Only about half of all marriages remain intact. c. Most divorces occur within the first 10 years of marriage. 2. Nearly half of newly married couples experience a significant degree of marital conflict. a. difficulty transitioning from being children to adults b. difficulty developing an identity apart from their spouse c. struggle to find time with spouse d. However, for many, the newlywed period is the happiest time of their entire married lives. 3. The course of marital satisfaction rises and falls. a. highest just after the marriage takes place b. lowest after the births of children c. Eventually, satisfaction returns to the pre-wedding high. d. Longitudinal studies of this U-shaped pattern (particularly the upturn later in life) may be misleading. e. Middle-aged couples cite many varied sources of satisfaction. 4. Overall, divorce rates have declined in the last 20 years—but among middle-aged couples, the rates are rising. a. Many factors contribute to these rates. (1) Middle-aged adults spend less time with their spouses than they did in earlier years. (2) focus on personal happiness rather than commitment to the marriage (3) The social acceptability of divorce has increased. (4) The financial costs of divorce may not be as high as previously assumed. (5) Wives may feel less dependent on their husbands. (6) subsiding romantic and passionate love over time (7) Energy directed toward work and other places outside the home leaves less for spouse. b. Divorce is difficult for both spouses in midlife. (1) Women who followed traditional female roles may face prejudice against older workers. (2) They may lack skills and remain unemployed as younger peers are hired and promoted. c. In the end, divorce in midlife can end with satisfaction with the decision. 5. About 80% of divorced people find themselves marrying again, usually within 2 years, and to another who has experienced divorce. a. Women don't remarry as often as men, especially older women. (1) The marriage gradient explains some of this difference, as do societal norms about age, beauty, and attraction. (2) One motivation to remarry in midlife is to avoid the social stigma that comes as a consequence of divorce. (3) Marriage is associated with increased reports of life satisfaction. (4) Divorced persons (particularly men) miss the companionship that marriage provides. b. Marriage has clear economic benefits. c. Second marriages are approached more cautiously than first marriages. (1) viewed in less romantic terms (2) more equivalent sharing of chores and house duties d. Divorce rates are slightly higher for second marriages than for first marriages. (1) New stressors are encountered (e.g., blending families together). (2) Partners who have already experienced divorce may be more willing to walk away or may be less committed. (3) Personality or emotional qualities that make partners difficult to live with lead to problems in the new relationship. 6. Marriage in the Later Years: Together, Then Alone a. The proportion of men who are married after 65 years of age is greater than that of women. b. One reason is that women frequently outlive their spouses by a few years. c. The majority of people who are still married in later life are satisfied with their marriages. d. But as partners experience life changes, the marriage may undergo extreme stress. e. Divorce at any age is particularly difficult for women, who may view their severed relationships as being due to their own failure. f. Never-married individuals (about 5 percent of the population) report feeling less lonely than most people their age and have a greater sense of independence.

Emotions in Young Adulthood: Fulfilling Psychological Needs

1. Young adults are happiest when their psychological needs—rather than their material needs—are met. a. Uplifts include being chosen for a new job, developing a deep relationship, and moving into their own home. b. They report being least satisfied when basic psychological needs are unfulfilled. c. Culture defines the value of particular needs.

Individual differences in lateralization

10 percent of left-handed and ambidextrous people have language centered in the right hemisphere, with no specific language center. a. There are many individual differences in the nature of lateralization, some of which are related to gender and culture. (1) Males show greater lateralization of language in the left hemisphere, whereas for females, language is more evenly divided between the 2 hemispheres. (This may explain why females' language development proceeds at a more rapid rate during early childhood.) (.l2) The differences in lateralization between males and females may be attributed to both genetic (corpus callosum differences) and environmental factors (girls typically receive greater verbal encouragement). b. Baron-Cohen's theory suggests that the differences between male and female brains may explain autism (primarily male). (1) Theory posits an extreme male brain. (2) Culture-based experiences may lead to differences in lateralization. (3) Ultimately, gender and culture-based arguments about differences in lateralization are difficult to assess, as they are speculative and do not rule out the possibility that some genetic difference may also be at work in determining differences. (4) Likely, a combined influence of heredity and experience explains the differences observed cross-culturally and sub-culturally (gender).

Human language acquired

100,000 years ago

1. decline in depth perception 2. decline in distance perception 3. Change in ability to see in three dimensions

3 changes in vision occurring during middle adulthood?

egocentric thought

3-year-old Wendy is playing hide-and-seek with some older children. However, instead of running to find a hiding place away from the other children, Wendy simply covers her eyes. In this example, Wendy is demonstrating

By the time they are ___ or ___ years of age, preschoolers distinguish between members of different races, identify their own race, and begin to understand the significance of race in society.

