WATER AND CARBON NOTES USE

Mid clouds

Altostratus; Grey/ bluish cloud sheets or layer of striated or fibrous that totally or partially Thin enough to regularly reveal the sun Do not produce halo phenomenon Sometimes, virga is seen and at time may reach the ground causing light precipitation Altocumulus; White and/or grey patched, sheet or layered clouds Generally composed of laminae (plates), rounded masses or rolls May be partly fibrous or diffuse When thin semi-transparent edges or altocumulus passes over the sun/moon, a corona Most common mid cloud Nimbostratus; Continuous rain cloud Resulting from thickening altostratus Dark grey cloud layer diffused by falling rain or snow Thick enough to blot out the sun Ragged clouds appear at the base

Lithosphere

Inorganic forms = non-living things, the physical and chemical components of an organism's environment, fossil fuels, like coal, oil and natural gas, oil shale (fine grained sedimentary rock) and carbonate based sedimentary deposits like limestone and chalk Organic forms = relating to an organism, include litter (the accumulation of leaves, twigs and other matter on the earth's surface), organic matter and humic substances (humus is dark coloured semi-soluble organic substance formed from the decomposition of soil organic matter) found in the soils Some carbon dioxide is released by volcanoes from interior of lithosphere, enters lower lithosphere when carbon-rich sediments and sedimentary rock are subducted and partially melted beneath tectonic boundary zones Marine sediments and sedimentary rocks contain up to 100 million GTC Soil organic matter contains between 1,500 and 1,600 GTC

NEGATIVE ANTHROPOGENIC FEEDBACK LOOPS OF THE CABRON CYCLE

Warmer temperatures --> increased productivity --> more photosynthesis --> more carbon is taken out of atmosphere --> temperatures reduce

THE CARBON CYCLE AS A SYTEM

(units = petagrams (Pg); 1 Pg = 1015 grams Stores: Oceans = 3,8000 Pg Atmosphere = 750 Pg Soils = 1,500 Pg Plants = 560 Pg Fossil fuels = 4,000 Pg Earth's crust = 100,000,000 Pg Transfers: Oceans loss (loss to atmosphere, i.e. release) = 90 Pg Ocean uptake (uptake from atmosphere, i.e. absorb) = 92 Pg Litterfall uptake = 60 Pg Soil respiration loss = 60 Pg River uptake = 0.8 Pg Photosynthesis uptake = 120 Pg Burning fossil fuels loss = 6 Pg Deforestation and land use change loss = 0.9 Pg Volcanoes loss = 0.1 Pg

FRACKING

= process of drilling down into the earth before a high-pressure water mixture is directed at the rock to release the gas inside Water, sand and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure, allows the gas to flow out to the head of the well Process can be carried out vertically or by drilling horizontally to the rock layer, can create new pathways to release gas or can be used to extend existing channels Term fracking refers to how rock is fractured apart by high pressure mixture

MILANKOVITCH CYCLES

3 Milankovitch cycles: eccentricity, axial tilt, axial precession (axial precession is too complicated) Eccentricity: = the shape of the earth's orbit around the sun More elliptical orbits = the orbit is more egg shaped, less elliptical orbits = the orbit is more circular / less egg shaped Prime important to glaciation; alters the distance from the earth to the sun, changes the distance the sun's short wave radiation must travel to reach the earth; reduces / increases the amount of radiation received at earth's surface in different seasons More elliptical orbit: The sun is closer to the earth at some points more than others More elliptical orbits mean that the sun is more concentrated in some seasons more than others, emphasises seasonal contrasts Less elliptical orbit (more circular): More even amount of sunlight, less seasonal changes in temperature and therefore similar levels of evapotranspiration all year round Axial tilt: = the inclination of the earth's axis in relation to its plane of orbit around the sun, oscillations are in degrees of the earth's axial tilt. Periodic variations of the angle tilt alter the severity of the earth's seasons and their changes Less axial tilt = the sun's solar radiation is more evenly distributed between winter and summer. Less axial tilt also increases the difference in radiation receipts between the equatorial and polar regions Smaller degree of axial tilt = promotes growth of ice sheets, in response to warmer winters (in which warmer air would be able to hold more moisture and produce a greater amount of snowfall) Summar temperatures would be cooler, resulting in less melting of the winters accumulation More axial tilt = the sun's radiation is less evenly distributed between the winter and summer There would be a decline in the growth of ice sheets as the winter would be colder and the summer would be warmer Less snowfall and accumulation of snow in winter due to melting

RIVER REGIMES

= a term used to describe the annual variations in river discharge, in response to precipitation, evapotranspiration, temperature and climate, drainage basin characteristics and human activities. They measure the variation of the river discharge. They are monsoonal as well as glacial. River regimes are displayed on hydrographs. Every river regime = there is little variation throughout the year, the river discharge mostly stays the same Summer maximum of discharge = when snow melts in the summer there is a high summer precipitation, it causes a summer maximum discharge Winter maximum of discharge = contrastingly, when there is a higher rainfall in winter this causes a winter maximum of discharge. E.G. During the year in Britain, you would expect the discharge of most rivers to be greater in the winter season than in the summer, because of more precipitation and less leaved and evapotranspiration. Therefore, the winter is a low pressure system because there is more rainfall If a single rainstorm occurred in a river, the graph would show a long line that varied greatly from low to high river discharge everyday If the river was fed by a glacier in the summer, it would reach a peak as the river discharge would built up before suddenly dipping and beginning to build up again a river in an area where it has been dry for a long period of time or where there is high potential evapotranspiration, the river discharge will be quite low due to little precipitation (therefore the river regime should show a low flatter line) A river where a heavy rainstorm was followed by a rainstorm of less intensity and duration (the river regime presents a river discharge going gradually from low to high) FACTORS AFFECTING RIVER REGIMES: the amount of precipitation, the climate, drainage basin characters, type of rock, rock porosity / permeability, vegetation cover, temperature, climate, type of precipitation, evapotranspiration and human activities

IMPACT OF WATER ABSTRACTION THE WATER CYCLE

= ground water abstraction, the process of removing water from a ground source either temporarily or permanently Groundwater helps to maintain freshwater surface features like lakes or wetlands, which are high productive ecosystems, these too are threatened by water abstraction Groundwater is usually abstracted from its sources for irrigation purposes, however this causes negative impacts on the water cycle Less precipitation during dryer periods, means the flow of a river is naturally low anyways, so when more water is taken from the river from its ground water sources (since ground water ends up in the river yet it removed for irrigation purposes it doesn't have a chance to get to the river), the discharge will be even lower, and the area might be at risk to drought conditions More water will be taken out of the water cycle before reaching the river, means it will take longer for the irrigated water to evaporate into the atmosphere with the rest of the water from the river, causing the cycle to become unbalanced Over-exploitation of water can lead to water courses and wetlands drying out, meaning a big store of water is removed from the cycle, as well as salt-water intrusion in aquifers (the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers). The saltwater degrades the groundwater Abstraction of groundwater being quicker than the levels being replenished by rainfall causes a sinking in water tables (water table is the upper surface of the saturation zone). The sinking of water tables makes rivers less reliable - many river flows are maintained in the dry seasons by springs that dry up when the water table is full Abstraction results in the lowering of water tables - if oxygen levels in the river drop as a result, fish and the ecosystems are threatened. Abstraction of water on a large scale therefore requires a license Scotland - example of water abstraction: Irrigation is common for the use of potato and root vegetable crops, also salad crops and. These crops are grown across Scotland, most commonly in the east but also in the west around Ayrshire and in the north around Moray The east coast is at a greater risk to the impacts of water abstraction because the climate is direr but also because it produces more potatoes, which would require more irrigation. Water is abstracted generally during dry periods are crops need irrigation and so does other land, but this means that water is abstracted when the river discharge is low

Biosphere

= living matter on earth, including all plant and animal life forms Inputs: sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, nutrients Outputs: respiration Stores: soil, plant leaves and plant roots Flows: transpiration Since life exists on the ground, in the air and in the water, the biosphere overlaps all the spheres Has existed for roughly 3.5 billion years, earliest life form being the prokaryotes (which survived without oxygen). The addition of oxygen to the biosphere allowed more complex life to form

IMPACT OF SOIL DRAINAGE ON THE WATER CYCLE

= refers to the average length of stream channels per square kilometre Higher drainage densities increase discharge levels more rapidly as the transfer / flow of water is increased, which leads to the increased risk of flooding Drainage of agricultural land using factors like surface ditches modifies hydrological flow paths and flow rates Soil drainage can cause a concentration of flow which can increase runoff rates, there being more water on top of the soil Drainage networks also decrease the amount of time it takes for precipitation or melted snow to get to the streams. Overall, it increases the peak discharge, volume and frequency of floods

