WGU C963 American politics and US Constitution

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

A French man who believed that humans are naturally good and free and can rely on their instincts. He also advocated a democracy because he believed the government should exist to protect common good. . He also called for a rigid division of gender roles, believing women should be subordinate in social life.

loose constructionist

A person who interprets the Constitution in a way that allows the federal government to take actions that the constitution does not specifically forbid it from taking

Non-mandatory Participation

One prominent reason for low national turnout is that participation is not mandated.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of ratification. feared the power of the national government and believed state legislatures could better protect their freedoms.

Gender (voter turnout):

Previously women voted less than men, recently women are voting more than men · While women do not vote exclusively for one political party, 41% are likely to identify as Democrats and only 25% are likely to identify as Republicans.

Reserved power

The 10th Amendment affirms this right. Any powers not prohibited by the constitution or delegated to the national government; powers reserved to the states and denied to the federal government. · This Amendment is the reason why each state has its own health and safety rules and even its own marriage and divorce laws. · The state of Utah allows grocery and convenience stores to sell only "3.2 beer" (beer with no more than 3.2% alcohol content by weight). · One example is a city's prohibiting the sale of tobacco products within 100 yards of a school.

Congressional campaign funding sources

These amounts are adjusted every two years, based on inflation. · Individuals may contribute up to $2,700 per candidate per election. Individuals may also give $5,000 to PACs and $33,400 to a national party committee. · Soft money · Hard money · Traditional PAC · Super PAC's · PACs that contribute to more than one candidate are permitted to contribute $5,000 per candidate per election, and up to $15,000 to a national party. PACs created to give money to only one candidate are limited to only $2,700 per candidate.

Super PACs

These are PACs through which corporations and unions can spend virtually unlimited amounts of money on behalf of political candidates. · can't give money directly to individual candidates.

Social Groups (Socialization Agent)

These groups include our gender, peers, race, and religion. We are affected both by involuntary and voluntary social groups. The gender gap plays a pivotal role in public opinion. The gender gap refers to the marked differences in political opinion between men and women. The gender gap reveals that men tend to be more conservative while women tend to be more liberal in such areas as social roles and military intervention.

Lobbying Disclosure Act

This act requires the registration of lobbyists representing any interest group and devoting more than 20 percent of their time to it.

Marbury v. Madison

This case establishes the Supreme Court's power of Judicial Review-Thomas jefferson refused to deliver appointment papers and the supreme court found federal law unconstitutional

Incumbency

This is retrospective voting, but it requires little of the voter. In congressional and local elections, incumbents win reelection up to 90% of the time, a result called the incumbency advantage.

Personal Characteristics

Voters make decisions based upon candidates' physical characteristics, such as attractiveness or facial features. They may also vote based on gender or race because they assume the elected official will make policy decisions based on a demographic shared with the voters.

Implied power

The Elastic or Necessary & Proper Clause. Powers used by the national government not specifically defined in the constitution. One way in which Congress is able to use implied powers is the use of the elastic clause, or the Necessary and Proper Clause, which enables Congress "to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying" out its constitutional responsibilities. · passage of the Clean Air Act of 1963 by Congress · is Congress's imposing a draft in a time of war.

Powers under the Articles of Confederation (national government):

The Power to Borrow and Coin Money The Power to Declare War The Power to Make Treaties and Alliances with Other Nations The Power to Regulate Trade with the Native Americans The Power to Settle Disputes among Other States

Circuit Courts of Appeals

The judges vote on whether to support the decision of the lower court or to address a constitutional issue. Majority vote determines what the judgment will be. If the judges rule against the person, group, or company making the appeal, the judgement of the lower court is affirmed. If they vote in favor of the appeal, they send the case back to a lower court for a re-trial with some indication of where the lower court went wrong. · There are 11 Courts that deal with cases that are appealed from the district courts. · Judges are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate. · These courts only deal with cases on appeal · When it refuses to hear a case, the decision of the lower court will stands as the judgment in law.

Organization of the US court system

The judiciary is a dual court system, with courts at both the national and state levels. Both levels have three basic tiers; · trial courts · appellate courts · courts of last resort, typically called supreme courts · Cases heard by the U.S. Supreme Court come from two primary pathways: the Circuit Courts (or U.S. Courts of Appeals, after the cases have originated in the federal district courts), and state supreme courts (when there is a substantive federal question in the case) · Federal cases typically begin at the lowest federal level, the district (or trial) court. Losing parties may appeal their case to the higher courts—first to the Circuit Courts, or U.S. Courts of Appeals, and then, if chosen by the Justices, to the U.S. Supreme Court. Decisions of the higher courts are binding on the lower courts.

Media and the First Amendment

The media act as informants and messengers, providing the means for citizens to become informed and serving as a venue for citizens to announce plans to assemble and protest actions by their government. This makes the media an important part of protecting virtually all of the First Amendment rights (religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition).

executive memorandum

a frequently used executive instrument like an executive order.

Reapportionment

a new apportionment (especially a new apportionment of congressional seats in the United States on the basis of census results)

executive orders

can be used to achieve policy goals in areas where Congress has been unwilling to act or is even opposed to the desires of the president. the next president can remove it unlike a law

original jurisdiction

case is heard for the first time. The Constitution also limits the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction to those rare cases of disputes between states, or between the United States and foreign ambassadors or ministers

hard money (campaign funding)

contributed directly to a candidate, which is heavily regulated and limited

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

contribution in The Spirit of the Laws (1748) regards the structure of political institutions. He argues for a separation of powers: legislative, executive, and judicial.

criminal law cases

governments establish rules and punishments. Laws define conduct that is prohibited because it can harm others and impose punishment for committing such an act. Crimes are usually labeled felonies or misdemeanors based on their nature and seriousness. Felonies are the more serious crimes. Most crimes and criminal activity, such as robbery, rape, and murder, are violations of state laws.

political action committees (PACs)

groups that collect funds from donors and distribute them to candidates who support their issues. · Many large corporations like Honeywell International, AT&T, and Lockheed Martin form PACs to distribute money to candidates. · Other PACs are either politically or ideologically oriented. · PACs are limited in the amount of money that they can contribute to individual candidates or to national party organizations; they can contribute no more than $5,000 per candidate, per election, and no more than $15,000 a year to a national political party. Individual contributions to PACs are also limited to $5,000 a year.

