Wildlife Conservation Behavior, Animal Behavior, Zoo, Ornithology, Ecological Surveying
Consequences of gene flow connected to roads
-Road: Gene flow is slow. -No barrier: faster gene flow
Sage Grouse leks
-Sage Grouse use a lek mating system -Male will come to the same spot -"dance" to fight for center as females only want the males in the center -Females mate and never interact with males again -females don't need males for offspring
What are the types of monogamy?
-Serial -Lifelong
Dunnocks
-Small brown bird -in a single pop they exhibit all mating systems
Domestication of captive animals failure
-Starvation -Predation -Poor reproduction
Environmental enrichment
-Substrate -Climbing structures -Elevated or underground resting sites
nature deficit syndrome
-The combined psychological, physical, and cognitive costs we suffer due to our alienation from nature, especially affecting children in vulnerable developing years. Causes: Parental fears, restricted access to natural areas, increasing consumption of electronic media Costs: Attention and mood disorders, lower grades, obesity, limited respect for the environment
Living on the edge
-Thin margin of "metabolic safety". Meaning if food resources they depend on are not there, they can starve and die. Example migration birds -Can starve to death in a few hours -Birds digestion is fast -not storing food is body so they can be light for flight -Possible die offs due to climate change
DNA methylation:
-Tightens coil -Helps turn gene off
Production energy of females
-Tissue -Lactation -Ovum (egg) -Conceptus -Woold, hair, feathers
Accounting for all individuals
-To estimate abundance of species that are challenging to observe, we need a strategy to account for individuals not observed during surveys -requires some type of ancillary info that allows us tot estimate detection probability
Defense allocation
-Trade-off between easy distributed algorithm and optimal development
Why does an allele from the father only promote increased pup growth and increased care by the daughter mother?
-Tradeoff-increased pup growth in current litter reduces number and fitness of future litters. Since father of current litter might not sure future litters, father's gene favor investing more in growth of current litter (the one he sired) than would mother's genes. Called intragenomic conflict
How do roads serve as barriers?
-Traffic/Noise Avoidance -Mt. Graham red squirrel -Edge Avoidance -Gap Avoidance
Important Considerations for intensive management of rare species
-Types of species (their condition) -Habitat quality (environment conditions) -Location of release -Source of stock -Food habits (what are they?) -Duration of study
What are the types of functions?
-Uniform -Hazard-rate -half-normal -negative exponential -Consider uniform and half-normal key functions first -harard-rate functions can be useful for data that have a shoulder -negative exponential models are used rarely
GOF tests
-Used to assess whether a model describes the data adequately. -Compares the observed frequencies with what we should expect given the model
How can detection rates vary in space?
-Vegetation -Substrate -Physical Structure
Cover estimators
-Visual -Line‐intercept methods -Point‐intercept methods
Why do birds sing?
-Warning signal -Courtship -territorial display -Species recognition -maintaining social bonds -distraction -communicating -maintaining social contact -Coordination
How can detection rates vary with time?
-Weather -Season
Simple random sampling disadvantages
-When the population is heterogeneous, estimates can have large variance (i.e., high uncertainty) Heterogeneous means: units are different from each other. Having visibly distinguishable parts
Wildlife passage
-Where: oracle near oro valley, white mountains, near the hover dam -How many -What species -How
monogamy mammals examples
-White footed deer mouse: male helps care of nest and lay with young to keep warm -Wolves -Prairie Vole -Monkey
Wind and solar energy
-Wind energy is increasing -Desert big horn sheep and tortoise wont cross solar farms -
disadvantages of accumulation curves
-Works well when only a few species are rare -Requires a high level of sampling effort
Major steps in the intensive management (breeding, release, monitoring)
-You need a self-sustaining captive population (enough breeding stock/good genetic management) -Require a suitable amount of adequate/protected habitat (amount/type of habitat required) -Effective techniques to prepare animals for reintroduction (soft/hard release, head start, double clutch, etc) -Post-Release Monitoring and Evaluation (constant monitoring)
Cooperation
-a behavior that benefits another individual.
prenatal learning
-ability to learn is intact even before birth
What are 2 main components of birds respiratory systems?