3; 4

Aggression and Stability: Preschoolers

4. Aggression is a relatively stable trait; the most aggressive preschoolers tend to be the most aggressive school-aged children. a. Boys typically show higher levels of INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION, motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal, such as playing with a desirable toy that another child is using. b. Girls typically demonstrate RELATIONAL AGGRESSION, nonphysical aggression that is intended to hurt another person's feelings.

Cognitive approaches: Violence

4. Cognitive approaches to violence argue that aggression stems, in part, from the manner in which children interpret others' actions and situations. a. Kenneth Dodge and his colleagues point out that some children are more prone than others to assume aggressive motivations of actions. (1) They cannot pay attention to appropriate cues and inaccurately interpret behaviors as being intentionally hostile. (2) This leads them to respond inappropriately to the given situation. b. This approach does not explain why children fail to misattribute hostility to others, or why they choose to respond with aggression rather than other acts.

Smiling in infants

6 to 9 weeks: Begin reliable smiling Smile first relatively indiscriminate then selective 18 months: Social smiling more frequent toward humans than nonhuman objects End of 2nd year: Use smiling purposefully; Show sensitivity to emotional expressions of others a. Over time, social smiles are selectively directed toward caregivers and others with whom infants are most familiar. b. Smiling becomes a tool for communicating positive emotions, and as they age, children become more sensitive to the emotional expressions of others.

Better conversationalist at

6 years old

Teen Pregnancy

6. Teenage pregnancy is an epidemic; every minute of the day, an adolescent in the U.S. gives birth. a. The rate has dropped significantly in the last two decades. (1) Awareness of the risks of unprotected sex has risen among teens. (2) The rate of intercourse has declined among teenagers (51 to 43 percent from 1988 to 2010). (3) Contraceptive use has increased. (4) Substitutes for intercourse are more prevalent than they were in the 1980s. b. Virginity pledges have been ineffective. c. The rate of U.S. teen pregnancies is 2 to 10 times higher than the rates in other industrialized countries. d. Teenage pregnancy can be devastating to both mother and child. (1) Mothers often have to leave school and be tied to low-paying jobs or welfare—a cycle of poverty and pregnancy. (2) Children usually have poor health, perform poorly in school, and are more likely to become teenage parents themselves.

Gestures begin at

8-12 months

Nutrition in Infants/Children

: infants need twice the calories per pound that adults need. Most regulate own intake well. ◦ Breast milk: offers all necessary nutrients plus immunity, and may enhance cognitive growth. ◦ Solid food: needed between 9-12 months. ◦ Iron: prevents iron deficiency anemia. ◦ Effects: more social, more positive emotions, less anxiety, improved cognitive functioning.

evolutionary psychology

A branch of psychology that emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and "survival of the fittest" in shaping behavior.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)

A cluster of abnormalities that may appear in the off spring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. a disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation, delayed growth, and facial deformities.

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

A competence on a task that a student cannot yet master on their own, but can achieve with the guidance of a capable partner (O'Donnell et al., 2016, p. 116)

Random Assignment

A critical step in the design of an experiment is to assign participants to different treatment groups on the basis of chance alone— —allowing the researcher, through laws of statistics, to draw conclusions with confidence.

anger cry

A cry similar to the basic cry but with more excess air forced through the vocal cords.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

A genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid; PKU is now easily detected—but, if left untreated, results in mental retardation and hyperactivity.

sickle-cell anemia

A genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in African Americans. Gets its name from the shape of the red blood cells in those who have it.

social policy

A government's course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens.

Abstract thinking

A level of thinking about things that is removed from the facts of the "here and now", and from specific examples of the things or concepts being thought about. Abstract thinkers are able to reflect on events and ideas, and on attributes and relationships separate from the objects that have those attributes or share those relationships.

aphasia

A loss or impairment of language processing resulting from damage to Broca's area or Wernicke's area.

mediation (mediated learning experience)

A mediator places him/herself both between the learner and the stimulus as well as the learner and the response. Through the process of mediation, the cognitive structure of a student is affected. Different from a teacher who is concerned with solving a particular content-based problem or assignment, the mediator is focused on how the student approaches solving the problem. The task is not the end-goal, but rather only a means to involve the mediator in improving a student's problem solving, critical thinking, and learning process.

