WC Chapter 17: The Middle East

Hijab (as specific type of veil vs. generic term for covering one's self)

= a scarf that is wrapped around the head and leaves the face exposed

Burka

= covers body completely usually with just a mesh over eyes to see through

Niqab

= face veil that covers everything except the eyes (can be separate mouth and head cover)

covenant

A covenant is an agreement (generally a binding agreement between two parties).

Branches of Islam

A) Sunni Muslim - most Muslims are Sunni- (any devote Muslim can be Caliph) B) Shiite/Shias Muslim - Branch of Islam that believes only descendants of Ali (Muhammad's son in law) could be caliphs (successor to the prophet)

"Jews of the Diaspora"

Jews of the Diaspora are the scattered communities of Jewish people throughout the world who managed to preserve their religious and cultural traditions despite having been driven out from their homeland.

Jewish Religious Holidays (High Holy Days)

The main holidays which most non-Jews have heard of are Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Chanukkah, and Pesach (Passover). —Rosh Hashanah = the Jewish New Year: no work is permitted, the Shofar (ram's horn trumpet) is blown 100 times during the day; the day is spent in the Temple; begins the new Jewish Year. —Yom Kippur = Day of Atonement: arguably the most important holy day; a day set aside to atone for your sins of the past year; no work is permitted. —Chanukkah = the festival of lights; not a very important religious holiday (well-known because of proximity to Christmas which is ironic because the holiday is celebrating rebellion AGAINST assimilation); celebrates miracle of lamp oil lasting 8 days rather than the 1 day it should have lasted. —Pesach (Passover) = represents the beginning of the harvest season but more well known for celebrating the "passing over" of Jewish households when G_d was slaying the firstborn sons of all households in Egypt; Pesach involves major dietary restrictions.

Quran

—(Quran is also sometimes transliterated as Koran in English.) —The Quran is the sacred religious text of Islam (like the Bible for Christianity or the Torah for Judaism). —Muslims believe that the text of the Quran was revealed to their prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years.

Sunni vs. Shia

—(Short version)—The Shia believe that only descendants of Muhammad can be Caliph, but the Sunni believe that any devout Muslim can be Caliph. —Longer Version with details... —Sunni Muslims believe that any true (devout) believer can become a Caliph. —Shia (Shiite) Muslims believe that only a true descendant (bloodline) of Muhammad through his son-in-law Ali can become a Caliph. [Note, your powerpoint calls Ali his brother-in-law, this is NOT correct. Ali was his cousin and son-in-law...yes, Muhammad's first cousin Ali married Muhammad's daughter and became Muhammad's heir).]

5 Pillars of Islam

—1. MONOTHEISM—Islam is monotheistic (you must believe in the one god Allah and that his prophet was Muhammad). [SHAHADA = FAITH] —2. PRAYER—You must pray 5 times a day and Friday is a special day of prayer (if possible you should bow facing Mecca when you pray). [SALAT = PRAYER] —3. GIVING—You should give to those in need. [ZAKAT = ALMS GIVING] —4. FASTING—Ritual fasting is a component of Islam. The main time Muslims have to fast is during the month of Ramadan when they can't have anything to eat or drink from dawn until dusk.[SAWM = FASTING]. —5. PILGRIMAGE— Every Muslim has to do this at least once during their lifetime. [HAJJ = Pilgrimage to Mecca.]

caliph

—A Caliph is a leader in the Muslim community who is regarded as a successor to the prophet Muhammad. —Sunni Muslims believe that any true (devout) believer can become a Caliph. —Shia (Shiite) Muslims believe that only a true descendant (bloodline) of Muhammad through his son-in-law Ali can become a Caliph. [Note, your powerpoint calls Ali his brother-in-law, this is NOT correct. Ali was his cousin and son-in-law...yes, Muhammad's first cousin Ali married Muhammad's daughter and became Muhammad's heir).]

saint

—A Saint is a type of Christian holy person. (The picture is of Bernini's "Ecstasy of St. Teresa" where she is being divinely inspired by an angel.) —Many Christian saints were also martyrs.

bazaar

—A bazaar is a local marketplace in North Africa and Southwest Asia.