-air sacs- are in bones all through body . -lungs different than ours. Ours is an airbag and surface exchange never fully expels air or lungs collapse. Birds lungs are dense surface exchange where air sacs pushes air around. Very dense gas exchange. We leave 20% of air we dont exchange
Abundance
-also called population size or population total -reffered to as greek t or tau -number of entities in a population -Ex: number of squirrels on Mt. Graham
ψ(.)p(.)
-assumes occupancy and detection probabilities are constant across sites and across surveys -Simplest model
ψ(.)p(t)
-assumes probability of occupancy is the same for each site, but allows detection probability to vary for each survey -alternative model
mate choice and reproductive success
-behavior traits may be important in mate choice and repro success -steller's jay compatibility -marmot sociability related to increased reproductive success
What are examples of simple navigation?
-birds navigation -monarch navigation
Nominal scale exaples
-blood type:A,B,AB,O -gender -flower color
Plant cover
-can be quantified several ways; usually reported as a % - can be estimated by individual species or by vegetation classes or growth form -used commonly for grasses and mat-like plants because individual plants can be difficult to distinguish
Captivity and reintroduction
-captivity selects for docile, bold individuals -lack of behavioral, and other phenotypic variability undesirable upon reintroduction
Geographic closure
-closed by a boundary that limits movements into and out of the population
Movements of mountain lions in a urban landscape
-collected data from a single mountain lion to see area of crossings
Interval scale
-continuous or discrete -constant interval size -no true zero point
Harvest
-correlation between physiology/life history traits and behavior -bold, active individuals associated with fast growth, also more likely to be harvested
Concerns about Captive Breeding
-difficult to establish viable captive populations -poor success in reintro -cost -domestication -pre-emption of other conservation measures -disease -administrative continuity
What are costs of coloniallity?
-diseases -attract predators -increased competition for nest sizes -increased cuckalary and cheating -stealing nest materials
Simple random sampling advantages
-easy to implement -requires minimum knowledge of the population
Types of research in Zoos and Aquariums
-field conservation and reintroduction -vet medicine -behavior -education and social science -reproduction and physiology -husbandry
Direct benefits:nuptial gifts:food for female's young example
-grasshoppers, butterflies, fruitflies males transfer protein into female which is incorporated into eggs
Advantages of monogamy
-guaranteed offspring
What are examples of torpor?
-humming birds and Swifts-malachite humming birds lives in high elevations, Finds niche and shuts down. When sun hits them they wake up -Night Jars-Common Poorwill hibernates in winter and shuts down for weeks. Only bird that hibernates and possibly due to decrease in food.
Reptile and Amphibian Body Condition
-indeterminant growth -Fat storage in tail -Luster on scales, brightness of color
Space use and movement
-individuals differ in movement capacity
What are some pros about birds being endothermic?
-inhabit more range of temperatures by generating its own heat -increase speed and/or strength -increase endurance
**Be able to identify the main structures of the avian egg and developing embryo and to describe the functions of these structures
-inner shell membranes -hard shell on top of membranes, impermeable to air and water -gas exchange to diffusion in pores -more pores , more air but loose water -Embryo steals calcium from shell. Uses for bone-10% shell is getting thinner -3 layer surrounds embryo Amnion Chorion-outer membranes, protective and gas exchange -Yolk Sac gets smaller as embryo develops Yolk sac gets smaller as embryo develops -Albumem is 90% water and 10% protein. Functions as water supply, shock absorbor, insulator, and protects against bacteria. -Yolk:energy-rich food supply for the embryo. -blastodisc -eventually embryo -chalaza anchors and keeps embryo up top -air space (need to look at pp when uploaded
What are some terrestiral physical features?
-landforms -geomorphic features -soils
What may cause dialects?
-learn neighbors song -Retain most common elements of these songs -Dialects form:nestling listens to males around sing. 3-4 tutors are models for learning but will learn local. -Retain songs most common -Every individual has some variation
Ratio examples
-length -counts -acceleration
Ordinal scale examples
-letter grades -ranked catergories
Blind mole rat magnetic compass
-lives underground and uses magnetic compass to navigate throughout its extensive burrows
Examples of parents resovling offspring to offspring conflict
-make clutches smaller -parasitic wasps females lay eggs in host insect and leave. In some wasp species, larvae are cannibalistic, which could lead to siblicide. Females in those species tend to lay single eggs in hosts
How do Jewel Beetles reproduce?