Ethnography

A method borrowed from the field of anthropology and used to investigate cultural questions. 1. Researchers act as participant observers, living for a period of weeks, months, or even years in another culture. 2. Has the same drawbacks as other naturalistic observation in addition to the problems of generalizing from one culture to another or misinterpreting what is observed.

crisis

A period of identity development during which the individual is exploring alternatives.

Hypothesis

A prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested.

Ultrasound Sonography

A process in which high-frequency sound waves scan the mother's womb to produce an image of the unborn baby whose size and shape can then be assessed.

Reactive Attachment Disorder

A psychological problem in forming attachments to others, manifests usually when the child's development of attachments has been severely disrupted.

cross-sectional approach

A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time.

longitudinal approach

A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.

Sequential Design

A researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format aids in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to individual or historical environment from those that are truly universal. This is an example of _____ research. The study of development of children's logical reasoning abilities between the ages of 6 and 12. Begin in 2012 by testing the logical reasoning of a sample of 6-year-olds (the 2006 birth cohort) and a sample of 8 years olds (the 2004 birth cohort). Retested the reasoning abilities of both groups in 2014 and 2016. The design calls for us to follow the 2006 cohort from ages 6 through 10 and the 2004 cohort from ages 8 through 12. This is an example of _____ research

basic cry

A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry.

Social construction

A shared notion of reality, one that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time.

socially shared cognition

A shared understanding of a problem that emerges during a group interaction that would not have been achieved by an individual member of the group alone (O'Donnell et al., 2016, p. 120)

zygote

A single cell formed through fertilization. One cell formed by fusion of the two gametes.

social smile

A smile in response to an external stimulus, which, early in development, typically is a face.

Vygotsky's theory

A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.

meiosis

A specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm (or gametes).

Critical period

A specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally.

Critical Period

A specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally. After window of learning closes, cannot learn (ex: language) Part of debate with Sensitive Period.

walking

A spinal-epidural, also called a(n) __________ epidural, is a system of administering continuous doses of anesthetic to a woman who is in labor. It has fewer side effects than traditional anesthesia, and allows for freedom of movement during labor.

fertilization

A stage in reproduction whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote. At fertilization, one pair of chromosomes (via the gametes) is provided by the mother and one is provided by the father. union of the sperm cell and ovum from which the embryo develops the process by which a sperm and an ovum—the male and female gametes—join to form a single new cell.

adoption study

A study in which investigators seek to discover whether, in behavior and psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment, or more like their biological parents, who contributed their heredity. Another form of the adoption study compares adoptive and biological siblings.

twin study

A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.

pain cry

A sudden, initial loud cry followed by breath holding, without preliminary moaning.

cognitive modelling

A teacher can scaffold a student's learning by modelling behaviours, offering prompts and providing feedback. Modelling is likely to result in the acquisition of a new behaviour when the modelled behaviour is visible, easy to observe and easy to perform.

whole-language approach

A teaching approach built on the idea that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful.

easy child

A temperament style in which the child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences.

difficult child

A temperament style in which the child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

A test used to find genetic defects that involves taking samples of hair-like material that surrounds the embryo.

standardized test

A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.

classical conditioning.

A type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response is called

descriptive research

A type of research that aims to observe and record behavior.

correlational research

A type of research that strives to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characterists.

Survey research

A type of research where people are chosen to represent some larger population and are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic.

Presbycusis

1. About 12 percent of people between 45 and 65 suffer from presbycusis. 2. Men are more prone than women to hearing loss. 3. Because the two ears are not always equally affected by hearing loss, sound localization, the ability to detect the origin of a sound, is diminished. Reduced ability to hear high-pitched, high-frequency sounds. 4. Decreased reaction time. a. Middle-aged drivers still better than young! More careful, fewer risks. 5. Lifestyle and exercise can slow these declines. 6. Causes of hearing loss a. Loud noises can be an environmental factor. b. The rest are caused by aging, which brings a loss of hair cells in the inner ear. c. Also, the eardrum becomes less elastic with age

Determine the stress response

1. According to Lazarus and Folkman, people move through a series of stages that determine whether they will experience stress. a. PRIMARY APPRAISAL is the assessment of an event to determine whether its implications are positive, negative, or neutral. b. SECONDARY APPRAISAL is the assessment of whether one's coping abilities and resources are adequate to overcome the harm, threat, or challenge posed by the potential stressor.