WATER BALANCE / BUDGET

= the drainage basin hydrological cycle, the balance between inputs and outputs in the drainage basin system. Affects how much water is stored in a system. The general water balance in the UK shows seasonal patterns. Presents the monthly temperature compared to the potential evapotranspiration and precipitation in one drainage basin through the course of the year. Drainage basin = the area of land surrounding the river that is drained by all of the water collecting in the river Input = precipitation Precipitation = discharge + evapotranspiration +/- changes in the stores Factors affect river discharge = presented on a hydrograph The long profile - changing processes; types of erosion, transportation and deposition, types of load; the Hjulstrom curve Stages of the water balance / budget: Water surplus = precipitation is greater than potential evapotranspiration, soil water store is full, moisture surplus for plant use, runoff and ground water recharge. Ground becomes saturated, field capacity is reached. Once field capacity is reached any additional precipitation (antecedent rainfall) is added as runoff. When this happens, water can run off into nearby rivers and increase river discharge. Can lead to flooding, the intensity and duration of surplus can be used to predict severity of flooding Soil moisture utilisation = potential evapotranspiration is greater than the precipitation, water store is used by plants or lost through evaporation. Water is withdrawn and taken out from the soil moisture storage, but field capacity if yet to reach 0 / become dry soil (stage in between soil moisture utilisation and soil moisture deficiency) = soil moisture store is used up, any precipitation is likely to be absorbed by the soil rather than produce runoff, river levels fall and may dry up completely Soil moisture deficiency = deficiency of soil water as the store is used up and potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation. Plants develop adaptations to survive and crops are irrigated. Field capacity reaches 0. essentially no water for plants from the soil. To maintain sufficient water, farmers trap groundwater reserves or water in nearby streams and lakes to irrigate crops. The intensity and duration of deficit can be used to predict the need for irrigation. Soil moisture recharge = precipitation is greater than potential evapotranspiration, soil water store / capacity begins to fill up again. Moisture is added to soil, soil is yet to reach field capacity (stage after soil moisture recharge but before water surplus) = soil water store is full, field capacity is reached. Additional rainfall percolates down to the water table, groundwater store is reached Summary: ET>P = soil moisture utilisation and soil moisture deficiency P>ET = water surplus and soil moisture recharge Soil moisture can either be in surplus, deficiency or recharge If precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration and the excess is not been used by plants it is in surplus, when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation there is a deficiency and recharge occurs when water is replaced after a dry period Field capacity = the maximum amount of water soil can hold. A water surplus can result in wet soil, high river levels and runoff whereas a deficit leads to dry soil, perhaps drought (or drought like conditions) and falling river levels. Water deficit = when evapotranspiration is in excess of precipitation and any previously available moisture has been used in soil moisture utilisation Wet season: Inputs > outputs = water surplus and soil moisture recharge The ground fills with water, leading to more surface runoff, leading to a high discharge in rivers Antecedent rainfall E.G. Salisbury in New York is permanently in a soil moisture surplus where the precipitation exceeds the potential evapotranspiration Drier season: Outputs > inputs = soil moisture utilisation and soil moisture deficiency First leads to water utilisation of plants, eventually leading to a deficit in water stores E.G. Arizona, Las Vegas, is for the majority of the time, in a water deficit as the potential evapotranspiration exceeds the precipitation

Lithosphere

= the earth's outer crusts in the forms of rock, salt and landforms Inputs: lava flows Outputs: fault ruptures, erosion Stores: rocks and ground Flows: landslides and drought Is the solid outer part of the earth's surface. Includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust. Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere (the upper part of the mantle). The lithosphere is the most rigid of the earth's layers - although the rocks are considered elastic, they are not viscous Asthenosphere = the viscous upper mantle layer below the lithosphere Lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary = the point where ductility is measured to show the difference between the two layers of the upper mantle Ductility = the ability to stretch under pressure The lithosphere is far less ductile than the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is the coolest of the earth's layers Oceanic lithosphere (oceanic crust) = denser than continental, thinner also Continental lithosphere (continental crust) = less dense and thicker, stretches more than 200 kilometers below the earth's surface The lithosphere causes tectonic plates to move through thermal energy from the mantle of the lithosphere and convection currents, thermal energy makes the plates more elastic Pedosphere = the part of the lithosphere made of soil and dirt

IMPACT OF DEFORESTATION ON THE WATER CYCLE

= the removal of trees for the purposes such as fuel, furniture, etc. Trees are able to store large quantities of water, so when the trees are cut down, the store is lost from the cycle. When the trees are cut down, the cycle becomes unbalanced Trees and other plants play a big role in the fact they can extract groundwater from the soil and return it to the atmosphere through transpiration When trees are removed in large quantities, it can lead to the climate of the area becoming drier with a much drier soil because there are no plants to transpire the groundwater Trees absorb rainfall and produce this precipitation as water vapour as they transpire, releasing the water vapour into the atmosphere, reduces this transpiration and water vapour in the atmosphere, changes in atmospheric concentration have indirect effects on the climate Deforestation changes the balance of transfers between different stores, in addition to the overall balance at the end of the year. This can affect a number of things; the availability of soil moisture and the flow in river channels. Though the cycle will continue, the importance of certain stores and rate of movement through the cycle will vary

Atmosphere

= the thin fragile layer of gases that surround the earth Inputs: solar radiation, volcanic eruptions, evaporation, transpiration Outputs: water vapour and condensation Stores: clouds Flows: condensation Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99% of the gases in the dry air, with argon, carbon dioxide, helium, neon and other gases making up small portions. Water vapour and dust are also part of the atmosphere - many of the gases in our atmosphere were ejected from volcanoes in the early world From the ground towards the sky the layers of the atmosphere go; troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere layer extends from the mesosphere to the exosphere

Hydrosphere

= the water on the surface or underground in the earth is in the form of oceans, rivers and lakes and if found underground in wells or aquifers Inputs: precipitation, volcanic eruptions, melted snow, transpiration Outputs: water freezing into ice, evaporation, photosynthesis Stores: terrestrial water stores, groundwater, soil water, biological water, oceans, lakes, wells, aquifers Flows: rivers, any movement of water Is the total amount of water the earth contains - including water on the surface in the form of oceans and lakes, water underground and water in the air Hydrosphere contains liquid, vapour and ice water Liquid hydrosphere = oceans, lakes and rivers Vapour hydrosphere = cloud and fog Ice hydrosphere = glaciers, ice bergs and ice caps; Cyrosphere = the frozen part of the hydrosphere Underground hydrosphere = water in wells and aquifers Water cycle = the process of water moving round and through the hydrosphere

Positive feedback example

A change, e.g. temperatures warm Sea ice cover melts and shrinks Ocean absorbs more solar radiation than highly reflective sea ice Temperatures warm Sea ice cover melts and shrinks Temperatures warm Albedo and the melting of sea ice = Higher temperatures --> warms the surface of the sea ice --> Arctic ice (and ice elsewhere shrinks) --> exposes the dark sea water --> more heat is absorbed --> lower albedo --> warmer temperatures. Warmer oceans hold less carbon dioxide so more carbon dioxide is left in the atmosphere The melting of permafrost, particularly in parts of Siberia = organic matter (plants roots and animals) trapped in the frozen ground act as an important carbon store. When the permafrost melts, the organic matter decomposes and releases gases through decomposition and decomposers. High temperatures --> warms the earth --> melts permafrost --> carbon is released into the atmosphere --> higher temperatures The spread of beetles in Canadian forests = Higher temperatures --> warmer winters and summers --> less beetles die in the winter --> beetles mature and fertilise faster in the summer --> beetles can fly in the warmer temperatures and expand on new areas --> more beetles that eat tree bark --> releases more carbon dioxide --> warms the atmosphere Forest fires = higher temperatures --> more risk of forest fires (such as the 2017 California fires) and fires along the equator --> carbon dioxide is released when the trees burn --> warmer temperatures Storms and hurricanes = warmer temperatures --> warmer oceans (this in itself causes less carbon dioxide to be absorbed by the ocean) --> tropical storms grow in intensity and frequency --> cause more damage to trees --> releases carbon dioxide --> warmer oceans

RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Adaptation - adapting / changing behaviours to fit impacts of climate change: Adaptation to rising sea levels Agricultural changes; using less fertilises, changing farming practises, GM crops (produces less methane, e.g. GM rice produces less methane than rice plantations) Policies and businesses Water supply and stupa Geo-engineering: Sending sulphur to space Sending mirrors into space Both of these lead to a cooling effect Mitigation - reducing impacts / causes of climate change: CCS (carbon capture and storage) Policies; businesses and companies, local policies, private investment, national agreements, e.g. UNFCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and international agreements, e.g. the Paris 2015 agreement or trading carbon agreement Individual actions; reducing meat consumption, improving energy efficiency, insulation, etc. And protests / public opinions Forests; protecting forests, such as the Amazon Rainforest, and reducing rates of deforestation or increasing afforestation Energy / transport; using renewable or alternative energy and changing transport ways; improved aviation practises, more public transport and electronic cars

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Adaptation example; The Southeast Florida Regional Compact; Miami-Dade County staff leading workshops on incorporating climate change considerations in local planning. The southeast Florida regional compact is a joint commitment among Broward, Miami-Dade, Palm Beach and Monroe counties to partner in reducing heat-trapping gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts, including in transportation, water resources, natural resources, agriculture, and disaster risk reduction. Through the collaboration of country, state and federal agencies, a comprehensive action plan was developed that involves hundreds of actions. Notable policies include regional collaboration to revise building codes and development regulations to discourage new development or post-disaster redevelopment in vulnerable areas.

HOW DEFORESTATION AFFECT STORES / TRANSFERS OF A TROPICAL RAINFOREST

An undisturbed tropical rainforest is a carbon sink b/c the net loss of carbon is less than the uptake The undisturbed forest absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere b/c there are more trees to absorb and store the carbon The amount of carbon stored in the soil is a result of dead organic matter and leaf litter that has decomposed, this consisting of animals and plant organisms Unhealthy soil = large amounts of dead organic matter, healthy soil = lots of living organic matter, such as worms / fungi Loss of trees leads to widespread erosion; trees anchor themselves in soil through roots. Roots keep the soil together, so when there are fewer trees the soil becomes weaker and more likely to be washed away / transported / deposited elsewhere. CROP YIELD DECLINES Less trees and roots = less water, nutrients and carbon distributed around the cycle, soil becomes exhausted, more carbon left in soil Roots respire so roots can maintain energy releases and carbon into soil and atmosphere (which would leave more carbon in atmosphere if there are less trees to re-absorb it). Less trees, less respiration from roots, less carbon in soil, harder for other plants and trees to photosynthesize with smaller amounts of carbon in soil for roots to take up Less carbon stored in above ground biomass, below ground biomass and in soil / roots in a deforestation tropical rainforest

Biosphere

Biosphere = total sum of all living matter, terrestial biosphere and oceanic biosphere both included Amount of approximate carbon in the terrestrial biosphere = 3,170 GTC Carbon in the terrestrial biosphere: Tropical forest = 20% Temperature forest = 7% Boreal forest = 26% Agricultural = 9% Wetlands = 7% Tundra = 8% Desert = 5% Temperature grassland = 10% Tropical savanna = 8% Living vegetation: 19% of carbon in the biosphere is stored in plants Biomass = the root system and must be considered also 35-65% of carbon is in the biomass of a plant (but it varies depending on location / plant type) ½ of carbon occurs in high-latitude forests 1/3 of carbon occurs in low-latitude forests The two largest forest stores of carbon are the vast expanses in Russia, which holds 25% of the world's forest carbon, and the Amazon Bain, which contains about 20% Plant litter: Plant litter = defined as fresh, undecomposed and easily recognisable plant debris Leaves, twigs, cones, seeds, bark, nuts, needles, etc. Leaf tissue accounts for 70% of litter in forests Soil humus: Soil humus = originates from litter decomposition, formed of black/brown organic decomposed litter. It gets dispersed throughout the soil by soil organisms like earth worms Approximately, 31% of carbon in all forests (boreal, tropical, temperate) together is stored in the biomass whilst 69% is stored in the soil 50% of carbon is stored in the biomass of tropical forests and 50% is in the soil Soil - The world's soil holds 2,500 GTC carbon (1,550 is organic and 950 is inorganic): The inorganic substance (in this case) = carbon + carbonate materials (like calcite, dolomite and gypsum 560 GTC of carbon is found in living organisms Peatland: Peat = Accumulation of decayed vegetation or organic matter that is unique to natural areas called peatland or mires. The wetland conditions, where almost permanent water saturation obstructs flows as oxygen from the atmosphere to the group. This creates low oxygen anaerobic conditions that slow down the rates of litter decomposition. Peatlands holds more than 250 GTC worldwide Animals: play a role in storage of carbon, important in generation of movement of carbon dioxide