-males search for females -females are larger than males -males prefer larger females -larger female=eggs -males look for cues such as large and brown.
Habitat selection
-may be correlated to behavioral triats -bold, active individuals more likely to use open habitat -may influence conclusions of habitat resptoration, selection studies
Aggression/Sociability measuring
-mirror image stimulation: expose animal to mirror and see what they do -Response to conspecifics
Strata
-mutually exclusive-each sample unit belongs to only one stratum and no sample units are excluded -homogenous -based on ancillary data-information other than the attribute of interest but that varies with that attribute
Distance measurements
-observer travels the line at constant pace and records the distance to all objects observed -perpendicular distance or -radial distance and angle -sometimes a maximum distance is established, w, beyond which any objects detected are ignored -aim for 60-80 detections
Powered flight
-occurs in 3 types of living animals. Insects, bats, and birds There was a possibly one origin, but 3 losses which resulted in a total of 4 changes. Summary: powered flight arose 3 times, once in insects, once in birds, and once in bats. Considered 4 times if we include extinct pterosaurs
What is Trivers' explanation for the occurrence of parent-offspring conflict? Give examples of such conflict in non-human animals
-parent equally related to all offspring and should distribute resources evenly. But each offspring benefits more from having more resources. Each offspring should attempt to gain more from parent than parent will attempt to give *Examples of conflicts* Weaning conflict-mammalian young try to suckle longer than mother permits them to suckle Chimpanzees-Mothers wean infants between 4 and 6. Chimpanzees become fully independent between the ages of 6-9. Weanee gave a predator alert scream to coerce mother to carry it
False Positives
"Observing" a species when it is not present (misidentification); possible, but less common
Functional approach
"Splitting scales" -feathers evolved from repeated division of scales -Adaptive value for intermediate stages
Sneaker males
"sneak" in and mate with females when the dominant or territorial male is not looking
Homologous
"trait from common origin". Opposite from Convergent. Example:Gizzard
Plant Density
# individuals per unit area -complete counts within plots, p=1 -Distance sampling:line and point transects p<1 -Point-centered quarter, p=1
CPUE
# of individuals removed will be proportional to the effort expended works well only when a large fraction of the pop is removed so there is a clear decline in catch/effort
Operational Sex Ratio (OSR)
# of sexually available female/male
Assumption:Equal detection probability:Time
(t)-detection probability varies among sampling occasions due to external processes, such as weather
In addition to rate of energy intake, what additional fitness currency was used in the moose diet model? What additional constraint was modeled?
*Additional fitness currency* rate of sodium intake *Additional Constraint* Size of rumen
Road Impacts on behavior Indirect
*Indirect* -Audition: Traffic noise -Visual: Presence of human -Olfactory: Air pollution -Microclimate and habitat change: light, temp -Change species composition
Identify a key prediction of the optimal diet model. Were conveyor belt experiments concordant with predictions in all respects? If not, why not?
*Key prediction* Specialization will not depend on the rate of encounter of the inferior food type -conveyor belt experiments were concordant with predictions in all respects
What are some noise pollution and auditory cues of wildlife?
*SOUND:* a vibrating distribution in the pressure and density of a fluid (air, water) *HEARING:* the detection and interpretation of sound *NOISE POLLUTION:* anthropogenic sounds that inhibit perception of natural sounds
If we assume that predators have perfect knowledge
, then the fitness of mimics is either 0 or 1
Cursorial hypothesis
- Ancestors cursorial (adapted for running on the ground) - elongated limbs heightened leaping ability - enabled controlled leaping for prey capture *linked to theropod hypothesis
Dispersal personality consequence
- Choosing if, when, and how far to disperse is a major decision - Resources may be better somewhere Mosquito fish - Bold, active, aggressive, asocial Asocial fish disperse further Success depended on the context Who they are interacting with Content matters in other situations Social individuals disperse from populations that have low density? While asocial stay if density is low
Microraptor
- Dromaeosaurid "four-winged" dinosaur - Thought to be arboreal and thus supports an arboreal origin of flight within the theropods - Unifies the biomechanical and paleontological views of how flight evolved
Parameters other than the mean
- Estimate of the population total - Variance of the estimated population total
Experiment: Sexual Selection and assortative mate choice
- Experiment done by Javan Munin Attached a red colored feather to a male head to see if female preference mattered in sexual selection. - Control: no feather - Experiment: red feather Females prefered males with red feather - depending on female choice, colors will grow in population - traits that are more appealing to females for sexual selection, will grow in the population since they will be passed down the most. This will create at first a microevolution and then probably grow into a macroevolution and take over as a dominant sexual trait within the species.