Social Identity and Minorities

1. According to social identity theory, if minority groups do not accept the negative views of their group held by the majority group, their self-esteem will not suffer. a. Esteem differences between minority groups narrow when: (1) Group pride and ethnic awareness grow. (2) Cultural sensitivity to multiculturalism is apparent. (3) Adolescents focus preferences and priorities on areas of success in their lives. 2. Picture is more complex regarding relative levels of self-esteem between members of different racial and ethnic groups. a. For example, although white children initially show higher self-esteem than black children, black children begin to show slightly higher self-esteem than white children around the age of 11. This shift occurs as African American children become more identified with their racial group, develop more complex views of racial identity, and increasingly view the positive aspects of their group membership. b. Hispanic children, also show an increase in self-esteem toward the end of middle childhood, although even in adolescence their self-esteem still trails that of whites. c. In contrast, Asian American children show the opposite pattern: their self-esteem in elementary school is higher than whites and blacks, but by the end childhood, their self-esteem is lower than that of whites.

Empathy and development

1. According to some developmentalists, EMPATHY—the understanding of what another individual feels—lies at the heart of some kinds of moral behavior. a. The roots of empathy grow early; 1-year-old infants will cry when they hear other infants crying. b. Positive emotions (sympathy and admiration), in addition to negative emotions (anger at an unfair situation or shame over a transgression), may promote moral behavior. c. Freud's psychoanalytic view of personality development (and particularly his discussion of the superego and Oedipal conflicts) first suggested that preschoolers' attempts to avoid negative emotions lead them to act in more moral, helpful ways. d. In adolescence, more sophisticated empathy emerges, whereby teenagers feel empathy for collective groups of peoples, not just specific individuals and situations.

Cycle of Violence Hypothesis

1. According to the CYCLE OF VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS, abuse and neglect that children suffer predispose them as adults to abuse and neglect their own children. a. Those who abuse their wives often grew up in homes where they witnessed spousal abuse. b. However, only about one-third of people who were abused or neglected as children abuse their own children. c. Two-thirds of abusers were not abused as children.

Choosing a Partner: Recognizing Mr. or Ms. Right

1. Across different cultures, the value of love as a major factor in choosing a spouse varies. a. Although love and mutual attraction are relatively highly desired characteristics across cultures, some preferred characteristics are similar across cultures (e.g., dependability, emotional stability, pleasing disposition, intelligence). (1) Men, more than women, prefer a marriage partner who is physically attractive. (2) Women prefer a marriage partner who is ambitious and industrious. (3) David Buss believes we are programmed to seek out mates who will maximize the availability of beneficial genes. (4) Critics argue that similarities reflect gender stereotyping and have nothing to do with evolution. Moreover, the theory as it has been posited is untestable. 2. Filtering Models: Sifting Out a Spouse a. Louis Janda and Karen Llenke-Hamel suggest that people seeking mates screen potential candidates. (1) First, we filter for broad determinants of attractiveness. (2) The end result is a choice based on compatibility between 2 individuals. (3) People often marry according to the principle of HOMOGAMY, the tendency to marry someone who is similar in age, race, education, religion, and other basic demographic characteristics. (4) The MARRIAGE GRADIENT is the tendency for men to marry women who are slightly younger, smaller, and lower in status, and for women to marry men who are slightly older, larger, and higher in status. (5) Men will therefore have a larger pool to choose from than will women in general. (6) Well-educated African-American women find it difficult to find a spouse, according to the marriage gradient. 3. Attachment Styles and Romantic Relationships: Do Adult Loving Styles Reflect Attachment in Infancy? a. According to Phillip Shaver and colleagues, the influence of infants' attachment styles continues into adulthood and affects the nature of their romantic relationships. b. Adults with secure attachment readily enter into relationships and feel happy and confident about the future of the relationship (half of all adults). c. Adults who have avoidant attachment tend to be less invested in relationships, have higher break-up rates, and often feel lonely (25 percent of all adults). d. Adults who have anxious-avoidant attachment tend to become overly invested in relationships, have repeated break-ups with the same partner, and have relatively low self-esteem (20 percent of adults).