FOSSIL FUELS

Burning fossil fuels, cement manufacturing and natural gas flaring puts carbon into the atmosphere The rapid rise in emissions is generally in EMEs or HICS b/c they have the money to house the equipment, etc. Emissions from HICs are due to growth in international trade and a shift of developed countries towards service economies. The production of exports in developing countries is an important driver of their increased emissions LICs in areas like Africa have forest fires that tend to release large amounts of co2 into the atmosphere

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) - example of mitigation

CCS = process of capturing waste co2 from large sources, e.g. fossil fuel power plants. It is deposited where it will not enter the atmosphere, e.g. underground geological locations Aim of CCS = to prevent release of large quantities of co2 into atmosphere Potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification CCS can capture up to 90% of co2 emissions produced from use of fossil fuels in electricity generation and industrial processes Consists of 3 parts; capturing the co2, transporting the co2 and securely storing the co2 emissions underground in depleted oil / gas fields or deep saline aquifer formations As of Sep 2012, global CCS institute identified 75 large-scale integrated projects; 16 of these are in operation / construction capturing 36 million tones of co2 per annum, e.g; Algeria = in Salah co2 injection; fully operating onshore gas field with co2 injection Norway = co2 injections; fully operating gas field with co2 injection, co2 is injected into a saline aquifer below the hydrocarbon reservoir zones offshore

Atmosphere

Carbon has been in the atmosphere from early in the earth's history. Atmospheric carbon levels have reached very high values in the past, possibly topping over 7,000 ppm (parts per million) in the Cambrian period around 500 million years ago. Its lowest concentration has probably been over the last 2 million years during the quaternary glaciation when it sank to about 180 ppm Carbon stored in the atmosphere = 720-800 GTC Carbon makes up about 0.04% (400 ppm) of the atmosphere Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is higher than it has been for at least 800,000 years, the possible highest in the last 20 years Carbon dioxide = a potent greenhouse gas that plays a vital role in regulating the earth's surface temperature The has been an increase in industrial carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere Atmospheric carbon has been measured at the Mauna Loa observatory in Hawaii since 1958. The measurements show the global annual mean concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased remarkable since the industrial revolution In the earth's early life, volcanoes also released carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

CARBON CYCLE CHANGES

Carbon takes many forms and goes through many processes (flows and transfers) The size of the carbon stores fluctuates as a result of processes in all spheres of the planet Some stores change rapidly as a result of relatively fast input and output flows = the fast carbon cycle Some stores change very slowly = the slow carbon cycle

High clouds

Cirrus; Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, mostly white patches or narrow bands Fibrous and/or silky sheen appearance Always composed of ice crystals Transparency depends on separation of the crystals When the clouds cross the sun they harshly diminish its brightness Before sunshine/after sunset, cirrus is coloured yellow/red Cirrostratus; Transparent White-ish veil clouds of fibrous or smooth like appearance A sheet of cirrostratus nearly covers the whole sky Halo phenomenon which the sun/moon nearly always produces in a layer of cirrostratus distinguishes a milky veil of fog or thin stratus from cirrostratus Cirrocumulus; Thin white patch, sheet or layered clouds without shading Composed of regularly arranged grains or ripples Represents a degraded state of cirrus and cirrostratus, both of which may change into it and is an uncommon cloud Connections to the other high clouds Shows some characteristics of ice crystal clouds

CEMENT PRODUCTION

Co2 is a by-product of a chemical conversion process - used in production of clinker, a component of cement Limestone: (CaCO3) conversion --> CaO, forms clinker. To get clinker, CaCO3 is thermally decomposed, releases carbon, to form CaO CaCO3 --> CaO + CO2. Process uses heat through combustion of fossil fuels Carbon is emitted during cement production by use of fossil-fuel combustion

INTERACTION BETWEEN CARBON CYCLE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Earth is warmed by sun, this warmth is returned to the atmosphere from the earth in the form of heat radiation Many gases in the atmosphere (including co2) absorb the earth's warm energy and radiate it in all directions. This energy that is radiated downward warms the surface of the earth and the lower atmosphere Increasing the concentration of co2 in the atmosphere means that there is more heat radiation captured by the atmosphere and radiated back to earth

Low clouds:

Cumulus; Generally dense with sharp outlines Develops vertically in the form of rising mounds Domes or towers with bulging upper parts often resembling a cauliflower The tops are bright white where the sun hits, but the bases are relatively dark Develops on days of clear skies Is due to diurnal convection (appears in the morning, grows during the day and dissolves at night) Status; Generally grey clouds layer with a uniform base which may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice prisms, or snow grains The sun is usually visible through this cloud When a layer of stratus breaks up and dissipates, the blue sky is visible Cumulonimbus; The thunderstorm clouds Heavy, dense, in the form of a mountain or huge tower The upper portion is usually smoothed, fibrous or striated and nearly always flattened in the shape of an anvil or vast plume Under the base the cloud is very dark Often low ragged clouds They produce precipitation, which is often in the form of virga Produce hail and tornadoes Stratocumulus; Grey / whitish patched, sheet or layered clouds Have dark tessellations (honeycomb appearance) Have rounded masses or rolls Expect for virga, they are non-fibrous

ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE CARBON CYCLE

Deforestation = takes away the carbon store of a tree, takes away the leaves so they can't photosynthesise and therefore co2 is left in the atmosphere Afforestation = offsetting / offsets; where you try to balance the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from cutting down trees by planting new ones to replace them Plantations = replacing tropical rainforests with plantations of one product, increases use of palm oil, increases release of methane from rise plantations (so more carbon is released), plantations are less effective carbon sinks Agriculture and farming = rice farming gives off more methane than cows do, livestock and rice paddies give off methane, uses fertilisers (eutrophication) Burning vegetation = releases co2 b/c of the plant stores Industrialisation (fossil fuels) = extracting ffs releases co2 through machinery use, disturbs natural balance b/c they all have different carbon footprints, tar sands and fracking are the worst (tar sands pollutes water). Combustion. mining and burning fossil fuels releases co2 Urbanisation = replacing natural environments with dark surfaces affects albedo (decreases albedo), central heating and transport also impact co2 release Cement production = cement is made of limestone (calcium carbonate rock), involves taking carbon from sedimentary rocks, puts it into atmosphere (lithosphere --> atmosphere), machinery burns ff Conclusion: Short term = human changes more important, long term = natural changes

GLOBAL WEATHER PATTERN

Earth absorbs ultraviolent light from the sun and emits infrared. Coriolis force = the spinning of the earth High pressure = when air sinks, forms an anticyclone Low pressure = when air rises Winds = high to low pressure The spinning of the earth changes the direction of the wind and water. In the northern hemisphere the wind prevails to the right whilst in the southern hemisphere the wind is deflected to the left. Jet stream = the meeting of two air masses; the cooler, polar air mass and the warmer, tropical air mass

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

Evaporation of sea water --> condensation in the clouds --> precipitation back into the ocean

EL NINO

Every few years the El Nino phenomenon takes place in the Pacific Ocean around the equator; can affect weather around the globe, changing odds of flooding, drought, heat waves, cold seasons for different regions, raises global temperatures What normally happens in the tropical Pacific: Western Pacific Ocean = Asia and Australia Eastern Pacific Ocean = North and South America Upwelling of cold water in the east Trade winds come from the east Warm moist air rises in the east and moves to the west Warmer sea ocean in the west of the ocean Unsettled weather in the west, e.g. rain Atmospheric circulation from east to west, trade winds in the opposite direction from the west to the east forming a cycle El Nino: Less upwelling in the east, the cold ocean water is generally equal and low in both the east and the west Trade winds from both the east and the west outwards Warmer sea water in the middle of the ocean Unsettled weather in the warm middle of the ocean, and rain Atmospheric circulation from the east to the west through the unsettled weather in the middle of the ocean, causes rainfall in the east Changes weather pattern; west becomes drier and east becomes wetter

MITIGATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Examples of Mitigation: Retrofitting buildings for efficiency; increasing heating and cooling efficiency of buildings, saves energy, cuts greenhouse gas emissions, e.g. New York's Empire State Building has reduced its use by 88% Maximising distribution of renewable energy; renewable energy sources provide power and reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel-based energy sources, however some, like solar panels, are intermittent. 'smart' grids can resolve this problem. Changing lifestyles; policies help individuals and communities reduce carbon footprints by making low-emission developments and modes of transport. Researching new fuels; e.g. scientists are studying how to generate biofuel from non-edible plants (e.g. switch grass or algae). Streamlining industrial processes; e.g. the heat generated by steel surfaces was once simply wasted. Now this 'waste' heat is being recycled and put to use in other manufacturing methods. Small scale innovations; e.g. compact biogas plants produce useable energy from materials such as manure or garbage.