Fifteenth Amendment

guarantees that neither federal nor state governments can prohibit someone from voting on account of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

Stare Decisis

let the decision stand." When the courts use this term, the judge or Justices are indicating that they are relying on established principles and are often not willing to change them.

intended to disenfranchise African American voters

literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and poll taxes. in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. Literacy tests were long and detailed exams on local and national politics, history, and more. They were often administered arbitrarily with more African Americans required to take them than Caucasians

Media (socialization agent)

newspapers, television, radio, and the internet—also socialize citizens through the information they provide. uses its powers of agenda setting, framing, and priming that influence the thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs of their viewers.

inherent power

not enumerated or implied, must be assumed to exist as a direct result of the country's existence.

implied powers

not specifically detailed in the Constitution but inferred as necessary to achieve the objectives of the national government.

Prospective voting

occurs when the voter applies information about a candidate's past behavior to decide how the candidate will act in the future.

Pocketbook voting

occurs when the voter looks at his or her personal finances and circumstances to decide how to vote.

Elastic Clause

r the Necessary and Proper Clause,

Factors Decreasing Voter Turnout

reasons range from the obvious excuse of being too busy (19%) to more complex answers, such as transportation problems (3.3%) and restrictive registration laws (5.5%).

Strict vs. Loose Interpretation

refer to views as to how strictly the Constitution should be read.

judicial activism

refer to views of the power of the judiciary and judges. suggest that judges should more actively seek to involve the courts in dealing with issues and seek to uphold constitutional values. could be a loose or strict constructionist, as could be a judge who is judicially restrained

Disadvantages of Federalism:

see picture

Three-Fifths Compromise

slave-holding states could count all their free population, including free African Americans, plus 60% (three-fifths) of their enslaved population. To mollify the North, the compromise also allowed counting 60% of a state's slave population for federal taxation.

Lobbyist

someone who represents the interest or organization before the government. Is usually compensated for doing so and is required to register with the government in which he or she lobbies, whether state or federal. · primary goal is usually to influence policy. · Governments such as municipalities and executive departments, such as the Department of Education, register to lobby in an effort to maximize their share of budgets or increase their level of autonomy.

public goods

they are often underfunded and thus will be under-produced unless there is government involvement. Some examples of collective goods are public safety, highway safety, public education, and environmental protection.

public opinion

what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time

minority or dissenting opinions

when a number of Justices votes opposite of the majority

priming effect

when media coverage predisposes the viewer or reader to a particular perspective on a subject or issue. If a newspaper article focuses on unemployment, struggling industries, and jobs moving overseas, the reader will have a negative opinion about the economy.

online voter registration

which allowed citizens with a driver's license to register to vote without any paper application or signature. The system matches the information on the application to information stored at the Department of Motor Vehicles, to ensure each citizen is registering to vote in the right precinct.

Mandate

which is more than half the popular vote to win. Barack Obama's 2008 victory was a mandate with 52.9% of the popular vote and 67.8% of the Electoral College vote

Age and voter turnout

Ages 30+ vote more than ages less than 30, voting decreases ages 70 and up Due to consistently low turnout among the young, several organizations have made special efforts to demonstrate to younger citizens that voting is an important activity. Rock the Vote began in 1990, with the goal of bringing music, art, and pop culture together to encourage the youth to participate in government

Recess appointment

The purpose of the provision was to give the president the power to temporarily fill vacancies during times when the Senate was not in session and could not act. Supreme Court had the final say in a 2014 decision that declared unequivocally that "the Senate is in session when it says it is. The Senate must be at recess.

Power to Regulate Commerce (Congress/legislative branch)

Article I, Section 8 · To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian Tribes · The constitutional provision permitting Congress to regulate trade among the states is known as the Interstate Commerce Clause.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Article IV, Section 1, requires the states to accept court decisions, public acts, and contracts of other states. An adoption certificate or driver's license issued in one state is valid in any other state.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Article IV, which asserts that states are prohibited from discriminating against out-of-state residents by denying them such guarantees as access to courts, legal protection, property rights, and travel rights.

Checks on Executive Branch

By Congress Can override a presidential veto by a two-thirds vote in both chambers Must approve treaties by a two-thirds vote in the Senate Control of funding activities of the executive branch Presidential nominees must be approved by the Senate Only Congress can declare war House can impeach the president or vice president and the Senate can remove them by a two-thirds vote By Judiciary Can overturn actions of the president with judicial review if the actions violate the Constitution Serve during good behavior to maintain independence of judiciary

Checks on Congress

By President Can veto legislation Can use executive agreements Can use executive orders Negotiates treaties (not Congress) By Judiciary Can overturn acts of Congress as unconstitutional if they violate the law Can influence laws by interpretation Serve during good behavior to maintain independence of judiciary

Checks on Judiciary

By President Nominates judges Power of pardon By Congress Senate must approve judges and justices Controls jurisdiction of the courts Determines size of Supreme Court House can impeach judges and Senate can remove them by two-thirds vote

Compromises at the Constitutional Convention (representation)

Congress would be a bicameral legislature and would consist of two chambers: The Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state, regardless of size, would have two senators, making for equal representation as in the New Jersey Plan. Representation in the House would be based on population. Senators were to be appointed by state legislatures, a variation on the Virginia Plan. Senate 6 years in office ; representatives 2 years in office.

presidential election process

Constitution mandates happens every four years, has two phases. · First, there is the nomination phase. 1. power of selecting a political party's nominee shifting from party leaders to party members. 2. nomination process was driven by what was called "King Caucus," consisting of political party leaders in Congress. · Second, there is the election phase. 1. secure enough electoral votes to win the presidency

Redistricting

The re-drawing of electoral districts to accommodate for changes in a state's population based on the last census. The goal is to create districts that are equal in population. If a state gains or loses House seats, it must redraw its district lines to accommodate the change.

Gerrymandering

The redrawing of electoral districts to give an advantage or disadvantage to either a particular political party or group.

Executive agreements

Formal international agreements entered into by the president that do not require the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate. · some executive agreements do require some legislative approval, such as those that commit the United States to make payments and are thus restrained by the congressional power of the purse.

Separation of Powers

The sharing of powers among three separate branches of government. Each branch of government has its own function to perform, which prevents any one branch of government from becoming too powerful. This is why the legislative branch makes the laws, the executive branch enforces the laws, and the judicial branch reviews the laws. Through separation of powers, each branch has its own degree of independence.