Marine organisms and sound-Melon
- MELON in head of marine mammals - receive and send out sounds - melon: outcoming sound - incoming sound goes through lower mandible - big overlap between hearing range of marine and fishes to Anthropogenic noise (boat/people made sounds) - sounds in the water bounces off each other a lot more than in the air and also travels farther - enough energy to get molecules moving
What sampling design would you choose to study a heterogenous population when you have ancillary information that explains vairaion in the attribute of interest across the population?
-random
Ordinal scale
-relative differences-no numerical value recorded -order is meaningful
"Marooning" to buy time
-release small numbers of species with poor dispersal ability in isolated habitat (typically islands) -Islands off New Zealand -Saddleback, Kakapo (flightless parrot), Takahe (Rail) -Guam Rail moved to Rota
What are the types of precopulatory compeition?
-scramble -mate guarding -endurance rivairy -contests
Squirrel and pine marten surveys
-sightings -hairtube -reds and pine martens were okay together where grey and pine martens were not -Red squirrel pop in midlands is competitive release
What are some examples of kin-selection?
-social insects -prairie dog alarm calls to offspring and other relatives -generally parental care -cells in our body
Landforms can influence
-soil deposition -drainage patterns -water flow -vegetation
Urbanization and disturbance
-some behavioral traits do better in urban/disturbed settings -bold, active, aggressive individuals more likely to succeed in urban areas -urban, disturbed areas select for certain behavior penotypes over others
Why does coloniallity evolve?
-something limited is something abundant like the ocean -depends on flux is better to clump together Ex:Penguins Ex:A specific type of land used for mating is shared by many due to it being right next to a abundant food supply like the ocean
What are the examples to the question "How many times did a behavior evolve?"
-song learning -powered flight
Biogeography
-study of species distributions, usually beyond the landscape sc
When might individuality be important?
-survival rates -human and animal conflicts -capture -handling -detection probability -habitat selection -urbanization and disturbance -mate choice and reproductive success -harvest -parasite infection -invasibility -captive and reintroduction -movements , space use, dispersal
Alternative mating strategies: Bluegill sunfish
-territorial males -Sneaker males -Female mimics
Complex navigation in desert ant
-thermophiliac that hunts for heat-stressed prey -individuals live together but forage alone -cross hundreds of meters over barren landscapes with no landmarks yet makes a direct line home
Interval scale examples
-time of day -temp -aspect (degree)
Removal methods
-two or more survey occasions -individuals captured are not returned to the population at least until sampling is completed N i+1=Ni-ni Abundance should decrease with repeated sampling occasions because of removals: N1>N2...Nm Want to estimate N1, the number of individuals before any removed
Major causes of endangerment
-urbanization -competition with introduced species -controlled pests -naturally rare -past exploitation -pesticides -unknown -Illegal killing -legal hunting
if we assume the probability a predator attacks is related to the frequency of mimics,
-we get a more realistic, continous fitness function
Examples of parent-offspring conflict
-weaning conflict -chimpanzee baby on back
Tinbergen's 4 questions
-what is the cause of a behavior? -how does a behavior develop? -what is the survival value of a behavior? -how did a behavior evolve?
What are strategies for Sperm Competition?
.a Increased sperm production (some primates) b. Retaliatory copulation (bighorn sheep) c. Copulatory plugs/repellants (butterflies) d. Traumatic insemination (bedbugs) e. Sperm trains (murine rodents) f. Sperm removal devices (dragonflies & damselflies
Number of ear bones for birds/reptiles and mammals
1 for birds/reptiles, 3 for mammals
Assumptions: Statistical
1) Detections of objects are independent 2) Probability of detecting an object decreases with distance from the transect center-line
How to survey occupancy
1) Establish study areas to define population of interest 2) Decide how to define a site (species‐specific) 3) Establish sites, then choose a random sample from the sampling frame 4) Survey each site multiple times, recording whether or not at least one individual is detected 5) Use the encounter histories from surveys as the basis for estimating pso that the estimate of ψ is reliable
How do mammals store fat?