Jihad

—A controversial term! —According to your class powerpoint = It translates into "struggle in God's service" —In Arabic = a noun meaning "to strive, to apply oneself, to struggle, to persevere." —an Islamic term referring to the religious duty of Muslims to maintain the religion. —Muslims and scholars do not all agree on its definition. —Jihad refers to a person's inner struggle to achieve spiritual peace as well as any battle in defense of Islam —Media/Journalists sometimes refer to jihad as "holy war"

Martyr

—A martyr is a person who suffers and/or dies for their beliefs. —Many Christians have been persecuted for their beliefs over the centuries.

mosque

—A mosque is an Islamic house of worship.

prophet

—A prophet is a messenger of a god or goddess. —pro = for/on behalf of —phemi (Greek) = to speak

polytheism

—A religion characterized by the belief in more than one god or goddess (often many gods and goddesses). —poly = many —theos = god

Crusades

—A series of military campaigns sanctioned by the Catholic church that started in the 11th century and continued for several more centuries. —The Crusades were supposed to get back access to the Holy Land from Muslims for European Christians. —Crusaders were forgiven for their sins by the Pope which meant that they could get away with a lot of questionable behaviors (raping and pillaging) because they had sworn oaths to be Crusaders and uphold the Catholic church.

Hieroglyphics

—A system of writing that uses pictures and symbols to represent sounds, phonemes, and words.

theocracy

—A theocracy is a form of government where the ruler claims to rule on behalf of god. —Basically = a government controlled by religious leaders. —Many people say that Iran basically became a theocracy under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini after the Islamic Revolution in Iran of 1979. Even though the Ayatollah was not technically an elected member of the government, he was effectively running the state. —The government of the Vatican is a theocracy with the reigning pope as its leader.

Imam

—According to your class powerpoint an Islamic leader of a session of prayer. —an Imam is an Islamic leadership position most commonly in the context of a worship leader of a mosque and Muslim community by Sunni Muslims. In this context, Imams may lead Islamic worship services, serve as community leaders, and provide religious guidance. —For Shi'a Muslims, the Imam has a more central meaning and role in Islam through the concept of Imamah, the term is only applicable to those members of the house of the prophet ahl al-Bayt, designated as infallibles. —Imam may also be used in the form of a title for renowned Muslim scholars.

Jewish places of worship

—According to your class powerpoint, Jews worship in a Temple, but it is a little more complicated than that. —The use of the word "temple" to describe modern houses of prayer offends some traditional Jews, because it trivializes the importance of The Temple. —A Jewish "church" is called a synagogue, shul or temple, but most people consider "synagogue" the basic term for the Jewish equivalent of a church rather than "temple" (the choice of title varies the particular sect of Judaism to which a worshiper belongs). —The Hebrew term is beit k'nesset (literally, House of Assembly), although you will rarely hear this term used in conversation in English. —Shul = the term usually used by Orthodox and Chasidic Jews (Shul is a Yiddish word derived from the German word for "school" and stresses the role of the synagogue as a place of study). —Synagoge is the word usually used by Conservative Jews (it is actually a Greek translation of the Hebrew Beit K'nesset and means "place of assembly") —"Temple" is usually ther term used by Reform Jews because they consider every one of their meeting places to be equivalent to, or a replacement for, The Temple in Jerusalem (the ancient center of Jewish worship where sacrifices were performed).

Iraq

—After the Islamic revolution in Iran the president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, praised Ayatollah Khomeini but then backed out on his support when Khomeini declared that the revolution needed to spread. • Most people think this was because Saddam did not want to give up his power to a theocracy. • In the 1980s Iraq went to war with Iran and probably around 1 million people were killed as a result partly to avoid expansion of the Islamic Revolution into Iraq —In 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait for its oil and for its access to the Persian Gulf. • This led to what is called the first Gulf War. • The United States and its allies sent Iraq packing in 1991. • After the first Gulf War the U.N. passed a bunch of sanctions against Iraq.

Allah

—Allah is the Muslim name for God. —Allah is considered to be the creator of the universe in Islam.

Christianity

—Although people of credit Jesus with the founding of Christianity, most scholars prefer to credit Paul with the founding of the religion citing the fact that Jesus was not interested in founding a church but in spreading the word of God. —The main holy book of Christianity is the Christian Bible (there are different versions, however, because different sects have different beliefs). —Christianity is a monotheistic religion. —Christians worship in a church —Peter and Paul are two of the major Prophets of Christianity. —Christianity stresses love and compassion for other people. —Followers of Christianity believe that Jesus was the son of God. -Christianity is currently the world's largest religion with approximately 2.1 billion followers.