Gibbons v. Ogden

(1824) presented a challenge to the Court to define and interpret the power to regulate interstate commerce given to Congress in Article I of the Constitution. the Court had to interpret the Commerce Clause of Article I, Section 8. Specifically, it had to determine whether the federal government had the sole authority to regulate the licensing of steamboats operating between New York and New Jersey. Aaron Ogden, who had obtained an exclusive license from New York State to operate steamboat ferries between New York City and New Jersey, sued Thomas Gibbons, who was operating ferries along the same route under a coasting license issued by the federal government. Supreme Court, Chief Justice Marshall delivered a ruling in favor of Gibbons that strengthened the power of the national government. First, interstate commerce was interpreted broadly to mean "commercial intercourse" among states, thus expanding the authority of Congress to regulate navigation

hypodermic theory

(1920's) which argues that information is "shot" into the receiver's mind and readily accepted.

minimal effects theory

(1930s & 1940s) which argues that the media have little effect on citizens and voters.

Cultivation Theory

(1970s) a new idea, hypothesized that media develop a person's view of the world by presenting a perceived reality.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission

(2010) there is no limit to how much money unions or corporations can donate to super PACs. In the Citizens United decision, the Supreme Court held that corporations and unions have free speech rights themselves, and under those rights, they are entitled to spend as much money as they like advocating for their own interests as long as they do not coordinate their activities directly with a candidate.

Rules Committee

(House of Representatives) next step in the process of a bill's becoming a law after being considered by a standing committee. · sets the parameters for debate on that specific piece of legislation. The House Rules Committee can place legislation on an accelerated calendar, limit debate, and limit the number of amendments or changes offered

Constitution is influenced by the Enlightenment

(Separation of powers) embodies Montesquieu's principles by separating the legislative, executive, and judicial power, placing each into the hands of different political actors.

John Locke (1632-1704)

. Our primary interest is survival, which we want to make secure and comfortable. All its inhabitants are rational people, mindful of the basic law of nature to not harm another, and people will get along okay. But our relationship in the state of nature is "inconvenient," implying an incentive for us to devise a better, more convenient arrangement.

Inherent power (Congress)

. The general assumption is that these powers were deemed so essential to any functioning government that the framers saw no need to spell them out. Such powers include the power to control borders of the state, the power to expand the territory of the state, and the power to defend itself from internal revolution or coups.

Classified Material and the media

: If a newspaper or media outlet obtains classified material, or if a journalist is witness to information that is classified, the government may request certain material be redacted or removed from the article.

Joint committees

: are committees with members from both houses of Congress, the House of Representatives and the Senate. They may either be temporary or permanent. have both members of the House and Senate serving on that one committee at the same time. · Joint Committee on Taxation · Joint Committee on the Library (meaning the Library of Congress).

Calculating voter turnout

: begins by counting how many ballots were cast in a particular election. The next step is to count how many people could have voted in the same election. This is the number that causes different people to calculate different turnout rates. The complete population of the country includes all people, regardless of age, nationality, mental capacity, or freedom. We can count subsections of this population to calculate voter turnout. · the next largest population in the country is the voting-age population (VAP), which consists of persons who are 18 and older. · even smaller group is the voting-eligible population (VEP), citizens 18 and older who, whether they have registered or not, are eligible to vote because they are citizens, mentally competent, and not imprisoned. · last and smallest population is that of registered voters, are citizens currently registered to vote.

grandfather clauses

: exempted voters from requirements like poll taxes and tests if their grandfathers had been eligible to vote prior to a certain year. · These clauses effectively exempted poor whites from poll taxes and literacy tests while requiring African Americans to comply.

Standing Committees

: or permanent committee. The most commonly used type of committee. addresses timeless issues that can be expected to recur. These committees introduce, research, and write proposed pieces of legislation to be considered by the entire Congress · Senate standing committees on the budget, finance, foreign relations, agriculture, and the judiciary.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

A commission created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws. It consists of six commissioners appointed by president and confirmed by the Senate. Its duties include overseeing disclosure of campaign finance information and public funding of presidential elections, and enforcing contribution limits.

Electoral College

A group of people named by each state legislature to select the president and vice president. Consists of a body of 538 people called electors, each representing one of the 50 states or the District of Columbia, who formally cast votes for the election of the president and vice president.

National Conventions

A meeting held every four years by each of the major political parties to nominate a presidential candidate.

Caucus

A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform.

New Jersey Plan (small state plan)

A plan that called for a one-house national legislature; each state would receive one vote. Each state would have one vote. Thus, smaller states would have the same power in the national legislature as larger states. · Role of National Government: provides defense but does not override state authority

Federalism

A system in which power is divided between the national and state governments

Checks and Balances

A system that allows one branch of government to limit the exercise of power by another branch; requires the different parts of government to work together. The ability of Congress to limit the president's veto. The president must also seek the advice and consent of the Senate before appointing members of the Supreme Court and ambassadors, and the Senate must approve the ratification of all treaties signed by the president. Congress may even remove the president from office.

electoral votes (electoral college):

According to the Constitution these are the votes that actually win the presidency · The Electoral College has 538 maximum votes. To win, a candidate must gain 270 votes. Each state's delegates vote for the candidate that gets the most votes in their state or area. · depresses voter turnout and fails to represent the popular will. · a significant number of "safe" states that receive no real electioneering, such that nearly 75 percent of the country is ignored in the general election.

Race (demographic):

Almost 7% of the population now identifies as biracial or multiracial, and that percentage is likely to grow. The number of citizens identifying as both African American and white doubled between 2000 and 2010, and the number of citizens identifying as both Asian American and white grew by 87%. A Pew study found that only 37% of multiracial adults favored the Republican party while 57% favored the Democratic party.

Social Contract

An agreement between people and government in which citizens consent to being governed so long as the government protects their natural rights.

Parents and Family (Socialization Agent):

Both early and recent findings suggest that children adopt some of the political beliefs and attitudes of their parents.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Chief Justice John Marshall argued that Congress could create a national bank even though the Constitution did not expressly authorize it. Under the Necessary and Proper Clause of Article I, Section 8, the Supreme Court asserted that Congress could establish "all means which are appropriate" to fulfill "the legitimate ends" of the Constitution. the bank was an appropriate instrument that enabled the national government to carry out several of its enumerated powers, such as regulating interstate commerce, collecting taxes, and borrowing money

party affiliation

Citizens also use party identification to make decisions via straight-ticket voting—choosing every Republican or Democratic Party member on the ballot.

Liberal (left wing)

Communism: Common ownership of property, materials, and all the means of production by the government or states. Socialism: Leaders use their authority to promote social and economic equality. Classical Liberalism: Believes in individual rights and liberties. Views government with suspicion and rejects government intervention. Modern Liberalism: Focuses on equality and supports government intervention in society and the economy in order to promote equality.