Primary Behavioral Sleep States

1. Active Sleep: Eyes closed; uneven respiration; intermittent rapid eye movements. Other behaviors: smiles, frowns, grimaces, mouthing, sucking, sighs, and sigh-sobs. *50.3% 2. Quiet Sleep: Eyes are closed and respiration is slow and regular. Motor activity limited to occasional startles, sigh-sobs, or rhythmic mouthing. *28.1% (*Percentage of Time When Alone in State)

Primary Behavioral Transitional Sleep States

1. Active-quiet Transition Sleep: During this state, which occurs between periods of Active Sleep and Quiet Sleep, the eyes are closed and there is little motor activity. Infant shows mixed behavioral signs of Active Sleep and Quiet Sleep. *1.9% (*Percentage of Time When Alone in State)

Speech impairments

1. Affects 3-5% of school-age population. 2. Stuttering most common, disruption in rhythm or fluency of speech. 3. Children with speech impairment have speech patterns that interfere with communication. 4. Level of impairment can range from mild to severe. a. Severe speech language impairment may result in one or more 1.)The child not being able to speak 2.) Having speech that is very hard to understand 3.) The child having great difficulty making sense of speech sounds 4.)The child not always being able to understand others 5.) The child not being able to say what he or she wants.

Primary Behavioral Awake States

1. Alert: Attentive or scanning, the infant's eyes are open, bright and shining.*6.7% 2. Non-alert waking: Eyes are usually open, but dull and unfocused. Varied, but typically high motor activity. *2.8% 3. Fuss: Fussing is continuous or intermittent, at low levels *1.8% 4. Cry: Intense vocalizations occurring singly or in succession.*1.7% (*Percentage of Time When Alone in State)

First Words

1. Are generally spoken between 10 and 14 months of age. a. By 15 months, the average child has a vocabulary of 10 words. b. The one-word stage ends around 18 months. c. Between the ages of 16 and 24 months, a child's vocabulary explodes from about 50 to 400 words. d. First words typically label objects or people regularly present in the babies' lives. e. First words are typically HOLOPHRASES, one-word utterances that depend on the particular context in which they are used to determine meaning. f. Cultural differences are revealed in vocabulary development, such as the age at which children use nouns.

Physical Growth In Infancy

1. Average weight of newborn: about 7 pounds; length about 20 inches a. By age 5 months, the average infant's birthweight has doubled to about 15 pounds. b. By age 1, the infant's birthweight has tripled to approximately 22 pounds. c. By the end of its second year, the average child weighs four times its birthweight. d. By age 1, the average baby stands 30 inches tall. e. By the end of the second year, the average child is three feet tall. f. Not all parts of the body grow at the same rate. g. Girls are slightly shorter and weigh less (a difference through childhood and adolescence). h. Asian infants are smaller than North American Caucasians. i. African-American infants are slightly bigger than North American

Reflexes: Protective Reactions

1. Basic REFLEXES, unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli, represent behavior that has survival value for the infant. a. Some reflexes stay throughout life; others disappear over time. b. Reflexes are genetically determined and universal and may be remnants from the past. c. Some researchers believe reflexes stimulate the brain toward development. 2. Ethnic and Cultural Differences and Similarities in Reflexes a. Reflexes are universal in infants and genetically determined. b. However, cultural variation occurs in how they are displayed. c. The Moro reflex (a startle response) varies between cultures and ethnic groups. *Examples: Breathing Swallowing Rooting Swallowing Coughing and sneezing Blinking

Language shapes thought

1. Benjamin Lee Whorf argued in the early 1900s that cultural experience and language lead children to have different vocabularies. a. For example, Eskimo children have a richer snow-related vocabulary than English speakers. 2. Whorf's notion, known as the LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY HYPOTHESIS, posits that language shapes and may determine the way people of a given culture perceive and understand the world.

Menopause

__________ refers to the cessation of menstruation in women.

Hardiness

___________ is a personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness.

synaptic pruning

____________ allow(s) established neurons to build more elaborate communication networks with other neurons.

Cognitive

______________ approaches to aggression suggest that examining preschoolers' interpretations of others' behavior and the environmental context in which a behavior occurs is key to understanding moral development.

language

a form of communication, whether spoken, written or signed, that is based in a system of symbols. Language consists of words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

a procedure in which a woman's ova are removed from her ovaries and a man's sperm are used to fertilize the ova in a laboratory.

Ainsworth Strange Situation

a sequence of 8 staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother. -developed by developmental psychologist, Mary Ainsworth as an experimental technique that is used in measuring attachment. (1) The mother and baby enter an unfamiliar room; (2) the mother sits down, leaving the baby free to explore; (3) an adult stranger enters the room and converses first with the mother and then with the baby; (4) the mother exits the room, leaving the baby alone with the stranger; (5) the mother returns, greeting and comforting the baby, and the stranger leaves; (6) the mother departs again, leaving the baby alone; (7) the stranger returns; and (8) the mother returns and the stranger leaves.