RUNOFF VARIATIONS AND HYDROGRAPHS

Factors affecting river discharge = presented on a hydrograph River discharge = cross sectional area (width and depth) x velocity River flow = measured by using the river discharge Storm (flood) hydrograph help to prepare people for a flood: When it rains, the river discharge in the river slowly rises, because not a lot of rain falls into the channel Base flow = stops the river from drying out when there is little precipitation, the day to day discharge created by the groundwater; the normal day to day discharge of the river and is the consequence of groundwater seeping into river channel Rising limb = shows the water levels in the river increasing Falling limb = shows the water levels in the river decreasing Peak discharge = maximum amount of water Lag time = time between peak rainfall and the peak river discharge / flow; the longer the lag time, the less prone they are to a flood Bankfall discharge = the maximum amount of water that the channel can hold without flooding Antecedent rainfall = rainfall when the ground is already saturated, increases surface runoff and decreases throughflow 3 ways water can get to a river: Surface runoff (quickest) Throughflow Groundwater flow (slowest)

FEEDBACK

Feedback = mechanisms to maintain stability and equilibrium Positive feedback = where the effects of an action are amplified (increased) or multiplied by subsequent or secondary knock-on effects, changes happen in the same direction Negative feedback = where the effects of an action are nullified (reduced or stopped) by its subsequence knock-on effects, changes happen in the opposite direction which causes a balance Albedo = the percentage of the sun's light that is reflected off the surface of a material, it is essentially how much of the sun's energy is reflected Light ground colour (e.g. ice / snow) --> high albedo --> more sunlight reflected --> ground is cooler and less ice melts, etc. Dark ground colour (e.g. ocean / soil) --> low albedo --> less sunlight is reflected --> so the ground is warmer and more ice melts, etc.

EXAMPLES OF CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

High fossil fuel production in Qatar (per person) High fossil fuel production in Norway (per person) Russia is a big oil producer Rice plantations in China Deforestation in Indonesia Cattle Farming in Australia Burning vegetation and wildfires in the D.R. Congo Deforestation in Brazil (no.1 country for deforestation in hectares) Cattle farming in Argentina Oil and gas production in Canada

Adaptations to climate change

Holding back the water; seawalls and flood gates will need to be installed to prepare for predicted sea level rises Removing salt from saltwater; securing stable sources of freshwater is increasingly important as the availability of freshwater in regions becomes limited. You can use desalinisation plants, which removes salt from saltwater. Changing agriculture practises; change growing methods that are suited to different temperatures and water availability Helping habitats resist and recover; strengthen the resiliency of vulnerable habitats Relocating vulnerable communities; e.g. some communities are being relocated in Alaska Planning for heat emergencies; heat wave early warning systems and cooling centres to reduce the impacts of heat waves caused by climate change, e.g. Philadelphia, USA

CHANGES TO THE WATER CYCLE OVER VARYING SCALES / FACTORS AFFECTING THE WATER CYCLE

Human: Climate change, e.g. the use of car emissions Deforestation - interception decreases so higher level of water is in the river, gases effect the environment, effects level of evapotranspiration Water abstraction Soil drainage Urbanisation - impermeable surfaces Natural: Natural changes in the earth's orbit leads to climate change and other weather anomalies, e.g. Milankovitch cycles and El Nino Volcanic activity; increased carbon dioxide levels, aids climate change, also releases more water vapour Seasonal changes (e.g. seasonal changes in the forest and deciduous forests, I.e. leaves falling off in the water so less evapotranspiration and more water in the river channels than the atmosphere El Nino southern oscillation Short-term events, e.g. storms events increase flooding and precipitation

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS

If warmed by 0.8 degrees; heatwaves, oceans warm, Arctic icecaps melt, extreme weather events, species become extinct, increases risk of earthquakes, sea levels rise 1 degree increase in temperatures; island nations go underwater, coral reefs destroyed, rare species become extinct 2 degrees; water supply affected, polar bears become extinct, Greenland melts 3 degrees; global food shortages, the amazon collapses 4 degrees; 1/3rd of Bangladesh would be underwater, millions of refugees, permafrost melts and gases are released 5 degrees; more the world would be un-inhabitable, increased risk of tsunamis 6 degrees; mass extinction

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON CARBON STORES / TRANSFERS

Impacts of colder conditions: Chemical weathering is more active as cold water can hold more carbon dioxide Forest cover would be different (the type and location would change), so photosynthesis and respiration patterns would be different Soil would be frozen (permafrost) and would expand to the south and would stop transfers of carbon Less water would be flowing into the oceans (there would be more ice) so less sediment transfer via rivers and onto ocean floors Impacts of warmer conditions: Less chemical weathering, less permafrost, less ice so more sediments are transported to ocean floors, more photosynthesis and respiration due to the growth of new plants Decay, death and decomposition of plants and animals that cannot survive in the warm conditions, means a large release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere Carbon and methane stored in the permafrost would be released into the atmosphere, leading to a positive feedback loop Impacts of wildfires: Release huge quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere Can turn forests from being a carbon sink into a carbon source as combustion returns big quantities of carbon into the atmosphere Impacts of volcanoes: Volcanic activity returns carbon to the atmosphere after it has been trapped in rocks deep underground in the earth's crust for millions of years Can lead to the cooling of the climate because of the aerosol effect Currently volcanoes emit between 130 and 380 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year Impacts of humans: Combustion of fossil fuels leads to large quantities of carbon released into the atmosphere Land use changes; deforestation, urbanisation, farming livestock, farming plantations, farming practises like fertilisers (however it depends on the scale)

HYDROGRAPH OF A RIVER WITH A SHORT LAG TIME / HIGH PEAK DISCHARGE

Impermeable rock - less infiltration, shorter lag time, more prone to flooding, ground water becomes saturated Saturation - already saturated ground due to antecedent rainfall means field capacity reached and less infiltration Deforestation - reduced interception, exposes soil to more erosion, reduces capacity of a river Steep gradient drainage basin - shorter lag time, water flows quickly, more surface runoff High drainage density - more tributaries, more water reaching channel quicker Heavy rainfall - higher discharge Livestock - compresses soil surface, reduces infiltration

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Inputs: Precipitation - refers to all forms of moisture that reach the earth's surface, like rain, snow, sleet and hail Storages: Interception - this is when precipitation lands on buildings, vegetation and concrete before it reaches the soil, it's only temporary storage as it often evaporates quickly Vegetation storage - this is water taken up by vegetation. It is all the moisture in vegetation at any one time Surface storage - the total volume of water held on the earth's surface in lakes, ponds and puddles Groundwater storage - the storage of water underground in permeable rock strata Channel storage - the water held in a river or stream channel Flows: Baseflow - water that reaches the channel largely through slow throughflow and from permeable rock below the water table Channel flow - the movement of water within the river channel, this is also called the river's discharge Groundwater flow - the deeper the movement of water through underlying permeable rock strata below the water table. Limestone is highly permeable with lots of joints and can lead to faster groundwater flow Infiltration - the downward movement of water into the soil surface Interflow - water flowing downhill through permeable rock above the water table Percolation - the gravity flow or water within soil Stemflow - water running down a plant stem or tree trunk Surface runoff - the movement of water over the surface of the land, usually when the ground is saturated or frozen or when precipitation is too intense from infiltration to occur Throughflow - the movement of water downslope within the soil layer. Throughflow is fast through pipes (crack in the soil or animal burrows) Outputs: Evaporation - the transformation of water droplets into water vapour by heating Evapotranspiration - the loss of water from a drainage basin into the atmosphere from the leaves of plants plus loss from evaporation Transpiration - evaporation from plant leaves River discharge - the water of water that passes a given point, in a given amount of time

Cryosphere as a system

Inputs: new snow (accumulation) Outputs: melted snow (ablation) Store: snow sheets in Antarctica, ground water, ocean ice (yet melts quickly) Flows: ice turning to water vapour (sublimation)

Interaction of the spheres

Interact with each other to maintain a stable environment Example, e.g. volcanoes; Rock is pushed out from under the surface from the mantle (the mantle being made of molten rocks and it also causes a change in the surface of the land itself). This involves the lithosphere. The volcano releases gases into the air when it erupts, this involving the atmosphere The hot lava that runs down the sides of the volcano disrupts the biosphere, killing nearby plants and animals And finally, water condenses around the gases and matter in the atmosphere, therefore the hydrosphere also being involved. Each sphere is known as an open cascading system, meaning they involve mass and energy but they also in turn affect each other. When one sphere changes other changes or feedback mechanisms need to take place to establish equilibrium again

TROPICAL RAINFORESTS

Intertropical convergent zone = the point where 2 Hadley Cells meet at the equator. Here, air pressure is low, and evapotranspiration happens in huge amounts causing a lot of rain. This in turn leads to rich vegetation and biodiversity of the tropical rainforest. Biome = a big scale ecosystem, the plants and animals living in their environment at an equilibrium, a naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat, e.g. forest or tundra. If you take the trees away from the rainforest, the fertility of the soil degrades, which causes a shift in cultivation. The soil is fertile with rapid nutrient recycling when the trees are there. Factors that affect growth of vegetation in tropical rainforests: Heat Humidity Rainfall Water cycle in the rainforest: Processes that take place; evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, interception, stemflow, dripflow, infiltration, through flow, groundwater flow, percolation, root uptake, surface runoff In the amazon, 50 to 80% of moisture remains in the ecosystem's water cycle. Deforestation impacts to the water cycle in the rainforest: over a long period of time there will be less precipitation because there will be less transpiration and water vapour in the atmosphere due to the reduced number of trees. When trees are cut down, less moisture goes into the atmosphere and rainfall declines; this can sometimes lead to drought In the recent yeas, the amazon rainforest has experienced very severe droughts (and declines of rainfall) which have been made worse due to deforestation Over a short period of time it means there will be more surface runoff due to more ground water, infiltration and antecedent rainfall. The carbon cycle in the rainforest: Key processes that take place; respiration from plants and animals, photosynthesis, litter fall, decay of plants and animals, respiration from decomposer organisms At least 40% (perhaps as much as two thirds) of the carbon in tropical rainforests is found below ground in the roots and soil organic matter. Deforestation impacts to the carbon cycle in the rainforest: Carbon is released from the burning of the trees (slash and burn) Carbon is released by the machinery Carbon is released when the wood is turned into fuel There is more carbon released / overall in the atmosphere because there are less trees to photosynthesis and remove it