Conservative (right wing)

Fascism: Total control of the country by the ruling party or political leader. Authoritarianism: Leaders control the politics, military, and government of a country. Traditional Conservatism: Believes that government provides the rule of law and maintains a safe and organized society. Modern Conservatism: Elected government guards against individual liberties; prefers a smaller government that stays out of the economy.

Countries with Unitary system

Great Britain

Conference committees

House of Representatives and the Senate. iron out proposed bill differences and send a single unified version of the bill back to both houses of Congress for their approval. For a piece of legislation to continue through the lawmaking process, both chambers must approve of the compromises determined by the conference committee.

Political Spectrum

Ideologies place them on a spectrum that visually compares them based on what they prioritize. Liberal ideologies are traditionally put on the left and conservative ideologies on the right. The ideologies at the ends of the spectrum are the most extreme; those in the middle are moderate. Thus, people who identify with left- and right-wing ideologies identify with beliefs to the left and right ends of the spectrum while moderates balance the beliefs at the extremes of the spectrum. They range from fascism to authoritarianism to conservatism. Ideologies on the left side of the spectrum prioritize equality with more government spending, if need be, and range from communism to socialism to liberalism. Moderate ideologies fall in the middle and try to balance the two extremes

Presidential Impeachment

Impeachment is the act of charging a government official with serious wrongdoing; the Constitution calls this wrongdoing "high crimes and misdemeanors." · House of Representatives could impeach the president by a simple majority vote · the Senate could remove him or her from office by a two-thirds majority, with the chief justice of the Supreme Court presiding over the trial.

Political Elites (demographics):

Important leaders in the community, government, and media can shape public opinion by serving as a shortcut to information, helping voters to make decision. Political commentators signal how to react to current issues. For example, some young people today follow specific people on Facebook or Twitter for information and direction on how they should react to current controversial topics, much like older generations turned to news reporters and entertainers for the information they provided.

Voter requirements

In order to be eligible to vote in the United States, a person must be a citizen and a resident and be 18 years old. · must be mentally competent · not currently serving time in jail.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

It also ruled in the case that since the power to tax was the power to destroy and that the states could not tax federal property.

Age (demographics):

It is not uncommon that individuals become more conservative as they grow older. Some of these changes in party allegiance may be due to generational and cultural shifts. Millennials and Generation Xers are more likely to support the Democratic party than the Republican party. In recent polling, 51% of Millennials and 49% of Generation Xers stated they supported the Democratic party, whereas only 35% and 38% , respectively, supported the Republican party. Baby Boomers (born in the years after WWII) are slightly less likely than the other groups to support the Democratic party; only 47% reported doing so. The Silent Generation (born in the 1920s to early 1940s) is the only cohort whose members state they support the Republican Party as a majority.

Religion (demographics):

It is not uncommon that those with strongly held religious beliefs, such as Catholics and other Christians, tend to hold more conservative opinions. For example, many Catholics are historically anti-abortion, or what is termed pro-life. Those who do not consider themselves extremely religious tend to be more liberal in their views and opinions toward government and policies

Sunshine Laws

Laws that mandate federal and many state government proceedings and meeting documents be made available to the public. · Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

implied power congress

Laws that regulate banks, establish a minimum wage, and allow for the construction and maintenance of interstate highways. Congress has the power to oversee the other branches of government, including the executive and judicial branches, as well as to rein in administrative agencies, a part of the federal government not mentioned in the Constitution.

Declaration of Independence influenced by Enlightenment

Locke maintains that society is a rational but voluntary expression. Government, which serves to regulate the terms of the social contact on which society is created, serves to protect our natural rights and serve as a democratic conduit for our interests. Most important of our natural rights are liberty and property.

Federalist no. 10

Madison argued that having a representative government would be the best way to control against the detrimental effects of factions.

Federalist, no. 51

Madison provided his arguments for why increasing the powers of the national government would not lead to an automatic abuse of power due to separation of powers and checks and balances.

Socialization Agents

One agent of political socialization is political information that is intended to help citizens understand how to act in their political system and how to make decisions on political matters. The information may help a citizen decide how to vote, where to donate money, or how to protest decisions made by the government. · Family and friends · Schools · Social Groups · Prevailing Political Conditions · Media

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679):

One of the first individuals to contribute to the idea of the social contract , argues that society is not something natural , but rather it is something created by us.

Gender (demographic):

Public opinion can be affected by gender. Women tend to be more liberal while men tend to be more conservative. Women are also more likely to oppose military intervention and support government and social reform than men.

Voter timeline

States may require registration to take place as much as 30 days before voting, or they may allow same-day registration. · Fourteen states and the District of Columbia now allow voters to register the day of the election if they have proof of residency, such as a driver's license or a utility bill. Many of the more populous states (e.g., Michigan and Texas) require registration forms to be mailed 30 days before an election.

Census:

The census serves several purposes: population determines each state's number of seats in the House of Representatives. a state's number of votes in the Electoral College (the means for choosing a president) is equal to a state's number of representatives, plus its two senators. the Constitution requires that taxes be "apportioned"—that is, proportional to the states' populations—so that one state is not called on to bear a heavier burden than another.

mass media

The collection of all forms of media that communicate information to the general public. including television, print, radio, and the internet

Nineteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment adopted in 1920 that guarantees women the right to vote. prohibits the states and the federal government from denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States on the basis of sex. · Prior to this amendment some states allowed women to vote.

protecting the constitution in the courts

The courts can provide Constitutional validation to the laws passed by Congress when they are challenged. If the judicial ruling determines that the law is constitutional, then it continues to operate. If the courts determine that the law violates the Constitution, then it is overturned. The supreme court deals with broad constitutional issues in terms of permissible and impermissible actions by the government at all levels. It is in this capacity that the Supreme Court will declare acts of Congress, the president, or the states to be in violation of the Constitution.

Interest group strategy

The first is following a legislative strategy, in which interest groups donate to try to influence the choices a legislator makes. The second strategy groups pursue is an electoral strategy. Groups following this strategy work as hard as they can to elect candidates who already support their preferred positions. If they can succeed in electing candidates who already agree with their group's goals, there is little need for lobbying.

Geographic Location (demographic)

The political cultures of some states have a value in tradition. Some states stress citizen involvement while others exclude political participation in mass

political socialization

The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.