Levinson's Final Season: The winter of life

a. According to Daniel Levinson, people enter late adulthood after passing through a transition stage that typically occurs at about age 60 to 65. b. During this transition, people begin to view themselves as entering late adulthood. c. People struggle with being "old," and often must face illness and death of friends and loved ones. d. People must struggle with the loss of power, respect, and authority. e. Older people can serve as resources for younger people and be in a position to give advice. f. Old age brings freedom to do things for fun and entertainment.

Identity Formation: Change or Crisis

a. According to Erikson, the search for identity leads some teens to an identity crisis involving substantial psychological turmoil. b. Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION, where adolescents seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves. c. Those who do not find a suitable identity may go off course in several ways. (1) They may adopt socially unacceptable roles to express what they do NOT want to be. (2) They may have trouble forming and maintaining lasting close relationships. (3) In general, they may follow a dysfunctional path because their sense of self is diffuse—failing to organize around a central, unified core identity. d. Those who forge an appropriate identity set a foundation for future psychosocial development. (1) They learn of their unique capabilities and believe in them. (2) They develop an accurate sense of self. (3) They prepare to take advantage of their unique strengths.

Elder Abuse

a. According to some estimates, the incidence of ELDER ABUSE, the physical or psychological mistreatment or neglect of elderly individuals, may affect 11 percent of the elderly. b. This may be an underestimate, as victims may be too embarrassed or humiliated to report their abusers. c. Elder abuse is most frequently committed by a family member. d. People with Alzheimer's and other dementias are particularly likely to be targets. e. The best prevention is for family members to take breaks and ask for assistance from social support agencies.

Gender and Career Choices: Women's Work

a. Although it is now illegal to advertise a position for a man or a woman, remnants of traditional gender-role prejudice persist. b. Traditionally, women were considered most appropriate for COMMUNAL PROFESSIONS, occupations associated with relationships. Ex: Teacher c. In contrast, men were perceived as best suited for AGENTIC PROFESSIONS, occupations associated with getting things accomplished. d. Women today are underrepresented in male-dominated professions such as engineering and computer programming. e. Women in many professions earn less than men in identical jobs. f. Between 1950 and 2003, the number of women in the U.S. labor force increased from 35 percent to over 60 percent, and women make up around 55 percent of the labor force. g. Women and minorities in high-status, visible professional roles may hit the glass ceiling, an invisible barrier within an organization that, because of discrimination, prevents individuals from being promoted beyond a certain level. h. Women's weekly earnings as a percentage of men's have increased since 1979 but are still only a bit more than 79 percent and have remained steady over the past three years.

Stability of Personality

a. Although there is some change in traits in childhood and adolescence relative to adulthood, they are mostly consistent across time. b. Perceptions of changes may be attributable to different behavioral manifestations of the same particular constellation of traits over developmental periods.

Immigrants on the Job: Making It in America

a. Around 1.2 million immigrants enter the U.S., representing 10 percent of the population—a figure more than double the 1970 percentage. b. First- and second-generation immigrants comprise nearly 25 percent of the U.S. population. c. Many assume that immigrants place a strain on the education, healthcare, welfare, and prison systems in the U.S. and do not contribute to society. d. Many characteristics of today's immigrants are different from those of earlier waves at the start of the twentieth century (e.g., only a third are white, in comparison to almost 90 percent of immigrants before 1960). e. Anti-immigrant sentiments are not based on accurate data. (1) Most legal and illegal immigrants ultimately succeed financially. (2) Only a few immigrants come to the U.S. to get on welfare. (3) Immigrants contribute more to the economy than they take away over time.

partial sightedness

(20/70). 1/1000 require special ed services.

Secondary circular reactions

(8 -12 Months) Piaget's fourth sensorimotor substage, where the infant can display the ability to plan or calculate how to produce a desired outcome.

AIDS

(Acquired immune deficiency syndrome), Babies may acquire AIDS from their mothers placenta

Bioecological approach

(Bronfenbrenner) Suggests that different levels of environment simultaneously influence individuals. a. The microsystem is the everyday, immediate environment such as homes, caregivers, friends, and teachers. b. The mesosystem connects various aspects of the microsystem, linking children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses, and friends to friends. c. The exosystem represents such broad influences as local government, the community, schools, places of worship, and the local media. d. The macrosystem represents larger cultural influences such as society in general, types of government, religious systems, and political thought. e. The chronosystem involves the way the passage of time, including historical events, affects children's development. f. There are several advantages to taking a bioecological approach to development. 1.) It emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on development. 2.) It illustrates that influences are multidirectional. 3.) It stresses the importance of broad cultural factors that affect development. (a) The dominant Western philosophy is individualism, emphasizing personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual. (b) Collectivism is the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual. 4.) Some argue that this view pays too little attention to biological factors

8 unique combinations of love

(a) Nonlove occurs in the absence of all 3 components. (b) Liking develops when only intimacy is present. (c) Infatuated love exists for those who only feel passion. (d) Empty love is when only decision/commitment is present. (e) Romantic love occurs when both intimacy and passion are present. (f) Companionate love is when intimacy and decision/ commitment are present. (g) Fatuous love exists when passion and decision/ commitment are present. (h) In consummate love, all 3 components are present.