1) Marrow of long bones 2) Renal and pericardial (Kidney and Heart) 3) Omentum (mesentary of gut) 4) Subcutaneous (rump) all used in reverse order
Histogram of many estimates
- computed from a different sample - drawn from the same population - all have the same sample size (n) - KEY: population variance (sigma squared) is different than variance of an estimate (sigma squared/n)
Audition: hearing across taxa
- detect physical distribution wavelength and amplitude (pitch and power) 1. collect sounds 2. concentrate sounds 3. distinguish sounds
Birds are not deterred by capsaicin
- dispersal of red chili seeds - chili plants have high capsaicin to deterre mammals and attract birds for dispersal - chili seeds get less damaged when dispersed by birds - seeds grow better from being dispersed by birds after they were eaten - birds also eat insects that harm the chili plant, so it grows better.
pollution and seed dispersal are important differently
- either eat seeds and decrease tree growth or bury seeds and increase tree growth - also depends on prey/predator balance
Sinosauropteryx
- first signs of "dino fuzz" - in the sister group to maniraptorans - shows that feathers evolved very early
Chronic noise exposure: foraging efficiency for bats
- for bats the louder the noise the decrease in success of feeding happens - noise also puts them in more danger to predators (owls) since they cant hear them - the sonar sound bats make will increase the closer they get to their prey -Pallid bats shout to get prey -Mouse-eared bats whisper to get prey
Why is uncertainty important?
- management decisions are based on estimates from sample data - Gauging how much confidence we have in our estimates is critical to making reliable decision ie: how many animals can we harvest sustainably? Is abundance of a rare species increasing, decreasing, or stable?
Anchiornis
- missing link between birds and dinosaurs - relationship to birds unclear, is it a bird or a dinosaur? Closely related to Archaeopteryx - thought by some to undermine the "temporal paradox"
1933 Aldo Leopold
- published Game Management - first wildlife management way of teaching - Wolf story
Evolution of animal exhibits-menageries
- simple cages
Chronic noise exposure of birds
- sound being lost to chronic sound ,like airport noise, and makes it hard for birds to communicate their maturity, mating, gender, and alarms calls. - different birds sing at different times due to the sun position but chronic sound makes it so birds have to wake up earlier. Mismatch. -makes bird sing louder and longer which is exhaustive
What does a female find most attractive about a bullfrogs male's call?
- the low pitch in his call - endothermic growth - bigger you are the longer you lived so the deeper your call - shows female you can defend your small territory - shallow waters favored since there is less fish predation and the diet will be better. offsprings will develop faster due to the warm shallow water - calls from male frog will feel its vibration when in the water - other males can feel/hear this and try to battle them by puffing up with air and charging
What are the types of ancillary info?
-*Distances from transect or point=distance sampling* -*Repeat surveys on sample units* -Occupancy -Removal sampling -Marked individuals=capture-recapture -each strategy allows us to overcome limitations of imperfect surveys -to estimate pop parameters reliably, we must estimate detection probability
Musth
-A seasonal rise in hormones in male elephants
Accreditation and influential organizations of zoos
-AZA -WAZA -IUCN
What are two approaches to estimate species richness?
-Accumulation curves •Capture‐recapture sampling, by surveying multiple locations once or one location multiple time
Alternative Reproductive tactics in blue gills
-Age dependent
What are examples of continuous?
-Body mas -Tall length -Waiting time in doctors office
Traditional Major Zoos -Major Zoological Parks with Large Collections
-Bronx Zoo -Brookfield Zoo -San Diego Zoo -National Zoo -Saint Louis Zoo -Cincinnati Zoo -Philadelphia Zoo
What behavior is ancestral?
-Cooperative breeding in jays -evolution of eusociality in sweat bees
Remove the cause of decline
-Crux of endangered species conservation -Research & experimentation to identify Ex: Non-native Brown tree snake was not immediately recognized in Guam as the reason for loss of birds. Ex:Condor limiting factors required telemetry to ID not 1080 (poison) , not disturbance at nest, not shooting, likely lead poison because condors need open habitat to find food and lead shot is common there
What are the basic Mating tactics?
-Despotic mating tactics -Cooperative mating tactics -Parasitic mating tactics
Uniform Dispersion
-Distance between individuals is about the same, predictable -Distance is far -Low over dispersed -Evenly-sized territories (territorial is possible) influenced by the # of resources
Clumped Dispersion
-Distance is close -High under dispersed
What are some causes of Reintroduction Failure?