Voter Application

a citizen wishing to vote must complete an application. Whether the form is online or on paper, the prospective voter will list his or her name, residency address, and, in many cases, party identification (with Independent as an option) and affirm that he or she is competent to vote. States may also have a residency requirement, which establishes how long a citizen must live in a state before becoming eligible to register; it is often 30 days.

State of Nature

all of us live individually and solitarily, prior to the existence of society. We are physically and mentally capable of achieving our own survival.

Issue Voting

an individual's propensity to select candidates or parties based on the extent to which the individual agrees with one candidate more than others on specific issues Voters will also look at issues or the economy when making a decision. For some single-issue voters, a candidate's stance on abortion rights will be a major factor while other voters may look at the candidates' beliefs on the Second Amendment and gun control.

traditional PAC (Political action committee)(campaign funding)

an organization designed to raise hard money to elect or defeat candidates. Such PACs tend to be run by businesses and other groups, like the Teamsters Union and the National Rifle Association (NRA), to support their special interests. PACs are highly regulated concerning the amount of money they can take in and spend.

Incumbents

are elected officials who currently hold an office. The amount of money they raise against their challengers demonstrates their advantage. · attract more money because people want to give to a winner. · unseating an incumbent in the House or Senate is often referred to as incumbent advantage or the incumbency effect. · A large percentage of congressional districts across the country are "safe seats" in uncompetitive districts, meaning candidates from a particular party are highly likely to consistently win the seat. This means the functional decision in these elections occurs during the primary, not in the general election. · responsibility for constituent casework. Constituents routinely reach out to their Congressperson for powerful support to solve complex problems.

Private goods

are items individuals can own, including corporate profits. An automobile is a private good; when you purchase it, you receive ownership. Individuals sometimes obtain goods from governments, such as tax benefits, government subsidies, or government contracts.

Super PACs (political action committee) (campaign funding)

are not bound by these regulations. While they cannot give money directly to a candidate or a candidate's party, they can raise and spend unlimited funds, and they can spend independently of a campaign or party.

Select committees

are temporary committees that often exercise investigative rather than law-making powers. Select committees typically expire at the end of the congressional session for which they were created. · Do not propose bills

Appeal

argues that the judge in the lower court made an error in the proceedings or a constitutional issue is raised by the case that was not adequately addressed. Usually the appeals are heard by a three-judge panel. The three judges are chosen in rotation from the group of appellate judges that serve on each Circuit Court.

public interest groups

attempt to promote public, or collective, goods. Such collective goods are benefits—tangible or intangible—that help most or all citizens. · Many environmental groups are public interest groups that lobby for and raise awareness of issues that affect large segments of the population.

appellate jurisdiction

court hears a case on appeal from a lower court and may change the lower court's decision.

State Courts

courts which deal with state criminal and civil cases and appeals.

majority-minority

district is one in which most voters are of racial or ethnic minorities. These districts often elect minority representatives to Congress, but the drawing of majority-minority district lines often presents legal and Constitutional issues

Primaries

elections in which candidates vied for the support of state delegations to the party's nominating convention. They offer tests of a candidates' popular appeal while state caucuses testify to their ability to mobilize and organize grassroots support among committed followers. Primaries also reward candidates in different ways, · some giving the winner all the state's convention delegates while others distribute delegates proportionately according to the distribution of voter support. · Finally, the order in which the primary elections and caucus selections are held shape the overall race. · candidates who want to succeed in the primary contests seek to align themselves with committed partisans, who are often at the ideological extreme. · some states will maximize their impact on the race by holding their primaries on the same day that other states do. The media has dubbed these critical groupings "Super Tuesdays," "Super Saturdays," · has also displaced the convention itself as the place where party regulars choose their standard-bearer.

Commerce Clause

empowers the federal government to regulate interstate economic transactions.

The Supreme Court

hears cases in which different circuit courts of appeal have made conflicting judgments on a law passed by Congress or an action by the president (such as an executive order) or on judicial processes · There are a total of nine Justices (a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices) · The justices are nominated by presidents subject to Senate approval. · agrees to hear cases when any four of the nine justices desire to do so. This is referred to as the "rule of four." · a majority vote decides which side "wins" the case that is under dispute. · If a tie does occur, the decision of the lower court will stand as a tie vote is considered no vote. · issue a decision, there are three types of opinions that might be written—majority, minority or dissenting, and concurrent.

Federal Courts

hears cases: foreign government patent law copyright infringement interstate commerce anything with damages over 75,000 usd · Hear cases that involve a "federal question," involving the Constitution, federal laws or treaties, or a "federal party" in which the U.S. government is a party to the case · 94 U.S. district courts in the 50 states · 13 U.S. Courts of Appeals, or Circuit Courts · Each court is overseen by a rotating panel of three judges who do not hold trials but instead review the rulings of the trial (district) courts within their geographic circuit. · currently 179 judges. · The Circuit Courts are often referred to as the intermediate appellate courts of the federal system, since their rulings can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

workplace demographics

if you belong to a professional organization or union, you are given specific information about issues important to the group and may sometimes feel pressured to vote for particular candidates or policies for the sake of promoting the organization.

The Supremacy Clause

in Article VI of the Constitution regulates relationships between the federal and state governments by declaring that the Constitution and federal law are the supreme law of the land · In the case of marijuana use, which the federal government defines to be illegal, 23 states and the District of Columbia have nevertheless established medical marijuana laws, others have decriminalized its recreational use, and 8 states have completely legalized it. Because of the Supremacy Clause, the federal government could act in this area if it wanted to.

bandwagon effect

in which the media pays more attention to candidates who poll well during the fall and in the first few primaries, which usually leads to a shift in support of those candidates by the electorate. · Bill Clinton was nicknamed the "Comeback Kid" in 1992, after he placed second in the New Hampshire primary despite accusations of adultery with Gennifer Flowers. The media's attention on Clinton gave him the momentum

horse-race journalism

in which, just like an announcer at the racetrack, the media calls out every candidate's moves throughout the presidential campaign. can be neutral, positive, or negative, depending upon what polls or facts are covered. · During the 2012 presidential election, the Pew Research Center found that both Mitt Romney and President Obama received more negative than positive horse-race journalism, with Romney's growing more negative as he fell in the polls.

civil law cases

involve two or more private (non-government) parties, at least one of whom alleges harm or injury committed by the other. personal injury, malpractice, divorce, family, juvenile, probate, contract disputes, and real estate cases

Safe states

is one that definitely favors you or favors your opponent. These states are "safe" for the candidate who is favored, as they are unlikely to produce a popular vote win for the opponent.