THE CARBON TREE

Key processes: Photosynthesis = carbon is absorbed by the tree Plant respiration = carbon is released by the tree Root cell respiration and decay / death = releases carbon into the soil and the atmosphere Carbon dioxide is released from decomposers, leaf litter and decay of dead wood Decomposition of the (dead organisms) leaf litter, meaning the dead organisms go into the soil Key points: The leaves on the tree photosynthesise and capture the co2 form the atmosphere. Plants then use the sunlight and energy from the sunlight to transform the atmospheric co2 into organic molecules The plant leaves in the canopy and the top of the tree retain the co2 through photosynthesis, release the co2 through respiration. However, photosynthesis can only happen when there is sunlight whilst respiration occurs both in the light and the dark. Carbon is stored in the biomass of the tree, such as the stem, trunk, branches and roots. Carbon is needed here and transferred to other places for nutrients for photosynthesis and respiration. The biomass is also seasonally shed; as falling fruit, leaves and needles, branches, bark and discarded roots. The organic matter is then later decomposed by decomposers in the soil. And, when some plants die some of the carbon becomes left in the soil There are two types of respirations; respiration from the tree / plant and respiration from the decomposers (the micro-bacteria in the soil) Photosynthesis and respiration in the canopy is affected by temperature and water availability On a sunny day, the bark of the tree may become warmer than the surrounding air, producing a rise in the co2 out flow from the trunk Boreal forests have large amounts of ground vegetation; so, there is more photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration Roots provide the physical anchorage of the tree in the soil, and they also help keep the soil together. Roots manage the uptake and transport of ions, minerals and nutrients from the soil and the water as well as the carbon to photosynthesise. Root respiration releases co2 into the soil and the air. The decomposers in the soil release co2 into the soil, which flows out to the atmosphere. The decomposers are responsible for the decomposition of litter (which is all dead organic matter in the soil) Soil respiration is highest in warm and moderately moist conditions

NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE STORES OF CARBON

Long term - volcanoes; more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere Seasonal changes; more sunlight / higher temps in the summer, more photosynthesis and respiration Long term - Milankovitch cycles; eccentricity - if the earth's orbit is more elliptical, there are greater seasonal contrasts Short term - decomposition; releases carbon into the atmosphere Wildfires; release carbon dioxide into atmosphere Long term - weathering and rock formation; weathering means there is more rock containing carbon in the ocean, rock formation takes carbon out of the ocean

CHANGES IN THE CARBON CYCLE

Long-term variations and reasons for long-term natural variability of the climate: Milankovitch cycles - eccentricity, axial tilt (gives us seasons) and axial precession, tilt makes the seasons more / less extreme, e.g. more or less sunny, orbit changes slightly and therefore changes in the temperature alter slightly; longer winter / summer changes length of photosynthesis due to sunlight hours Volcanoes - Sulphur dioxide in atmosphere refracts sunlight, causes climate to cool, e.g. 1991 Pinatubo eruption had a massive effect, also releases co2 Sun spot activity - sun has SS on its surface; when there are lots, the temperature is slightly higher and when there are fewer the temperature is lower Global temperature change - cooler oceans absorb more co2 and decrease marine biology, less co2 absorption from photosynthesis, less plant growth, less co2 released from vegetation. Changing temperatures alter ocean currents and impede flow of nutrients, so less marine biology. Methane hydrates form on floor of cooler oceans, takes methane out of system. Affects dynamic equilibrium and feedback loops Asteroid impact - 64 mya asteroid impact released huge quantites of carbon through varporisation of carbonate rocks and combustion of nearby vegetation Carbon cycle exchange imbalance - transfer of co2 from atmosphere and surface geology and back in equilibrium, slightly more absorbed by oceans and buried b/c of decrease in volcanic activity over time, decreases rate of carbon recycling Short-term changes (most of which are natural): Climate events (flood, drought, etc.) affect vegetation and their ability to photosynthesise El Nino changes temperatures and rainfall patterns Disease and predators; pine bark beetle kills forests in Canada, beetles reproduce easily due to warm environment, release more co2 from eating trees, removes stores from the cycle Natural hazards; wildfires and volcanoes Ocean conditions; affect upwelling of cold water and nutrients

WATER STORES

Most of the earth's water is stored as saline (salt) water in the oceans (salinization removes salt) Oceans = 97.5% of the world's water Freshwater = 2.5% Of the freshwater, ice caps store 79% of it The groundwater stores 20% of it, is an example of the lithosphere Useable freshwater = 1% Of the useable freshwater, lakes store 52% of it Soils store 38% 10% in in the atmosphere, living organisms and water in rivers Porous rocks = rocks that are useable, aquifers Impact of climate change on the water stores: Increases the water in the oceans and rivers Decreases the amount of water stored in ice caps and glaciers

FACTORS AFFECTING HYDROGRAPHS

Natural factors: Large drainage basins - large drainage basins catch more precipitation and have a higher peak discharge compared to smaller basins. BUT, smaller basins generally have a shorter lag time due to the fact precipitation doesn't have far to travel before reaching the river Shape of drainage basins - more circular = shorter lag time and high peak discharge and is more prone to flooding, elliptical / long and thing basins = short distance to ravel to reach river Steepness of drainage basins - steep sides / gradient = shorter lag time than basins that are shallow and have more gentle slopes, more prone to flooding. Steep sides cause water to flow more quickly to a river Drainage basins with many streams / tributaries - many streams (therefore a high drainage density) means the water will drain more quickly and will have a shorter lag time, BUT, water reaches river more quickly and so more prone to flooding b/c of inundation of water Saturation - if already saturated before precipitation and surface runoff increases due to reduction of infiltration, rainwater enters river quickly, reduces lag time as surface runoff is faster than base flow (the normal day to day discharge of the river and is the consequence of groundwater seeping into river channel) or through flow. River prone to flooding Rock type - if rock type is impermeable surface runoff will be high whilst through flow and infiltration is low, lag time is shorter and peak discharge is high, river more prone to flooding. If rock type is permeable / porous, infiltration occurs and so surface runoff decreases, more water in ground, through flow increases, river prone to flooding Precipitation intensity - heavy storms result in more water in the drainage basin, higher river discharge, shorter lag time, river prone to flooding Type of precipitation - lag time is greater is precipitation is snow rather than water / rain, snow takes time to melt and infiltrate / enter the river channel. Where there is rapid melting of snow the peak discharge can be high Human factors: Drainage systems - drainage systems created by humans lead to short lag times and high peak discharge as water cannot evaporate / infiltrate into soil, areas more prone to flooding Urbanised areas - an area that is urbanised results in an increase in the use of impermeable building materials, infiltration levels decrease and surface runoff increases, short lag time, high peak discharge Land use change; compression of the land from cattle ranching increases surface runoff to rivers

FACTORS AFFECTING RIVER DISCHARGE

Natural factors: Long-term = ice ages, Milankovitch cycles, climate variability, climate change Mid-term = El Nino changes precipitation patterns Seasonal changes = in the summer there are more leaves in a deciduous forest whilst in the winter there are less leaves, less interception, monsoon climate Short-term = storm changes, heatwaves, drought, 2013-2014 River Whey flooded In the summer, the forest is likely to have leaves (because it is a deciduous forest) - more levels of transpiration and interception and stem flow. Lower river discharge due to transpiration and evaporation Winter = less transpiration as the trees would need less water, due to increased rainfall, antecedent rainfall on already saturated ground increases surface runoff, less transpiration / evaporation due to lower temperatures. Higher river discharge Forest act as an obstacle through interception, stops flow of water, increases lag time and reduces peak discharge, decreases surface runoff, less water on surface will reach river Trees as obstacles for interception - more trees, precipitation travels to river slower, more trees, more transpiration, lower discharge, more trees, more stemflow, lower discharge, less trees, more surface runoff, higher discharge Drainage basin shape - hills, water travels faster, high discharge, large round drainage basin, water reaches river slowly Rock and soil type - permeable (e.g. sandy soil), absorb water, less surface runoff, impermeable (e.g. clay), less infiltration but more surface runoff, pervious rocks (e.g. limestone), water passes through joints Precipitation - amount, type and intensity, heavy rainfall / melting snow / antecedent rainfall, higher discharge El Nino - changes weather patterns and intensity of precipitation in some areas, makes some regions more prone to flooding Weather conditions - hot weather can break soil, more surface runoff, high temps, evapotranspiration, extreme cold weather, frozen ground, less surface runoff Climate change: Melting glaciers increase river discharge Changing rainfall patterns Drought Human changes in carbon cycle factors in water cycles Human factors: Land use changes - deforestation / afforestation / urbanisation Water abstraction, e.g. Ogallala aquifer Farming practices Land use - urban areas, more surface runoff, rural areas, ploughing creates river channels, high discharge Deforestation - less interception, more surface runoff and more antecedent rainfall River management - presence of dams, river flow is controlled, high river discharge before dam, lower river discharge after dam

RAINFOREST CARBON AND WATER CYCLE FEEDBACK LOOPS

Negative carbon feedback loops: Carbon in atmosphere --> co2 absorbed through photosynthesis --> carbon used in organic body of plant --> oxygen released into atmosphere --> when the plant dies, decays / transpires or is burned, carbon returned into atmosphere --> In addition, carbon can be absorbed into body of animals feeding on plant --> carbon is passed through the food chain --> animals die and respire --> carbon released into atmosphere Co2 in atmosphere --> co2 is absorbed by plants through photosynthesis --> the plant dies and starts to decay / decompose --> a primary consumer eats the producer, e.g. the Howler Monkey eats the fig --> carbon is passed to secondary consumer from the primary, e.g. to the Iguana from the Monkey --> carbon is passed to tertiary consumer, e.g. to Jaguar from Iguana --> carbon is released when predator dies / respires Co2 in the atmosphere --> plants absorb the carbon through photosynthesis --> plants decompose into organic matter which releases some carbon into the atmosphere --> decomposers also release carbon dioxide through respiration Co2 in the atmosphere --> plants absorb the carbon through photosynthesis --> plants decompose into organic matter which releases some carbon into the atmosphere --> as the dead organic matter decays, some carbon seeps into the soil --> carbon is taken up by the roots through the water --> carbon is passed through the tree and released through respiration Negative water feedback loops: Rainfall and precipitation --> the trees in the 'emergent' level act as obstacles and intercept --> the trees and plants absorb the water --> the plants also absorb the water and nutrients from the soil --> the trees and plants transpire --> (due to added moisture) transpiration leads to the formation of clouds in the atmosphere Positive water feedback loops: Deforestation and more trees being cut down --> less transpiration of water --> less moisture in the atmosphere --> decline in rainfall and precipitation --> leads to droughts --> destruction of the biodiverse ecosystem

LAND USE

New agricultural land is created by deforestation; when they're cut down they are burned or left to decompose, carbon is released. Trees are a store of carbon within the cycle, they hold large quantities of carbon. The amount of carbon dioxide being removed from the atmosphere lessens b/c trees are not able to photosynthesise, since they are cut down and no longer exist Deforestation and the resulting net carbon source to the atmosphere is a largely occurring problem in the tropics of present day. But, in the last 200 years, forest clearing for agriculture in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere was a substantial source of carbon into the atmosphere Since mid 1900, much of the less productive land in the US and Europe has been allowed to regrow as forests. This increases the amount of photosynthesis and lessens the amount of carbon in the atmosphere and increases the amount of carbon the trees can hold as stores. But, means the uptake of carbon from the atmosphere is through carbon accumulation in woody biomass and soils Difference between land use and land up-take = the direct impact of humans in forests clearly and subsequent regrowth (land use). The natural system's response to anthropogenic additions of carbon into the atmosphere and climate warming (land up-take).