-Domestication of captive animals -predation -degraded habitat quality -invasive species -Human conflict
Despotic mating tactics
-Dominants excludes subordinates
What are the advantages of systematic sampling
-Easy to implement -Ensures good dispersion of sample units throught the population
Conservation of Biodiversity
-Education & training -Research -Captive breeding -Reintroduction to wild -In situ conservation efforts
Conservation of Biodiversity of zoos
-Education & training-Research-Captive breeding-Reintroduction to wild-In situ conservation efforts
Two types of behavioral data classes to record
-Events: Dimensionless,no duration, instantaneous -States: duration and frequency beginning and end sequence of behavior continuous
Postcopulatory: Mate guarding
-Example Damselflies and many birds -males copulate and then guard until eggs laid
Forms of Enrichment
-Feeding Enrichment -Sensory enrichment -Objects/"toys" -Environmental -images -Social/multi-species enrichment -Training
What are some Parasitic Mating tactics?
-Female mimics -Sneakers -Pirates
Why do birds sing?
-For females to select the best male mate -To warn off other birds -Territory defense
What are consequences of personality?
-Foraging -Collective behavior and colony success -Dispersal
In situ conservation efforts
-Fund-raising for in situ efforts -provide scientific expertise and personnel -provide education expertise and personnel -provide safe opportunities to practice -provide ex situ captive breeding and facilitate reintroduction
Human conflict failure
-Genuine conflict-human safety, economic loss -Spite and retaliation
What are the functions of the proventriculus and gizzard in avian digestion? Why do birds have a gizzard?
-Gizzard:strong muscle used to crush up food, birds swallow rocks to help with this process.crushing, sometimes rocks get in and gizzard crushes. -Proveriticulus:chemical digestion
What are the three mechanisms for predator defense for living in groups?
-Group defense -Encounter dilution -predator confusion
What are the 4 types of possible explanation for altruism?
-Group selection-rare if at all -Kin-selection-yes if helping relatives -Reciprocal altruism, direct or indirect-difficult, but yes -Sexual selection-yes if helping confers mating advantages
Why understand space use?
-Habitat use and selection -space requirments -social organization -population processs -key habitat features -impacts of introduced species -connectivity -impacts on land use
Strategies based upon behavior
-Hard release: Release immediatly into habitat -Soft release: Gradually acclimate to enviromment before final release Headstart: Eggs removed from wild raised in captivity and released later when more mature -Maroon: If cannot find habitat maroon on small island with no know predators or threats -Cross-foster: Removing eggs from mother bird so she will lay more eggs, than having another species of bird raise it. -Behavioral models: feeding with puppets that look like parents -Pre-release training: Training them to exhibit natural behaviors that they would in wild -Post-release avoidance: Training them to avoid predators
Roads as a membrane
-Impermeable:Maximum safety -Semi-permeable:some species can pass -Permeable:all species can pass; minimum safety
Universal Transverse Mercator
-International, covers everything but the poles -Units of distance in meters -Most commonly used coordinate system Zones:vertical sections, 6 degrees of longitude horizontal sections, 8 degrees of latitude Position within a given zone = easting(X) and northing(Y)
Territory Behavior Benefits
-Keep territory -get lots of resources -more insects
situ conservation efforts: how can zoos make a difference beyond the zoo fences
-Keeping critical resources flowing on a wild desert river corridor -reconnecting mountains to the sea -preventing extinctions
(Fill in the blanks) Choosing a detection function is a two step function that involves selecting a ______ followed by a _________.
-Key Function - Series Expansion
Cooperation in famalies
-Kin selection:Indirect benefits -Hamiltons Rule-Like getting 2 offspring. C<rB -Closer related, more likely to help offspring
Male dominance Polygyny
-Leking species - females will come to this Lek zone and walk up to males and observe them to see if they want to mate with them
Specialized Collections
-Living Desert -Arizona Sonora Desert Museum -Dallas World Aquarium Gimmicks Drive-Thurs Roadside Zoos Privately owned Collections
What are some of Hawaii's threatened and endangered birds?
-Liwi -Alala -Palila -Nene -Hawaii Akepa -Hawaiian Hawk
Histone Acetylation
-Loosens coil -Helps turn gene on
Aquatic enviroments are composed of?