How did Islam spread?

—Arab armies were united by Islamic beliefs. —Islam taught that Muslim warriors who died in the service to Islam would win a place in paradise. —Under the leadership of Caliphs, Muslim armies conquered neighboring lands and created a vast empire. —Over several centuries Islam expanded into areas of Asia, North Africa, and parts of Europe.

Bible

—Bible is a word from the Greek word "biblia" which means books. —There is no one single "bible," but the term bible refers to a group of texts sacred to both Jews and Christians. —Basically there are different versions of the bible but they have the same group of texts at their core and they are also part of the Torah.

calligraphy

—Calligraphy is the art of beautiful writing.

Christianity, its spread, its reach

—Christianity is the largest religion in the world. —In antiquity it is theorized that Christianity succeeded largely because other competing monotheistic religions were too restrictive (Mithraism was restricted to males and the worship of Isis required wealth to reach higher levels of initiation). —In modern times the theory behind Christianity's popularity is much the same as antiquity: the alternatives—Judaism and Islam—are far more restrictive of their adherents making Christianity more appealing.

Christian Religious Holidays

—Christmas = celebration of the birth of Christ which actually happened later in the Spring. —The date of Christmas was actually the birth date of the Roman God (favorite of the army) Mithras. —Easter = Celebration of Christ's resurrection from the dead. —Other Special Days to honor Saints (Saints are not a major part of all sects of Christianity).

Abraham

—Class powerpoint calls Abraham the founder of Judaism. —• First of the three biblical patriarchs (Abraham, his son Isaac, and his son Jacob) and prominent as an example of faith in three major religions : Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. —Abraham who was a herder who lived in ancient Mesopotamia around 1800 B.C. and whom the Jews believe that they descended. —The Tanakh says that Abraham made a covenant with God that if Abraham would move to the land of Canaan (Canaan included what today are Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian territories, northwestern Jordan, and some western areas of Syria) then God would bless Abraham and his descendants. —Abraham's descendants are later called the Israelites and believed (still believe) that if they followed God's laws they would continue to be blessed.

dietary law

—Dietary laws are rules in certain religions that detail which foods people can and cannot eat and how food should be prepared and handled.

epic

—Epic (glossary) = tales or poems about heroes or heroines —Epic (as a noun) an epic poem which is long and written in an elevated style that tells the exploits and adventures of a hero (or anti-hero). —Epic (as an adjective) = heroic, impressive, majestic.

Muslim attitudes toward Jesus

—In Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets and the Masîḥ (Messiah). —To Muslims, Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin, but was neither the son of God nor the victim of crucifixion. —According to the Quran, Jesus was not crucified but was physically raised into Heaven by God.[4:157] —Judaism rejects the Christian and Islamic belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh (see Jewish religious texts).

Christians

—In antiquity = Jews and non-jews alike throughout the Mediterranean who accepted the teachings of Jesus and proclaimed him the son of God forming churches and communities of worship. —Stories about Jesus and the writings of the early Christians form the part of the Christian bible known as the New Testament.

Women in the Middle East

—In the past 50 years, changes have occurred in the status of urban women in the region. —Today, many women in the cities have jobs in business, education, and government . —Saudi Arabia- Women may not vote until 2015, drive, or travel unless accompanied by a male relative. —Turkey is more secular (non religious) having had a female prime minister.

Islam

—Islam means submission to the word of Allah. —The sacred book of Islam is the Quran (Koran) —Followers of Islam are called Muslims.