NUTRIENT CYCLE IN THE RAINFOREST

Nutrient cycles are drawn to scale; the bigger the circle for a store that holds more nutrients, the bigger the arrow for a transfer that transfers more nutrients from one store to another. The nutrient cycle in the tropical rainforest is one that is easily disrupted. Tropical rainforests have been described as 'deserts covered by trees'. Despite some of the world's most luxuriant vegetation, tropical rainforests are found on some of the world's least fertile soils. This paradox is explained by the nutrient cycle. Once vegetation is removed, nutrients are quickly removed from the system by intense rainfall creating infertile conditions, even deserts. The nutrient cycle of the tropical rainforest: Big nutrient store = the biomass store Medium nutrient store = the soil Small nutrient store = leaf litter Large fluxes; From the soil to the biomass - plant uptake is large because there is so much biomass To the leaf litter - lots of precipitation From the leaf litter to the soil - decomposition of the leaf litter Medium fluxes; To the soil - weathering of rock, depends on rock type, the soil protects the rock From the soil - leaching, washing the nutrients down into the rock, depends on the type of rock Small fluxes; From the biomass to the leaf litter - leaves fall off and decompose From the leaf litter - surface runoff, small amount of nutrients are carried away in the water because leaf litter decomposes quickly

Average water residence time (the time it takes for water to run out of the store, evaporate or stop being there)

Ocean / sea = 4,000 years Lake / reservoir = 10 years Swamp = 1-10 years Rivers = 2 weeks Soil moisture = 2 weeks - 1 year Groundwater = 2 weeks - 10,000 years (stored in the rocks) Icecaps / glaciers = 10-1,000 years (ice caps are bigger, glaciers flow down slowly) Atmosphere = 10 days Biospheric water = 1 week (water in the biosphere, e.g. terrestrial land and plants) Why might water not remain for as long as possible? It could percolate quickly into bedrock

Hydrosphere

Ocean = a carbon sink; it takes up more carbon than it releases into the atmosphere When organisms die, dead cells and shells sink into water, decay and release carbon dioxide into ocean Some material sinks to the bottom where it forms layers of carbon-rich sediments (sedimentary rock) Over millions of years, chemical and physical processes turn these sediments into rocks. This part of the carbon cycle can lock up carbon for millions of years Marine organisms build their shells out of the calcium carbonate from the carbon in the oceans Ocean stores can be divided into 3: The surface layer; eruption zone = where sunlight penetrates so that photosynthesis can take place The intermediate; twilight zone = the deep layer of water where water contains approx. 37,100 GTC Living organic matter; fish, phytoplankton and bacteria = amount to approx. 30 GTC and dissolved organic matter 400 GTC

WATER CYCLE AS A SYSTEM

Output = a point where something is removed / lost from the system Input = a point where something is added to the system Attributes = the characteristics of the elements, e.g. hot / cold Elements = things that make up a system Stores / components = a part of the system where something is held for a period of time Flow / transfer = a link between one store / component and another, along which something moves System boundary = the edge of the system; the interface (or line) between the system and another Relationships = descriptions of how the various elements work together to carry out a process Open system = mass and energy is transferred, e.g. the drainage basin system Closed system = only concerned with the transfer of energy around the system, e.g. the water cycle Dynamic equilibrium = a balance in a system between the inputs and outputs. When they are unbalanced, feedback results. In dynamic equilibrium stores stay the same. Feedback = mechanisms to maintain stability and equilibrium Positive feedback = where the effects of an action are amplified (increased) or multiplied by subsequent or secondary knock-on effects, changes happen in the same direction Negative feedback = where the effects of an action are nullified (reduced or stopped) by its subsequence knock-on effects, changes happen in the opposite direction which causes a balance

POSITIVE ANTHROPOGENIC FEEDBACK LOOPS OF THE CARBON CYCLE

Permafrost = permanently frozen ground, e.g. parts of Siberia and Alaska Temperatures rise --> sea ice melts --> albedo reduces (less light reflected) --> warmer oceans --> faster sea ice melting --> high temperatures Temperatures rise --> permafrost melts --> organic matter decays --> releases co2 and methane --> temperatures rise further Oceans warm --> absorbs less co2 --> more co2 is left in atmosphere --> temperatures rise --> oceans warm Up to 40% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have been absorbed by the oceans --> oceans more acidic --> damage to coral reefs (as they are made of calcium carbonate) --> less photosynthesis --> more co2 in atmosphere --> more warming. PROCESS IS KNOWN AS ACIDIFICATION.

HYDROGRAPH OF A RIVER WITH A LONG LAG TIME / LOW PEAK DISCHARGE

Permeable rock - water can infiltrate, longer lag time, less prone to flooding, ground can hold water Afforestation - increased interception, reduces soil erosion Melting snow - creates a subdued hydrograph, snow melts before the water enters the river channel Thick vegetation - intercepts vegetation, holds and intercepts precipitation, reduces the amount that will reach the river, long lag time Construction - may restrict channel, construction bridges become blocked by floating debris during high discharge, causes a temporary dam

FACTORS IN THE FAST CARBON CYCLE

Photosynthesis = transfers carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the biomass. The absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (terrestrial plants) and from oceans (marine plants) to produce organic carbon structures Respiration = half of the carbon dioxide absorbed by plants in photosynthesis is released again through respiration. The release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, soil and oceans by animals and plants as they exhale Digestion = the release of carbon compounds by terrestrial and marine animals after feeding on carbon-rich material Decomposition = carbon dioxide released from plant structures when they decay, some transferred to soil as humus. The breakdown of animals and plant structures by bacteria and the release of carbon compounds into the atmosphere, soil and to the oceans flor. Where oxygen is present, it releases carbon dioxide but when it is absent, methane is released. Combustion = wildfires and smouldering peat accumulates the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Natural fires release carbon compounds of vegetation to the atmosphere. All of the process involve living matter in some way and aids the quick release of carbon.

EVAPORATION

Rates of evaporation depend on; Humidity of the air = the more humid the air, the closer the saturation point the air is, so less evpaoration will occur Temperature of the air = warmer air can hold more water than cold air Amount of solar energy Availability of water Evaporation = causes water to turn into water vapour, going from the hydrosphere to the atmosphere. Evaporation is also in the form of transpiration involving the biosphere. Can affect any kind of surface water and ice caps. DEW POINT = the point of which water vapour turns into water from the atmosphere to the hydrosphere

IMPACT OF LAND USE ON THE CABRON CYCLE

Rice cultivation: Methane is also produced from rice plantations, releases carbon into atmosphere. It's indicated that rice may contribute to 20% of global methane productions Rice is a primary food source for 50% of world's population, production is likely to continue increasing, releasing more methane Plantations exhaust soil due to the one type of plant removing certain nutrients from soil, harder for other plants to survive, reduces flow of nutrients and carbon, etc. Livestock: Cattle ruminate, produces methane as a by-product. Methane is a greenhouse gas, also releases carbon into atmosphere Cattle in USA emit around 5.5 million tones of methane per year, around 20% of total methane emissions in USA. Has raised issues worldwide about high dependence on meat and dairy products and desirability to find alternatives Deforestation increases to create space for farming, turns from a carbon sink to a carbon source, reduces photosynthesis, reduces movement of carbon round cycle, more carbon in atmosphere Significant impact on small-scale carbon cycles, direct issues to climate change Fertilisers: Artificial fertilisers is the main source of carbon emissions on many farms, however other practises release carbon, e.g. use of machinery powered by fossil fuels, ploughing and harvesting and rearing livestock

DRAINAGE BASIN SYSTEM

River discharge = volume of water in the river at one point in one time

EXAMPLES OF IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Spruce Bark Beetles have boomed in Alaska due to warm summers Melting sea ice in Greenland Melting sea ice in the Arctic ocean Melting ice sheets in West Antarctica Decline of Adelie penguins in Antarctica Snow leopard decrease in the Himalayas Thawing permafrost in Mackenzie Delta in Canada Drought and desertification in south east Asia; India, Thailand and Indonesia Coral bleaching found near the National Park of American Samoa Great Barrier Reef and coral bleaching There is evidence that in western North Pacific Ocean, hurricanes and storms are intensifying Where Hurricane Harvey hit in Texas, example of an intensified hurricane Wildfires in western America, e.g. the 2017 California ones

CONVERTING WATER

Sublimation = water can go straight from ice to water vapour (water from solid to gas) Gas --> solid = deposition Gas --> liquid = condensation Liquid --> solid = freezing Solid --> gas = sublimation Solid --> liquid = melting (fusion) Liquid --> gas = evaporation (vaporisation) LATENT HEAT = the heat required to turn a solid into a liquid or a liquid into a gas, energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state that occurs without changing its temperature. Heat can be absorbed to make this change happen, e.g. for evaporation, melting and sublimation Heat is released by this change, e.g. in deposition, condensation and freezing. The next movement of energy is released

Negative feedback example

Surface temperature increases slightly Decreases the earth's albedo Increased evaporation from the oceans More low clouds in the atmosphere Increases the earth's albedo Surface temperature decreases slightly Decreased evaporation from the oceans Fewer low clouds in the atmosphere Increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere --> increased greenhouse effect and warmer temperatures --> increased evaporation from the oceans --> increased cloud cover and albedo --> temperatures decrease

Paris Agreement - example of mitigation

The agreement sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees. The aim of the mitigation and the Paris agreement of 2015 is to reduce global emissions; A long-term goal of keeping the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 degrees To aim to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change On the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognising that this will take longer for developing countries To undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with the best available science

FORMATION OF CLOUDS

The atmosphere is full of gas particles known as water vapour. There are also tiny particles such as salt and dust - these are called aerosols. Water vapour and aerosols constantly bump into each other. When the air is cooled, some of the water vapour sticks to the aerosols and the hydroscopic nuclei. This is called condensation. The warmer the air is, the more water vapour it can hold. Clouds form when the air rises, becomes saturated and cannot hold any more water. This can happen in 2 ways; (1) the amount of water in the air has increased or (2) the air is cooled to its dew point Finally, as water droplets group together, they become heavy and gravity pools them down as raindrops. If the air is cold enough, the ice crystals remain frozen and fall as snow

THE CARBON BUDGET

The carbon budget = uses data to describe the amount of carbon that is stored and transferred within the carbon cycle. Carbon is commonly measured in units of mass called petagrams 1 (pg) = 1gram15 g Largest stores of carbon = the earth's crust and the oceans, low amount of carbon is stored in the atmosphere and the plants. This is because the carbon transfers are extremely active. The photosynthesis process is extremely significant to the carbon tree. It is largely responsible for the net loss of carbon in the atmosphere and presents the importance of trees as carbon sinks (absorbing more carbon than they release).