swing state

is one that hasn't made up its mind. For you to have a chance of winning the presidential election, you must convince the voters in these states that you are the better candidate.

soft money (campaign funding)

is raised for purposes like party-building efforts, get-out-the-vote efforts, and issue advocacy ads. had almost no regulations or limits

enumerated powers (Congress)

it can tax, borrow money regulate interstate and foreign commerce, and protect property rights. To provide for the common defense of the people, the federal government can raise and support armies and declare war.

legislative liaison

job is to present issues to decision-makers. For example, a state university usually employs a lobbyist, legislative liaison, or government affairs person to represent its interests before the legislature.

pack journalism

journalists follow one another rather than digging for their own stories.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment

lowered required voting age to 18

Advantages of Federalism

mass participation, regional autonomy, government at many levels, innovative methods

Schools (Socialization Agent)

offer a more formal and increasingly important one. The early introduction is often broad and thematic, covering explorers, presidents, victories, and symbols. Generally, however, the lessons are idealized and do not discuss many of the specific problems or controversies connected with historical figures and moments. As students progress to higher grades, lessons will cover more detailed information about the history of the United States, its economic system, and the workings of the government. Complex topics—such as the legislative process, checks and balances, and domestic policymaking—are covered in detailed.

Membership groups

often consist of people who have common issues or concerns, or who want to be with others who share their views. · The National Rifle Association (NRA) is a membership group consisting of members who promote gun rights.

National Government under the Articles of Confederation

one chamber known as the Confederation Congress. no executive or judicial branch. Functions in order to make sure that the national government did not have too much power and that the power of the states remained protected. had the authority to exchange ambassadors and make treaties with foreign governments and Indian tribes, declare war, coin currency and borrow money, and settle disputes between states.

Running for Congress

only need to receive a plurality of the popular vote to win the primary and General election. There will be two new groups of voters who you will have to face: those of the opposing party, and those who aren't affiliated with any party. There are three things you need to do. · First, make sure voters from your political party show up to the polls on Election Day. · Second, do what you can to dissuade the voters supporting other parties and candidates from showing up to the polls. · Third, make a strong pitch to attract those voters not committed to a political party. These are the independent or'swing' voters..

inside lobbying

or direct lobbying, which takes the interest group's message directly to a government official such as a lawmaker. · tactics include testifying in legislative hearings and helping to draft legislation. · usually based on the provision of information to elected officials, administrators, and their staff.

Concurrent Powers

or enumerated powers of the national legislature, are found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution. These powers define the jurisdictional boundaries within which the federal government has authority. To provide for the general welfare of the populace, it can tax, borrow money, regulate interstate and foreign commerce, and protect property rights. The federal government can also raise and support armies and declare war, while national integration and unity are fostered with the government's powers over the coining of money, naturalization, postal services, · In 1789 Congress passed the Tariff Act, which levied tariffs and tonnage duties on goods imported into the United States · establishing bilateral trade agreements with foreign countries.

outside lobbying

or indirect lobbying tactics, whereby the interest attempts to get its message out to the public.

How the courts protect individual rights

passage of the Fourteenth Amendment. "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The Fourteenth Amendment protects all U.S. citizens from violation of their rights by all levels of government.

Congressional Committees

play an important role in organizing members of Congress and allowing both chambers of Congress to make their own rules and for individual members to complete their most important work. A committee is a smaller subset of representatives or senators that consider types of bills. Committees can be either long-standing or temporary. A committee is the first place a bill or proposed piece of legislation will go to after being formally introduced by a member of Congress for consideration of becoming law. · A bill proposing changes in the nation's environmental laws, for example, might be assigned to the House Natural Resources Committee · When the president submits a treaty to the Senate for its advice and consent, it will be assigned first to the Foreign Relations Committee.

interest groups

sometimes referred to as special interests, interest organizations, pressure groups, or just interests. An interest group indicates any formal association of individuals or organizations that attempt to influence government decision-making and the making of public policy. Often, this influence is exercised by a lobbyist or a lobbying firm. · whether they represent public or private interests · membership organizations, which individuals join voluntarily and to which they usually pay dues · Interest groups may also form to represent companies, corporate organizations, and governments. 1. Verizon and Coca-Cola · associations, which are typically groups of institutions that join with others, often within the same trade or industry (trade associations), and have similar concerns. 1. American Beverage Association includes Coca-Cola, Red Bull North America, ROCKSTAR, and Kraft Foods.

sub-committees

standing committees that are further divided into smaller, more specialized bodies · example, the House Committee on Natural Resources has sub-committees dealing with energy and federal lands. · The Senate Committee on Foreign Relations has sub-committees on Europe and Africa.

equal time rule

states that registered candidates running for office must be given equal opportunities for airtime and advertisements at non-cable television and radio stations beginning 45 days before a primary election and 60 days before a general election.

democratic countries with unitary systems

such as France, Japan, and Sweden

Factors Predicting Voter Turnout

such as socioeconomic status, age, race, and gender

Federalists

supported the new Constitution. They tended to be among the elite members of society who believed a strong government would be better for both national defense and economic growth. Agreed to add a bill of rights to the constitution.

Enumerated Powers (Taxation) (Congress/legislative branch)

taxing—must begin in the House of Representatives.

campaign finance

the Court ruled that individuals can spend as much money as they wish to broadcast their own free speech. However, donors to campaigns were limited in the amount of money they could contribute. Individuals were originally allowed to donate $1,000 per candidate, per election (e.g., $1,000 in the primary election and another $1,000 in the general election), but this was increased to $2,000 per candidate per election in 2002 (and indexed to inflation).

Socioeconomic Status (voter turnout):

the combination of education, income, and social status. Among those who have completed college, the 2012 voter turnout rate jumps to 75% of eligible voters, compared to about 52.6% for those who have completed only high school. This is due in part to the powerful effect of education, one of the strongest predictors of voting turnout. · Income also has a strong effect on the likelihood of voting. Citizens earning $100,000 to $149,999 a year are very likely to vote, and 76.9% of them do, while only 50.4% of those who earn $15,000 to $19,999 vote. Once high income and college education are combined, the resulting high socioeconomic status strongly predicts the likelihood that a citizen will vote.

framing effect

the creation of a narrative, or context, for a news story. The news often uses this to place a story in a context so the reader understands its importance or relevance. affects the way the reader or viewer processes the story

Prevailing Political Conditions (Socialization Agent)

the generation into which we are born and the prevailing political conditions that we live through. Consider this: Someone who lived through the Great Depression might still be a "penny pincher" today because of what he experienced living during that generation.