During the second stage of labor what occurs?

(a) This stage typically lasts 90 minutes. (b) After each contraction, the baby's head emerges more and increases the vaginal opening. (c) An EPISIOTOMY is an incision sometimes made to increase the size of the opening of the vagina to allow the baby to pass. (d) This stage ends when the baby is born.

CAT

(computerized axial tomography) A psychophysiological way of observing what the brain looks like

EEG

(electroencephalogram) A psycho-physiological way of observing brain waves by putting sensors on the head

fMRI

(functional magnetic resonance imaging) A psycho-physiological way of observing functions of the brain.

language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.

individuality

Characteristic consisting of two dimensions: self-assertion, the ability to have and communicate a point of view; and separateness, the use of communication patterns to express how one is diff erent from others.

SOCIAL COMPARISON

Children use _______ _______, the desire to evaluate one's own behavior, abilities, expertise, and opinions by comparing them to those of others.

Gross Motor Skills

Gross Motor Skills a. By 6 months, infants can move by themselves. b. Crawling appears between 8 and 10 months. c. Infants can walk holding onto furniture by 9 months and most can walk alone by 1 year. d. Most can sit unsupported by 6 months. e. By age 3, children can jump, hop on one foot, skip, and run. f. By 4 or 5, they have greater control over their muscles. (1) They can throw a ball with accuracy at 4 years old. (2) By age 5, they can toss a ring onto a peg 5 feet away. (3) Also at age 5, children can ride bikes, climb ladders, ski. g. Gross motor skills are tied to brain development and myelination in brain areas linked to balance and coordination. h. Children have much practice in these skills, and agility increases with age. i. The activity level at age 3 is unmatched in any other period of life. j. Some variations in temperament are linked to activity levels later in life. k. Genetic influence combines with environmental factors (parental style of discipline and cultural views of appropriate behaviors) to determine how active a child will be. 1. During school years, muscle coordination improves gross motor skills. 2. Gender differences during middle childhood in gross motor skills are evident. a. Boys' greater strength gives them some advantage in activities requiring muscle strength. b. Boys usually have higher activity levels as well. c. Girls surpass boys in tasks involving coordination of arms and legs. d. Genetics and social factors each contribute to these gender differences. e. Different activities reinforced as appropriate for girls and boys have, in the past, led to differences in the practice of such skills. f. Gender variations are minimal today, as boys and girls are encouraged to participate in similar activities. g. One motor skill—controlling one's bowels—has been the subject of considerable debate over the decades.

Physical Development in Early Adulthood

In most respects physical development and maturation are complete by early adulthood. Full height, proportional limbs, tend to be healthy, vigorous, energetic. Most people are at the peak of their physical capabilities. The brain continues to grow in both size and weight, reaching its maximum in early adulthood. Brain wave patterns show changes (more mature patterns). The senses are as sharp as they will ever be. Grey matter continues to be pruned and myelination increases. No significant deterioration in vision (until the 40's) Hearing is at its peak Taste, smell, sensitivity to touch good Most professional athletes are at their peak during early adulthood. Psychomotor abilities (eye-hand coordination, etc.)

Collectivistic Orientation

Is defined as, the promoting the notion of interdependence, blending in, and being interconnected. People in such cultures tend to regard themselves as parts of a larger social network in which they are interconnected with and responsible to others.

Individualistic Orientation

Is when culture embraces or emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, and competition. They are more apt to see themselves as self-contained and autonomous, in competition with others for scarce resources.

Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis

Languages shapes the way we perceive and understand the worlds. Other view: the way we see and understand language shape the world

egocentric thought

On Christmas morning, 3-year-old Billy opens one of his gifts from his mother and finds a new sweater. Disappointed that it is not a toy, Billy frowns and throws the sweater aside in front of his mother with no regard for her feelings. In this example, Billy is demonstrating

rhythms

One of the most important ways behavior becomes integrated is through the development of various body __________, which are repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior.

a. BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (NBAS)

One of the most widely used techniques to determine infants' normative standing; measure designed to determine infants' neurological and behavioral responses to their environment; provides a supplement to the traditional Apgar test. (1) It includes 27 categories of responses. (a) interactions with others (b) motor behavior (c) physiological control (d) response to stress 1. Norms should be based on large, heterogeneous samples. 2. The time at which specific motor skills appear is in part determined by cultural factors. 3. There are certain genetic constraints on how early a skill can emerge.

holophrases

One-word utterances, called _____________, stand for a whole phrase and derive their meaning from the context in which they are used.

The Big Five Personality Traits- OCEAN

Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism -personality traits are fairly stable throughout life, with only slightly more volatility during adolescence than in other periods. a. Five broad trait factors have been identified by researchers. b. These traits are seen as comprising personality at all stages of life, in a variety of populations across the globe. (1) openness: a level of curiosity about and interest in new experiences (2) conscientiousness: tendencies to be organized and responsible (3) extraversion: how outgoing or shy a person is (4) agreeableness: how easygoing and helpful a person tends to be (5) neuroticism: the degree to which a person is moody, anxious, and self-critical

What hormone is released from the mother's pituitary during birth?

Oxytocin

Degree of plasticity

PLASTICITY is the degree to which a developing structure (e.g., the brain) or behavior is susceptible to experience and is relatively great for the brain. a. Infants who grow up in severely restricted environments are likely to show differences in brain structure and weight. b. Research with nonhumans reveals that a SENSITIVE PERIOD exists, which is a specific but limited time span, usually early in an organism's life, during which the organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences relating to some particular facet of development.

Longitudinal Design

Palmer (1930) was interested in daily weight fluctuations. He weighed three pre-school children at approximately one hour intervals during the day for periods of three to five days. These measurements indicated that there are several consistent daily fluctuations in a child's weight. Palmer's study is an example of _____ research design. Terman and Oden (1959) studied a group of gifted children from their early school years through middle age. They found that on the average these individuals talked early, walked early, were physically superior, and were typically social leaders as well. By the age of 35, many of them were listed in such books as American Men of Science and Who's Who. Terman's study of gifted children is an example of _____ research design. Several investigators have studied the growth of Individuals In height and weight from birth to adulthood. Nicolson and Hanley (1953) measured each boy's height and weight at various age intervals. They found that some boys undergo periods of rapid growth as early as age 10, others as late as age 17. This is an example of _____ research.

Preschool-age children have fairly strict expectations, and follow stereotypes when it comes to gender-appropriate behaviors. True or False?

True

The factors that lead people to develop as homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual include both biological and environmental factors. True or False?

True

The majority of people who are still married in late adulthood report that they are satisfied with their marriages. True or False?

True

The rate of adolescent suicide has tripled in the last 30 years. True or False?

True

When we speak of personality traits, we mean that from the time a baby is born until he/she grows up, there will be stable traits and behaviors that lead to their development as distinct individuals. True or False?

True

True or False: Infant norms are useful only to the extent that they are based on data from a large heterogeneous and culturally diverse sample of children.

According to data collected in the U.S. and Western Europe, couples that cohabitate prior to getting married have a significantly higher divorce rate. True or False?

True. Pg 376

Happily married couples tend to perceive themselves as part of an interdependent couple rather than as two independent entities. True or False?

True. Pg. 378

Drugs-Illegal Stimulant Drugs (i.e., cocaine)

_____ disrupts development of neurons and brain tissue, and babies whose mothers abuse them can be found to have cysts, or hollow spaces, in the brain. If the child survives, learning and behavioral problems often result

Cognitive approach

__________ and humanist approaches look more at what people think than what they do

Changes in Body Shape and Structure: Preschool

◦ Environment: influences rate -Toddler fat burns off -Less round and chubby and more slender -Arms and legs lengthen -Head size more adult-like -Internal physical changes -Muscle size increases, and children grow stronger. -Bones become sturdier. -The sense organs continue to develop. For instance, the eustachian tube in the ear, which carries sounds from the external part of the ear to the internal part, moves from a position that is almost parallel to the ground at birth to a more angular position. This change sometimes leads to an increase in the frequency of earaches during the preschool years.

Coping strategies for Stress

◦ Problem-focused: change or exit the situation ◦ Emotion-focused: regulate cognitions and emotions ◦ Social support: assistance and comfort ◦ Defensive coping: unconscious, distort or deny! ◦ Emotional insulation: unconscious, block emotions and pain ◦ Substance use: temporary escape, escalation of problems

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