Jerusalem

—Jerusalem is an important holy place for Judaism, Christianity, AND Islam —The Temple Mount —where THE Temple of the Jews is located —where God supposedly created man and rested on the 7th day after the creation of the Earth. —where The Western Wall (aka The Wailing Wall) is located. This is what remains of the wall of the 2nd great temple built in 537 B.C. [Important to Jews] —Dome of the Rock [sacred to Islam] built in A.D. 691 on the location of the Temple Mount. It Contains a rock where it is believed that Muhammad (founder of Islam) ascended to heaven. —The Holy Sepulcher = not far from the Temple Mount. Church in Jerusalem where Jesus was believed to be crucified and buried . Built in A.D. 333

Jesus

—Jesus is a historical figure born in Palestine who was the central figure of Christianity. [Jesus, also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central figure of Christianity, whom the teachings of most Christian denominations hold to be the Son of God.] —Jesus was a Jewish Rabbi who was later baptized—Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean, Jewish rabbi who preached his message orally, was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified by the order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate. — Christianity regards Jesus as the awaited Messiah (or "Christ") of the Old Testament and refers to him as Jesus Christ, a name that is also used in non-Christian contexts. —Jesus preached the importance of love and compassion for others and that if people placed their trust in god he would forgive their sins. —Jesus began his preaching around A.D. 30 in what is today the area of Israel and the West Bank. —He is often called a prophet and the founder of Christianity. Many people think he was the Messiah (a savior chosen by G_d). —Others, however, claim that Jesus was not the founder of Christianity because did not intend to found a religion and say that one of the disciples Peter or Paul founded Christianity. —Followers of Christianity believe that Jesus was the son of God. —Some Jews greeted Jesus as a savior, others rejected him. —Jesus was convicted of treason by the Romans and crucified. —After Jesus' death his followers believed that he rose from the dead and was the son of God.

King David

—King David was King of the Israelites who formed a kingdom in the area of present-day Israel around 1025-1000 B.C. with the city of Jerusalem as capital.

King Solomon

—King Solomon was the son of King David who was credited with building the First Temple of Judaism on the Temple Mount. —He was a biblical king who was known for his wisdom and his wealth.

Jewish attitudes toward Jesus

—Mainstream Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God, or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity. —Judaism holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. —According to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi, who delivered his prophesies in the fifth century BC.

Mecca

—Mecca is a city in the Hejaz in Saudi Arabia.[4] It is the capital of that kingdom's Makkah Region that was the birthplace of Muhammad and the site of Muhammad's first revelation of the Quran (specifically, a cave 3 km (2 mi) from Mecca) —Mecca is regarded as the holiest city in the religion of Islam. —Mecca is home to the Kaaba, by majority description Islam's holiest site, as well as being the direction of Muslim prayer. —Mecca was long ruled by Muhammad's descendants, the sharifs, acting either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger polities. —It was conquered by Ibn Saud in 1925. —Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj. —non-Muslims are prohibited from entering Mecca.

Messiah

—Messiah = (literally) "anointed one" —A Messiah was a saviour or liberator of a group of people, most commonly in the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam). —In the Hebrew Bible, a messiah is a king or High Priest traditionally anointed with holy anointing oil. —Messiahs were NOT exclusively Jewish, as the Hebrew Bible refers to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, as a messiah for his decree to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple.

monotheism

—Monotheism is religion centered around the belief in a SINGLE (ONE) god or goddess. —Mono = one; only —theos = god

monotheistic

—Monotheistic = pertaining to/characterized by monotheism (adjective). —A monotheistic religion is one in which only one god/goddess is worshipped. —Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are all monotheistic religions.

Moses

—Moses is the name of the prophet to whom the Jews believe God revealed the laws they would need to follow in order to continue to be blessed. —According the the Hebrew bible the Israelites had fled to Egypt because of a drought and been enslaved there, but Moses led them back out of Egypt. —During the flight from Egypt Moses was supposed to have received the laws including the 10 commandments from God on top of Mt. Sinai. —These laws included an insistence on monotheism (the Israelites were not allowed to worship other gods or images made by humans--known as graven images) and the demand that all people, rich and poor alike, should be treated fairly. —After wandering the desert for 40 years Moses died within sight of the Promised Land. —Dates for the life of Moses range from the 16th through 13th centuries B.C.

Muhammad

—Muhammad was a man from Arabia born in A.D. 570 and considered by non-Muslims to be the founder of Islam. —Muslims think of Muhammad as the man who restored the faith of Islam that was originally established by other prophets (including Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus). —Muslims believe that Muhammad was the last and greatest prophet of Islam. —Muhammad is credited with uniting the Arabian peninsula under the monotheistic religion of Islam. —According to Muslims Muhammad heard messages (for about 23 years) from the angel Gabriel telling him to preach about God. —He preached to polytheistic Arabs that they should practice monotheism and worship only one god (Allah). —Migrated to Yathrib (Medina) in A.D. 622 (the Hijira). —Returned to Mecca in A.D. 630. —Died in A.D. 632. —At his death, much of the Arabian peninsula had converted to Islam. —After his death leaders known as Caliphs led the Muslim community.