Natural Rights

the idea that all humans are born with rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and property

prior restraint

the legal suppression of speech or media coverage prior to publication or speaking it; significantly restricted the ability to do this in the first amendment, though it doesn't grant immunity to consequences from such actions.

Plurality:

the number of votes cast for a candidate who receives more than any other but does not receive an absolute majority.

General Election

usually features a series of debates between the presidential contenders as well as a debate among vice presidential candidates. after all the spending and debating is done, those who have not already voted by other means set out on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November to cast their votes. Several weeks later, the electoral votes are counted, and the president is formally elected.

Private interests

usually seek particularized benefits from the government that favor either a single interest or a narrow set of interests. For example, corporations and political institutions may lobby government for tax exemptions, fewer regulations, or favorable laws that benefit individual companies or an industry more generally. Their goal is to promote private goods.

Retrospective voting

voting for a candidate because you like his or her past actions and economic climate

practice of bundling

which means an individual (whom we call a "bundler") solicits contribution checks from his or her contacts. But rather than having the checks made out to the bundler, who would then have to write a check to the candidate for an amount larger than the legal limits, the bundler has his or her contacts make out the checks directly to the candidate. In the eyes of the law, the checks are from individual donors to the candidate and the fact that the bundler collected them is irrelevant. But in the eyes of the candidate, the bundler brought them tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars in campaign contributions.

majority opinion

will include all or some of the Justices that voted with the majority side in the decision.

strict constructionist

would be based on the idea that the national government can only do those things which are specifically mentioned in the Constitution.

Congressional Campaign Funding reforms

· 1970s when the Federal Election Campaign Act was passed. the act created the Federal Election Commission (FEC), required candidates to disclose where their money was coming from and where they were spending it, limited individual contributions, and provided for public financing of presidential campaigns. · 2002, when Senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Russell Feingold (D-WI) drafted the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA). Congress then passed this act, also referred to as the McCain-Feingold Act. The purpose of this law was to limit the use of "soft money," which is raised for purposes like party-building efforts, get-out-the-vote efforts, and issue advocacy ads. placed limits on total contributions to political parties, prohibited coordination between candidates and PAC campaigns, and required candidates to include personal endorsements on their political ads. Until 2010, it also limited advertisements run by unions and corporations 30 days before a primary and 60 days before a general election.

Race (voter turnout):

· Caucasians turn out to vote in the highest numbers · Voting turnout can increase or decrease based upon the political culture of a state

Problems with the articles of confederation National Government:

· Each state had only one vote in Congress regardless of its size. · The national government could not impose taxes on citizens. It could only request money from the states. · The national government could not regulate foreign trade or interstate commerce. · The national government could not raise an army. It had to request the states to send men. · The Articles could not be changed without a unanimous vote to do so. · There was no national judicial system.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

· Eliminated poll tax · helped to significantly increase voter participation among African Americans.

Invention and Evolution of the presidency

· Established a presidency at 1787 Constitutional Convention · Idea of Electoral College emerged as way to select and re-elect a president · Presidential Duties-outlined in newly-formed constitution · Impeachment - built into constitution, clear process for removing president · Twelfth Amendment: pairs presidential candidate with running mate on a ticket · Budget and Accounting Act of 1921: Congress puts executive branch in charge of forming budget · Twenty-second amendment: Limits President to two four-year terms · Explanation of duties: from president Washington forming cabinet to now, each president contributes to the office.

Transition of the Presidency

· General Services Administration · Presidential selection of the Cabinet · Senate approves or rejects presidential appointments · Decides how to deliver on campaign promises · Deals with outgoing presidents budget proposal Tries to be sensitive to present climate

Virginia Plan (large state plan)

· Legislature: bicameral (two separate chambers) · Representation: population based (higher the population = more representation) · Role of the National Government: can legislate for states and veto state law

National Security, Foreign Policy, and War (presidential powers)

· Presidents choose and promote (and dismiss) military commanders; they also use their power as commander-in-chief to aggressively deploy U.S. military force. · negotiate executive agreements with foreign powers.

Congressional Committees categories

· Standing Committees · Select Committees · Joint Committees · Conference Committees

Miller v. Johnson

· Supreme Court ruled that, under the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause, race could not be the "dominant and controlling" motivation for drawing congressional districts.

Bill of Rights influenced by Enlightenment

· The First Amendment gives us a definitive declaration for the protection of natural rights. Protections of individual conscience as well as protections for democratic participation (John Lock ideology). · The Second Amendment, which also embodies Lockean ideas, permits the possession of arms for the "security of a free State."14 In this Amendment, the right to rebellion is established. · Due process says all citizens are subject to fair and equitable treatment. · The Fourth - Eighth Amendments serve to both limit the power government has over us and lay out procedures which must be followed when dealing with us. · The Ninth Amendment makes it clear that the list of rights protected in the first eight Amendments is not exhaustive and that we, the people, can assert additional natural rights when we see fit (at least in theory.) · The Tenth Amendment makes clear that powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states and the people (these last two are Lockean ideals)

The Judicial Branch

· The courts have the power of judicial review, which permits them to overturn laws passed by Congress and actions of the president, or others in the executive branch, that conflict with the Constitution. · judicial review is important in upholding the Constitution as the supreme law of the land.

how electoral votes are allocated and acquired:

· They are allocated among the states based on their representation in Congress: one for each member of a state's House delegation and two for the state's senators. · states use the outcome of the popular vote election to decide which candidate receives a state's electoral votes. · two Electors for the number of the state's senators, plus one Elector for each representative in the House. · number of electors can change based on the reapportionment of representatives after the decennial census. · minimum number of Electors a state can have is three. · The District of Columbia (DC) also has Electors. · The Constitution lets the states (or Congress in the case of the District of Columbia) appoint Electors. · appoint Electors nominated by the presidential candidate or political party which receives the most popular votes in the general election. · The popular vote winner in each Congressional district receives one electoral vote, while the state popular vote winner receives two electoral votes. Because Electors are allocated according to popular vote results in Congressional districts, this is called the "district method." · 25 states have laws which require an Elector to uphold his or her pledge to vote for the candidate who nominated them. Electors who violate this pledge can be replaced or fined.

Presidential Powers Domestic policy:

· United States formed its first official intelligence collection agency on June 13, 1942, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). After World War II, President Truman established and expanded U.S. intelligence capabilities with the 1947 creation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to collect human intelligence abroad and the 1952 creation of the National Security Agency (NSA) to collect communications intelligence abroad.