-Lotic -lentic -riparian zone
Sex-Specific Strategies
-Lower ranking females produce females -Higher ranking females produce males (can influence a high-ranking male offspring)
What is division of labor?
-Major transitions in evolution -Human culture engineering □ Tool use -Specialize-What you are actually doing? What are you doing more than anyone else?
Female mimicry in bluegill sunfish
-Males similar in size and coloration to females. Mimicry allows male to stay close to another's territory and release sperm when territory-holder is paring with a female.
Sexual selection involves what two mechanism?
-Mate competition -Mate choice
How do birds know exactly where to go?
-May follow roads on the ground -4 major flyways in North America -Coast line, rivers
What are the levels of analysis?
-Mechanism -Development -Function -Evolution
Types of enclosures
-Menageries -Grottos -Immersive
How is genetic variation for migratory behavior maintained in the European robin example? What is the evidence for this genetic polymorphism?
-Mild winters favors residents -Severe winters favor migrants Residents take up 1/5 of population and do not put on large fat reserves, and do not exhibit sustained migratory restlessness in the lab. -Migrant birds fatten in fall, intense migratory restlessness -Parents pass their heritable migratory behavior to offspring
Why does anyone study mimicry?
-Mimicry is critical to the survival strategies of thousands of species in many groups -Major breakthroughs in our understanding of genetics and medicine have come through it -It is a proving ground for theories in evolutionary biology, ecology, and psychology
images enrichment
-Mirrors -Video screens
what are the effects of glucocarticoids?
-Mobilization of glucose for use in crisis -suppression of immune antiflammatory response
Wildlife mating systems (add chart when up)
-Monogamy -Polygamy Polyandry Polygyny polygynandry -Promiscuity
Challenges to Developing ex situ breeding strategy
-Mt. Graham red squirrels have not been bred in ex situ setting -Males and females are extremely territorial except during reproductive receptivity • -Ovulation is spontaneous -It is thought that females are only in estrus one day per season -Receptivity is estimated to be 4-6 hours during the one day -Average life span in the wild is two year
What is an example of mechanism?
-Navigation in Sea Turtles-use magnetic field to navigate in open ocean -Magnetoreception is a mechanism
What are solutions to noise pollution?
-Noise regulations -limit noise use -Roads-quieter ashphalt?
Sample unit
-Nonoverlapping collections of elements in a population; the smallest collection of elements that can be chosen as part of a sample
What are examples of discrete?
-Number of mittes on a lizard -NO plants on a quadrature -No eggs in a clutch
How can detection rates vary with conditions or with survey strategies?
-Observer experience -Survey methods
Does optimal foraging theory set out to prove that behavior evolved under natural selection? (NO) Why not?
-Optimality theory does not seek to prove that natural selection shapes behavior, but rather assumes that it does.
Extrinsic Qualities
-Overall Population density -Patch quality
Recovery after agent of decline is removed
-Overexploitation Example: Great Whales, Bison, Elephant seals, Ducks, Alligator -Remove pesticides Example: Peregrine, Bald Eagle, Brown Pelican -Restoration of Habitat not great at this!
What are disadvantages in living in groups?
-Parasites/diseases -Competition/food shortage -Conspicuousness to predators -Energy lost in interference or conflict with group mates
Stream classifications
-Perennial -intermittent -ephemeral
How do birds prepare physiologically for migration?
-Physiological changes are associated with migration -Eat a lot of food to fuel themselves for their trips -many species double their body mass -Decrease breast size, increase leg, intestine, stomach, liver -Right before migration they reverse as studies in Red Knots and Eared Grebe
Pine marten and squirrels
-Pine marten and red squirrel - positive correlation in distribution, low frequency prey item -Pine marten and grey squirrel - strong negative correlation in distribution, higher frequency prey item where populations overlap -Overlap between populations is low, but pine martens do prey on grey squirrels when they are available -Grey squirrels and marten species do not overlap in America
Feeding Enrichment
-Placement -Carcasses -Puzzle feeders
Minimum Convex
-Polygons (MCP) -over estimates of home ranges -Advantage: large areas to find potential ranges
What are the types of polygamy?
-Polygyny -Polyandry -Polygynandry
What are the two flavors of frequency-dependnce?