THE CARBON CYCLE

The carbon cycle = a closed system and is made up of stores and transfers (but not inputs or outputs) Flux = transfers in the carbon cycle Carbon sink = an area that absorbs lots of carbon, e.g. a rainforest or an ocean Carbon source = where carbon comes from, e.g. coal, oil and gas emit carbon Sere = a succession of vegetation, e.g. sand dunes, the ones closer to the ocean have areas of grass and weeds but as you get further in land, there is more variety in vegetation and biodiversity CARBON STORES: Coal, oil and gas, sedimentary rock, shellfish and coral (the shells and the coral), deep ocean sediments, ocean surface, the food web, phytoplankton, soil, organic carbon, plant, atmosphere

IMPACTS OF THE CARBON CYCLE

The most important role of the carbon cycle is the release of carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane into the atmosphere. These gases absorb long-wave radiation from the earth and warm the lower atmosphere, enabling life on earth to exist. This is the greenhouse effect. In recent decades, increased emissions of carbon have resulted from anthropogenic activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation have increased the concentration of the greenhouse gases, making them more effective in trapping radiation given off by the earth Land: The carbon cycle is responsible for the formation and development of soil. Carbon in the form of organic matter (litter fall) introduces many important nutrients and provides a structure for the soil Carbon in the form of organic matter is essential for plant growth and food production Carbon stored in grass provides fodder for animals Carbon provides a valuable source of energy in the form of wood and fossil fuels Ocean: Carbon can be converted into calcium carbonate, which is used by some marine organisms to build their shells The carbon cycle has an impact on the presence and proliferation of phytoplankton, a basic food for many organisms, phytoplankton consume carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. The carbon is then passed along the marine food chain Atmosphere: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere helps to warm the earth through the greenhouse effect Increased co2 emissions as a result of human activities have led to enhanced greenhouse effect, which threats to have a profound impact on the world's climate Carbon stored in vegetation has a significant effect on the atmosphere, whether that is deforestation (carbon source) or afforestation (carbon sink)

Relief rainfall (orographic rainfall)

The prevailing winds pick up moisture The warm air forced to rise, cool and condense forming clouds The air drops down over the mountain, warming as it does. As it warms it increases the amount of water it can hold, meaning little rainfall occurs here. This is called the shadow effect

FACTORS IN THE SLOW CARBON CYCLE

The slow carbon cycle involves 5 key stages in the movement of carbon around the cycle that takes place over many tens and hundreds of billions of years; The transfer of carbon into the oceans from the atmosphere and land surfaces; carbon dioxide absorption as part of the ocean-atmosphere exchange, erosion of carbon-rich terrestrial surfaces as naturally-acidic rainfall dissolves surface rocks and transfers soluble bicarbonate compounds, via rivers, to the sea The deposition of carbon compounds on the ocean floor; marine plants (including phytoplankton) absorb carbon dioxide and marine creatures take in carbon to construct skeletons and shells. Phytoplankton are consumed by zooplankton and their carbon-rich excrement falls to the ocean floor. The skeletal and shell remains of marine creatures also fall to the sea bed. The conversion of ocean sediments into carbon-rich rock; carbon-rich accumulations of deposits may be converted into carbon-rich rocks (E.G. chalk and limestone) or become contained as concentrations within sandstones and shales to form organic deposits, some of which become fossil-fuel reserves in time. Process = lithification The transfer of carbon rocks to tectonic margins; as sedimentary rocks are created by heat and pressure over millions of years, they are also moved in the direction their crustal plate is moving. If they become a collision margin, they may be uplifted to become surface (fold)mountain ranges. The carbon-rich strata may then be exposed to weathering and erosion in return to the ocean as eroded carbonate rocks. The return of carbon compounds to the atmosphere in volcanic eruptions; at subduction zones, carbon-rich rocks may be ejected at the surface from volcanic eruptions, usually in the form of gaseous compounds into the atmosphere. Here, carbon dioxide contributes to the formation of carbonic acid in clouds, which then begins the process of solution of surface rocks and a starting of the terrestrial component again or being absorbed by ocean surface for marine components. Key ideas: Natural carbon sequestration Burial and compaction = decomposed plants / animals buried to form fossil fuels Chemical weathering = atmospheric co2 creates acidic rain, ends up in seas where it forms calcium bicarbonate, this is absorbed by corals, plankton and shell-building creates, eventually they from rocks, e.g. limestone

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WATER AND CARBON CYCLES

The storage and cycling of both water and carbon enable life to flourish on land and in water. Changes in the magnitude of the stores (such as the amount of carbon stored as biomass) can have massive local and global implications for flora and fauna. KEY INTERACTIONS: Development of acid rain El Nino / increased carbon in atmosphere causes climate changes, e.g. leads to more water / less water (drought) in some areas Tropical rainforests as stores for both carbon and water, generates own precipitation and nutrients in soil Increased carbon in atmosphere melts permafrost, releases more carbon and increases sea levels Increased temps from more carbon in atmosphere, leads to more phytoplankton, release of substance DMS, leads to greater formation of clouds, reduces radiation to earth and temps Acid rain: Co2 and water vapour are released from volcanoes, industry and fossil fuels, trees, deforestation, respiration, etc. Carbon flows into rivers, creates carbon corals, becomes dissolved in rivers / oceans, forms sediments Carbon and some water vapour evaporate from oceans / rivers, condense and is released from clouds in rainwater. Co2 dissolved in rain water means water becomes acidic Acidic rainwater causes more carbonation / weathering of limestone rocks, releases carbon again into oceans / rivers, transports carbon sediments Carbonation = e.g. limestone / chalk, acidic rainwater converts the calcium carbonate into calcium bicarbonate, which is soluble. Dissolved carbon is carried away by rivers into oceans, is used for shell growth / buried to form new limestone deposits Atmosphere: Water is present in atmosphere as water vapour and carbon exists are co2 and methane; all are greenhouse gases, causes temperatures on earth to change due to reflecting energy back to earth. Human activities increase concentration of greenhouse gases in atmosphere. Atmosphere stores water and carbon; water is needed for drinking and irrigation, source of power and energy. Carbon is essential for photosynthesis and creating carbohydrates needed for plant growth. Is also an important greenhouse gas; absorbs long-wave radiation emitted from earth, providing sufficient atmospheric warmth for life to survive Air temp affects ability to absorb moisture, changes larger climatic patterns, development of El Nino, warming of the oceans and results in a reversal of normal circulation of winds within atmosphere over a larger area. Shift in normal pattern of rainfall, catastrophic for local ecosystems. Reversal of normal wind patterns brings drought instead of expected seasonal rains, e.g. Northern Australia suffers water shortages and increased risk of bushfires Biosphere: Water and carbon are needed in plants for photosynthesis; plants use energy from sunlight to convert co2 and water into biomass that gets passed up food chain, photosynthesis requires input of water and carbon Water can absorb / transfer co2 b/c it is soluble in water Plants and trees are important carbon sinks; lock in carbon to grow (sequestration). Tropical rainforests generate own rain. If trees removed, often by burning, releases carbon within atmosphere, but also their role in cycling water is disrupted and local precipitation levels drop, also generates own nutrients in soil Feedback loops: Warmer temperatures in Arctic; high temps increase growing season for plants, increased absorption of carbon Warmer temperatures; melt permafrost, e.g. Siberia. Organic matter trapped in ground is an important carbon store, decomposes as oxygen is introduced. Bacteria involved in decomposition produce co2 and methane as a waste product, gases bubble to surface and escape, INCREASES SEA LEVELS Phytoplankton; live in water, photosynthesise co2 from water to live and grow, are primary producers in aquatic ecosystems sustaining food web, are also important stores of carbon. They release chemical substance called DMS which may promote formation of clouds through condensation over oceans. Increase in phytoplankton associated with warmer temps / more sunshine --> increase in cloudiness / global cooling b/c clouds produce amount of solar radiation reaching earth's surface. Less sunshine may lead to reduction in amount of phytoplankton, reduces cooling effect - NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

Convection rainfall

The surface of the earth is heated by the sun The warm surface heats the air above it. The hot air always rises and as it does it begins to cool and condense Convection produces cumulus-nimbus clouds (heavy dark and towering storm clouds), which produces heavy rain and possible thunder and lightning

CONDENSATION

The temperature of the air drops so the cloud holds more water vapour The temperature of the air is reduced to the dew point, e.g. cold nights in the winter, heat radiates away from earth, ground gets cooler When air rises it cools - as it cools it expands (adiabatic cooling) can occur when the air is forced over hills, this is the orographic effect