Judaism

—Older than Christianity or Islam. —Followers of Judaism are known as Jews. —Jews believe that they were descendants of Abraham, a herder who lived in ancient Mesopotamia around 1800 B.C. —Jews believe that individuals are responsible for their actions.

Rome and Christianity

—On 27 February 380, with the Edict of Thessalonica put forth under Theodosius I, the Roman Empire officially adopted Trinitarian Christianity as its state religion.

polytheistic

—Polytheistic = pertaining to/characterized by polytheism —A polytheistic religion is one in which more than one god/goddess is worshipped. —Hinduism, Buddhism, and Shintoism are all polytheistic religions (although Hindus sometimes argue that their religion is too different to fit neatly into this category since their multiple gods are manifestations of a single divine force).

Death and name of Jesus

—Prior to his death Jesus is known as "Jesus of Nazareth." —After his death Jesus was eventually known as Jesus Christ. —Paul actually calls Jesus: "Christ Jesus" —Christ = Christos = Messiah (Hebrew term) —Christ is originally a title that then becomes part of Jesus' name. —When one sees "Christ Jesus" it means "The Messiah Jesus."

What does the term Shah mean?

—Shah was the term for the King/Emperor/Leader of Iran derived from ancient Persian. —The last Shah of Iran was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi who was overthrown in 1979 and later died in exile in Cairo Egypt.

terrorism

—Terrorism is the use of violence against civilians to achieve a political goal. —Terrorism is the term for violence used against people or the government in the hopes of winning political goals.

Judaism's holy texts (Tanakh, Torah, and Talmud)

—The "Tanakh" is the Hebrew Bible. —Class powerpoint calls the Torah the Holy Book of Judaism (this is not quite correct, it one part of the Hebrew Bible, but not the whole thing.) —The "Torah" is the first 5 books of the "Tanakh" and is also known as the Pentateuch (picture = Torah). —The "Torah" is also the first 5 books of the 46 books of the Old Testament of the Christian Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). —The Talmud is a series of histories of Judaism and commentaries that were originally oral.

Islamic Calendar

—The Islamic calendar is based on a lunar calendar. —The Islamic calendar is 11-12 days shorter than the solar (Gregorian) calendar so the date of Ramadan falls on different days of the solar (Gregorian) calendar every year.

Jews and Romans

—The Jewish Revolt against the Roman empire began in A.D. 66. (not A.D. 70) and the Roman General Vespasian was sent by the Emperor Nero to handle the uprising. —The Jewish Revolt was mostly over after the Roman siege of Jerusalem by Titus in A.D. 70 (in the name of his father, the Emperor Vespasian), although fighting continued outside of Jerusalem until A.D. 73. (the battle of Masada was at the end of the revolt). —The Roman Diaspora of the Jews dates to after the battle of Jerusalem in 70. —Your class powerpoint makes it seem as though the post-70 Roman Diaspora is the original big diaspora, this is not standard scholarship.

Kaaba

—The Kaaba or Ka'aba is a cuboid building at the center of Islam's most sacred mosque, Al-Masjid al-Haram (Sacred Mosque), in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. —It is the most sacred site in Islam. —Believed to have been built by Abraham and his son Ishmael. [The story of Abraham and Ishmael is also told in the Bible and the Torah.] —Muhammad is credited with rebuilding the temple and placing a "black stone" (meteorite) as the corner stone as well as the Koran. —It is considered the "House of God" and has a similar role as the Tabernacle and Holy of Holies in Judaism and Christianity. —Wherever they are in the world, Muslims are expected to face the Kaaba when performing salat (prayer). —From any point in the world, the direction facing the Kaaba is called the qibla. —Many Arabs believe that the black stone of the Kaaba is a meteorite that was sent from heaven.

Conquest and Diaspora

—The Kingdom of Israel was occupied and ruled by the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. —The Diaspora = in this context with a capital "D" = the scattering of the Jewish people when they were forced to leave their homeland. •(As a general term "diaspora" means any dispersion of people from their original homeland.) —The term Diaspora comes up long before the Romans conquered Israel and scholars use the term The Diaspora to refer to the multiple events of major dispersion of the Jewish people out from their homeland.