Issues at Voting Polls

· Voters must provide photo identification that shows that their names match the voter registration records, clearly displays an expiration date, is current or has expired only since the last general election, and was issued by the state of Indiana or the U.S. government · requiring a photo ID would disproportionally prevent citizens aged 18-24, Hispanics, and those without a college education from voting. · Another reason for not voting is that polling places may be open only on election day. This makes it difficult for voters juggling school, work, and childcare during polling hours. · Some people avoid voting because they feel that their vote is unlikely to make a difference or that the election is not competitive. · some voters may view non-voting as a means of social protest or see volunteering as a better way to spend their time. Younger voters are more likely to volunteer their time rather than vote, believing that serving others is more important than voting.

Powers of the President:

· Washington established a cabinet, or group of advisors, to help him administer his duties, consisting of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch. . · The National Security Council was established to provide the president with information on foreign military and diplomatic situations. · The Office of Management and Budget was created to help the president prepare the annual budget and to oversee the program. · Secret Service and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. · executive privilege, the right to withhold information from Congress, the judiciary, or the public. · framing budgets, negotiating budget compromises, and at times impounding funds in an effort to prevail in matters of policy.

Senate term characteristics

· are required to have nine years' standing as citizens and be at least 30 years old when sworn in. · six-year terms · Each state, regardless of population, elects two senators · must maintain a broader appeal in order to earn a majority of the votes across their entire state. · In addition, the rules of the Senate allow individual members to slow down or stop legislation they dislike. · Lower partisanship · Takes longer time before the answer to constituents (6 years) · Maintains a broader view to retain majority support from constituents across a state · Slows down or stops legislation · Requires less structures leadership

Duties of the President:

· commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the United States, · negotiate treaties with the advice and consent of the Senate and receive representatives of foreign nations. · Charged to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed," the president was given broad power to pardon those convicted of federal offenses, except for officials removed through the impeachment process. · present to Congress information about the state of the union · call Congress into session when needed · veto legislation if necessary, although a two-thirds super-majority in both houses of Congress could override that veto · make recommendations for legislation and policy, as well as call on the heads of various departments to make reports and offer opinions. · can also use a pocket veto. If Congress sends a law to the president, he has ten days to sign or reject the legislation. · nominating federal judges, including Supreme Court justices as well as other federal officials, and making appointments to fill military and diplomatic posts

District Courts

· courts that hear cases for the first time have original jurisdiction · judges are nominated by the president, subject to senatorial approval, and serve during time of good behavior. · determine whether an individual is guilty in a criminal case where a federal law has been violated. Kidnapping, drug use, civil rights violations, and attacks against government officials · Timothy McVeigh, for instance, was tried in a federal district court for his bombing of a federal office building in Oklahoma City in 1995 · Government officials accused of taking bribes · Civil cases could include a challenge that a government agency or the personnel in the agency are applying a law incorrectly, and thus the application of the law needs to be changed. A civil case might also involve a claim by an individual that a law passed by Congress or an action by the executive branch violates the Constitution. · can become involved in disputes between companies, companies and individuals, and even among different government agencies.

Running for President:

· filing to run with state and national government officials. Presidential candidates are nominated at national party conventions. The delegates to this convention are selected in each state. · need to secure enough state-level delegates. This implies competing against other candidates, by state, in a series of primary elections and caucuses. Your goal is to win over a majority of the delegates, which will secure your nomination · The delegate selection process typically plays out from February to June of a presidential election year. · The popular vote total, or the number of caucus supporters you have, determines the number of a state's national party delegates you'll get. These delegates are pledged to you—they have to, at least initially, support your candidacy at the convention. · Once a candidate acquires a majority of the delegates, the nomination process is over except for the formalities. · For a presidential election, the House of Representatives is called upon to make a choice. The House will consider up to three candidates with the highest electoral vote totals. Voting for president is done by states, with a majority of states needed to choose a president. Therefore, the House will cast 50 votes, with 26 needed to choose a president. (How a state decides to cast its vote is up to that state's delegation.)

Interest group strategies

· first target lawmakers they think will consider introducing or sponsoring legislation in support of their preferred policies. These are elected officials who are typically already strong supporters of the work of the interest group. · Second, they target members of relevant committees. · Third, interest groups target lawmakers when legislation is on the floor of the House or Senate (or both). · Finally, since legislation must pass both chambers in identical form, interest groups may target members of the conference committees whose job it is to iron out differences across the chambers. · Once legislation has been passed, interest groups may target the executive branch of government, whose job is to implement the law. · Interest groups may lobby the executive branch on executive, judicial, and other appointments that require Senate confirmation. · The first is lobbying the executive branch about judicial appointments the president makes and lobbying the Senate to confirm these appointments. The second form of lobbying consists of filing amicus briefs, which are also known as "friend of the court" briefs. These documents present legal arguments stating why a given court should take a case or why a court should rule a certain way, or both.

House of Representatives term characteristics

· must be a U.S. citizen of at least seven years' standing and must be at least 25 years old. · serve two-year terms · elected by the voters in their specific congressional districts · There are currently 435 House members and there are 435 congressional districts, with each state having a number of House members roughly proportional to its share of the total U.S. population. States are guaranteed at least one House member, regardless of their population. · has developed a stronger and more structured leadership than the Senate · representatives must regularly answer to the demands of their constituencies when they run for election or reelection (every 2 years). · Seeks narrow interest of smaller groups of constituents · Disagree with same party because of specific district demands · Deals with popular/fleeting demands faster · Requires stronger structured leadership · Higher partisanship

The Legislative Branch

· right to deal with international trade and commerce between the states. The states were prohibited from interfering with international and interstate trade. · Only Congress would have the power to declare war on foreign countries. · The Senate was also required to approve treaties by a two-thirds majority in order for the treaties to go into effect. · potential role in the selection of the president.

Presidential Term Limits and qualifications:

· the chief executive must be at least 35 years old and a "natural born" citizen of the United States (or a citizen at the time of the Constitution's adoption) who has been an inhabitant of the United States for at least 14 years. · presidency term to two four-year terms

The Executive Branch

·He can grant such pardons to anyone without limits. · Electoral College and its makeup as the means of electing the president. · president to report to Congress each year on the state of the union · The president nominates justices of the Supreme Court and judges of lower courts. .· Presidents can sign executive agreements with foreign leaders.