4 MAJOR CARBON CYCLES

These 4 different carbon cycles operate over different timescales; Fast organic carbon cycle = months to centuaries and involves transfers of carbon via living things between the atmosphere, soil and biosphere, e.g. organisms respiring / photosynthesis, decaying into the soil / litter Fast inorganic carbon cycle = ocean-atmosphere exchange of carbon dioxide Slow organic cycle = hundreds of millions of years. Long term sequestration (carbon is removed from the atmosphere and held in a solid or liquid form) Slow inorganic cycle = transfer for carbon from the atmosphere to the hydrosphere and then to sedimentary stores of carbon rich rocks in the lithosphere which are then recycled via tectonic movement and subsequent volcanic activity back into the atmosphere CARBON (NATURAL) SEQUESTRATION = range of process that transfer carbon dioxide from oceans and atmosphere to sediments and then rocks E.G. Photosynthesis from marine plants --> turns the carbon into organic matter. Mainly organisms use the carbon to make calcium carbonate. When the plants, marine organisms and shells of the animals fall to the ocean surface, the sediments form rocks, like limestone, a form of sedimentary rock

IMPACT OF DEFORESTATION ON THE CARBON CYCLE

Trees are removed for mining, ranching (breeding animals), building or for growing commercial crops like palm oil and soya. Mining releases co2 and other gases into atmosphere through use of mining equipment which is fueled by fossil fuels Building releases more co2 into atmosphere through machinery Ranches and rice plantations release huge amounts of methane, releases carbon into atmosphere Trees are removed through 2 processes: Felling (cutting down the trees) - less trees to absorb carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis Burning - trees release huge amounts of carbon when burnt and the store has been removed from the cycle The trees are used for their 2 resources: Timber is a valuable product used for furniture Timber is also harvested for firewood Key points: Non-disturbed forest = when a tree dies it decomposes very slowly and releases carbon into the atmosphere. During this, new vegetation starts to grow and compensates for the carbon release and through photosynthesis absorbs the carbon released by the dead tree. This system is carbon neutral - differing from a forest with deforestation When deforestation occurs, through burning, carbon is released into the atmosphere and the store is removed from the system. There is less absorption of carbon if the land is used for cattle ranching. The forest has become a carbon source rather than a carbon sink. The forest releases more carbon than it absorbs Deforestation mainly occurs in tropical regions, e.g. the Amazon in South America. Deforestation accounts for 20% of all global co2 emissions. Deforestation has an effect globally and regionally.

Frontal rainfall

UK experiences a lot of frontal rainfall because we have weather systems called depressions that bring lots of cold and warm air together Process: Areas of warm and cool air are blown towards each other by the wind The lighter, less dense, warm air is forced to rise over the denser, cold air Frontal rain produces a variety of clouds which bring moderate to heavy rain

IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON THE CARBON CYCLE

Urbanisation = replacing open countryside with concrete and tarmac; the development of urban growth. Causes a major change in land use, important stores in carbon cycle are replaced / covered up with impermeable surface. Vegetation: Less photosynthesis b/c there is less vegetation, means less carbon is absorbed from atmosphere Less respiration b/c there is less vegetation, less carbon is emitted into the atmosphere Soil: Carbon is locked in soil meaning it does not interact with vegetation, it doesn't contribute to the carbon cycle

CONCEPT OF WATER BALANCE AND FACTORS THAT AFFECT IT

Water balance = relationship between precipitation and evapotranspiration Natural factors: Seasonal changes; deciduous trees losing their leaves; varying evapotranspiration rates in summer, winter and autumn Volcanoes and changes from billions of years ago; volcanoes release carbon dioxide that affects the carbon cycle but also water vapour that when condensed it forms lakes and oceans Short-term weather changes; increased precipitation El nino; changes the weather patterns and alters where is rains; changes in precipitation Milankovitch cycles; changes in the earth's orbit and eccentricity, how close earth is to the sun, therefore the temperature and heat; more evapotranspiration when closer to the sun Human factors: Deforestation; decreases interception, river discharge increased, more precipitation reaches river, less evapotranspiration Urbanisation; increased interception, evaporation and runoff due to impermeable surfaces, both evaporation and river discharge increase, less transpiration Land use change; compression of the land from cattle ranching increases surface runoff to rivers Conclusion: Throughout history, natural changes seem to have a more significant effect on the water balance Yet, in the last 200 years, human effects have an increasing impact due to increasing rates of deforestation and urbanisation

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS

Wildlife: A 1.5% rise in temperatures would endanger 20-30% of species Global warming is going to be the likely cause for the extinction of species; e.g. tigers, snow leopards, Asian rhinos, orang-utans, African elephants, polar bears and Adelie penguins Tigers = at further risk of wildfires and rising sea levels Snow leopards = warming in the Himalayas is already 3 times the global average temperature. This is the prime habitat and continued global warming will cause their range to shrink as the tree line will move up higher, this will isolate them and affect their prey Asian rhinos = live on floodplain grasslands in northern India and Nepal, rely on annual monsoons to bring rain to replenish vegetation they feed on, climate change could disrupt weather patterns Droughts and wildfires: Wildfires in Western America, desertification in southeast Asia; India, Thailand and Indonesia, California 2017 wildfires Higher spring and summer temperatures and earlier spring snow-melting results in forests that are hotter and drier for longer periods of time, prime conditions for wild-fires to ignite E.G. = wildfires in Western America. Temperatures in the American West have gone up quickly; since 1970 they have increased by twice the global average As the climate warms, moisture and precipitation levels change, wet areas become wetter and drier areas become drier. Consequently, moist, forested areas face greater threats from wildfires as conditions grow drier and hotter --> links to desertification Ice and snow melts: Melting ice in Greenland, melting ice sheets in West Antarctica, melting sea ice in the Antarctic sea The Arctic has warmed more than the rest of the world and its ice cover has thinned and shrunk The loss speeds up the warming; the sunlight is absorbed by the darker ocean instead of being reflected into space by ice (decreased albedo, less reflection of radiation) Melting ice doesn't raise the sea levels yet the melting land does Mountain glaciers are in global retreat Thawing permafrost: Mackenzie Delta in Canada = thawing permafrost results in the seeping of gases and 17% of the total emissions from the land are from permafrost melting One of the most feared feedback loops of climate change is the vast amount of land that is permanently frozen (permafrost) melting and releasing gases into the atmosphere due to a warming climate The organic matter trapped in the permafrost would release methane, co2 and other greenhouse gases that would have other chain reactions on the environment Rising sea levels: Sea levels could rise by 3 feet in 2100. If temperatures rise by 4 degrees globally, 1/3rd of Bangladesh will be underwater Total sea level rise of 8/9 inches since 1900 has contributed to sharp increase in coastal flooding. Superstorms also cause floods and increase damage along coast due to increased sea levels Sea levels at specific locations may be more or less than global average due to local factors, E.G. land subsidence from natural processes, withdrawal of groundwater or fossil fuels Changes in regional ocean currents Whether the land is rebounding from compressive weight of ice age glaciers In urban settings, rising sea levels threaten infrastructure necessary for local jobs and regional industries, roads, bridges, subways, water supplies, oil and gas wells, power plants, sewage treatment, landfills - virtually all human infrastructure is at risk of rising sea levels Rising sea levels 'down' wetlands; wetlands normally grow fast enough to keep up with the sea level rise, but recently the sea has been rising too fast for wetlands to keep their blades of grass above the water Coral reefs and sea grass meadows are also in danger of drowning since they can only photosynthesise in relatively shallow water Coral reefs: Coral bleaching events in the National Park of American Samoa occurred in 1994, 2002, 2003 and 2009. By 2050, 5% of the Great Barrier Reef will remain, if climate change continues like it is Coral reefs cannot survive if the water is too high of a temperature or if the sea level is too high. Global warming has already led to an increase in frequency and severity. Warmer water temperatures led to coral bleaching b/c coral is sensitive to changes in temperature. If water temperatures stay higher for weeks, the zooxanthellae that the coral depends on for some of its food leave their tissue Without the zooxanthellae, the corals turn white b/c the zooxanthellae gives the coral colour. White coral is weak, unhealthy and more able to contract disease The sensitive coral and algae will also be starved of oxygen, causing dramatic bleaching and the possible death of the coral Extreme weather events: Global temperatures are increasing certain types of extreme events, including heatwaves, coastal flooding, extreme precipitation events, monsoons and more severe droughts. Hurricanes: Impacts on the coastline, Hurricane Harvey intensified due to climate change, higher speeds and more precipitation due to warm weather in atmosphere, warmer sea temperatures from climate change increase the number or intensity of hurricanes As a result of global warming there are more intense hurricanes that carry higher speeds and more precipitation. The impacts of the trend are likely to be emphasised by sea level rise and a growing population across coastlines New research estimates that as the earth has warmed, the probability of a storm with precipitation levels like Hurricane Harvey was higher in Texas in 2017 than it was at the end of the 20th century There is evidence that in the western North Pacific Ocean, hurricanes, known as typhoons, are intensifying Storms: High sea surface temperatures in the Atlantic Hurricane Sandy's storm surge was worse due to high sea levels All storms require moisture, energy and certain winds to develop the right conditions for a storm An increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will boost temperatures over most land surfaces; also an increased risk of drought and increased intensity of storms, including tropical cyclones with higher wind speeds, a wetter Asian monsoon and possibly more intense mid-latitude storms Climate change --> extreme temperatures, increased likelihood of weather-related natural disasters and less cold weather and a greater probability of hot weather Storm formations: Global warming could affect storm formation by decreasing the temperature difference between the poles and the equator, the temperature difference fuels mid-latitude storms Climate change --> increased temperatures --> temperatures of pole and equator are more similar --> intense storms Warmer temperatures --> increase the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere At the equator where conditions are already hot and humid, the change won't be huge. At the poles the air is cold and dry; extra eat and water vapour would increase the temperatures here greatly As the differences in temperatures between the poles and the equator decreases, so would the number of storms Temperature of poles and equator become similar --> fewer storms BUT, this could increase the increase the intensity of the storms. As the temperatures would rise, more and more water vapour would evaporate into the atmosphere, and water vapour is a fuel for storms (increase humidity) Increase temperatures and similarity in the poles and the equator temperatures and high humidity and water vapour --> intense cycles of drought and flooding Increased humidity would make droughts and floods more intense as more of a region's precipitation falls in a single larger storm rather than a series of small ones Increased humidity and water vapour --> more intense droughts and flooding Tropical storms: A warmer, wetter atmosphere could also affect tropical storms, perhaps spawning more hurricanes More heat and water in the atmosphere and warmer sea temperatures could provide more fuel to increase the wind speeds of tropical storms Storm surges / flooding: lastly, melting glaciers and ice caps will likely cause sea levels to rise, which would make coastal flooding more severe when a storm comes ashore