The Ten Commandments

—The Ten Commandments (aka the Decalogue) = a set of commandments which the Bible says were given to the Israelites by God at Mount Sinai. —10 Commandments appear twice in the Hebrew Bible (@Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:4-21) —According to Exodus, God inscribed them on two stone tablets and gave them to Moses. —They include instructions (to worship only God, to honour parents, and to keep the sabbath) AND prohibitions (against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, adultery, theft, dishonesty, and coveting). —Different religious groups have different traditions for how to interpret AND how to number them. —Judaism and Christianity attibute them to Moses, but Islam doesn't mention him, just the commandments.

Iran

—The country of Iran is currently an Islamic republic. —Iran was more liberal until 1979 when conservative Muslims overthrew the government and instituted Islamic law.

Sept. 11, 2001 (aka 9/11)

—The date when the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda launched a series of four suicide attacks of airplanes on important landmarks in the United States. • two planes crashed into the World Trade Center in New York City • one plane crashed into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. • one plane that people think was supposed to crash into the Capitol in Washington, D.C. but crashed in Pennsylvania because passengers sacrificed themselves to try to regain control of the plane —The September 11 attacks were used by the Bush administration as justification for declaring the (Global) War on Terror and eventually the invasion of Afghanistan with the goal of getting rid of the Taliban.

Ramadan

—The major religious holiday of Islam is Ramadan. —Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim year, during which strict fasting is observed from sunrise to sunset. —The dates of Ramadan in 2015 were Thursday, the 18th of June and continued for 30 days until Friday, the 17th of July.

Hijira (or Hejira)

—The migration. —Hijira is the name given to the migration in A.D. 622 when Muhammad and his followers left Mecca and went to Yathrib (which he later renamed Medina) because he had been warned of a plot to assassinate him. —Medina (new name for Yathrib) means "City of the Prophet."

What does the term Hajj mean?

—The word "Hajj" is the Arabic word that means pilgrimage. —Hajj is the term for the pilgrimage to the holy city of Makkah (Mecca) which has to be completed at least once during one's lifetime by a devout Muslim. • It is one of the 5 pillars of Islam (pilgrimage = hajj)

The Hebrew Calendar

—This is the year 5776 according to the Hebrew Calendar (not 5775 like your class powerpoint states) because Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, was just celebrated. [You can't just use 3750 B.C. and then add the years A.C. because the Hebrew and (Julio-)Gregorian calendars do not align exactly.

Rules about # of Wives in the Koran

—Traditional interpretations of the Koran (Quran) say that a man can have up to 4 wives (polygyny). —Not all countries where Islam is the major religion allow for this. In some countries it is common in others it is rare or non-existent.

Missionary

—a person sent by a church into an area to carry on evangelism or other activities, as educational or hospital work —a person strongly in favor of a program, set of principles, etc., who attempts to persuade or convert others —a person who is sent on a mission. —missionaries are sent out by many religions

Facts about Synagogues

• A synagogue is a place of worship and study, and a "town hall" • Synagogues are run by laypeople and financed by membership dues • There are several important ritual items found in the synagogue • Non-Jews may visit a synagogue, but dress and should behave appropriately

Results of the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran:

• Iran became way more conservative. • Ayatollah Khomeini was put in charge and Islamic law was instituted in what was basically a theocracy. • Most people agree that minorities (including women and homosexuals) have very few actual rights and are actively persecuted. For example, women are supposed to be equal under the constitution, but only as far as Islamic law allows (which most westerners consider pretty repressive towards women).

Other important types of coverings (hijabs)

• Shayla = long rectangular scarf that passes over head and is pinned/tucked at shoulders (popular in the gulf region) • Chador = full body cloak often worn with a smaller scarf underneath; popular mainly in Iran • Al-Amira = two-piece veil consisting of a close-fitting cap and a tube-like scarf • Khimar = long veil that hangs like a cape to the waist but leaves the face exposed

How do Muslim women cover their faces?

• The laws for what has to be covered are not explicit in the Koran and women who do cover their bodies do so in a lot of different ways. • HIJAB = generic word for covering/veil and there are different types...