-Positive (or anti-apostatic) -Negative (or inverse, or apostatic)
Positive Frequency-Dependent Selection
-Positive (or anti-apostatic) Phenotypes are favored only when common. Example is warning coloration
What are the types of mate competition?
-Precopulatory -postcopulatory
Why captive (Ex situ) breed?
-Produce stock for reintroduction -Preserve genetic variability -Produce stock for research -Produce animals for public education -Provide insurance against extinction
What are the types of dispersion?
-Random -Clumped -Unifom
Squirrel Population Studies: Conclusion
-Red squirrel population in midlands is in 'competitive release' -Fitness, fecundity, recruitment, density (0.23 ha-1) -Grey squirrel population in collapse -Fitness, recruitment, density (0.035 ha-1) -Typically grey squirrel favourable habitat
What are some strategies based upon behavior?
-Release strategy (hard vs. soft) -Headstart -Maroon -Cross-foster -Behavioral models -Pre-release training -Post-release avoidance
What are the types of polygyny?
-Resource Defense -Mate Defense -Male domiance
Counting
1,2,3,4,5.....A serial process and potential to do math. Chimpanzees may be able to add simple numbers. Bees count?
What are the two ways of coping for global warming in local adaptation
1. Adaptation 2.Phenotypic plasticity - Example: some species are breeding earlier in spring -Not always adaptive. Doesn't always solve problems. - Example: flowers and bees. Lines in graph shows what species were visiting what. Thicker lines indicate common interactions . Red means its gone or was not observed. Blue means interactions are gone even though bees are still around. Black lines show the same interactions between 1800s and 2010. Interactions may be gone due to habitat change.
Plant Boundary decisions
1. All boundary plants counted as in" on 2 sides of the plot and "out" on the other 2 sides 2. Every other boundary plant counted as "on" 3. Plants counted as "in" if >50% of their canopy is in the plot
What are the 3 different geographic modes of speciation?
1. Allopatric 2. Parapatric 3. Sympatric
What two components make up Conservation Behavior?
1. Conservation (the management side) 2. Behavior (movement, social, interaction, ect.) EX. Dehorning Rhinos to reduce poaching. What can this do to the Rhinos behavior with other species and the environment around them?
Ways to increase precision of estimates if you sampled again
1. Increase sample size 2. If you know something about how the population varies, we can stratify the population
Identify two approaches to increase precision of estimates
1. Increase sample size 2. stratify population
Which 3 animal behavior conservationist won nobel prizes?
1. Karl von Frisch - Bee's 2. Niko Tinbergen 3. Karl Lorenz
What are the 3 possible spacing patterns?
1. Random 2. Regular 3. Clumped
What are the 3 phases of starvation?
1. Rapid response 2. Fat weight loss 3. Protien weight loss
Steps to building optimality models
1. State goal of optimization 2.State assumptions and constraints of model 3.State terms of model 4.Run model and generate predictions 5.Test predictions 6.Evaluate conditions and terms 7.revise model
What are "three points" about epigenetics?
1. We don't know how long epigenetic effects persist in absence of the environmental agents that induce them. 2. Selection may favor congential expression of an epigenetically-induced trait, such that environmental cue is no longer needed. This is a process called genetic accommodation 3. Transgenerational effects on behavior are interesting regardless of underlying mechanism
List three factors that could affect survey efficiency and therefore detection probability
1. Weather 2. Time of year 3. Surveyor experience 4. Vegetation covera
The "Bright Birds and Parasites" Model
1. selection favors females who choose parasite-resistant males. 2. parasite resistance difficult to assess directly, but parasitized birds have dull plumage. 3. selection favors females who choose males with bright plumage. 4. parasites evolve ways to defeat resistance. 5. selection favors females who choose males with still brighter plumage .coevolution between host and parasite leads to brighter and brighter and brighter males
Potential impact and success of enrichment
1.Animal welfare impacts a.Reduction of stereotypy . b.longevity of effect -habituation to stimuli 2.Animal health impacts a.Increased exercise b.Physical health c.Lifespan -erosion of health impacts -Enrichment reduces expression of abnormal behaviors -Stress hormone levels change
What are the three problems that Hummingbirds have due to their diet?
1.Assimilate sugars 2.Process excess water 3.conserve proteins and salts
Use 3 methodological assumptions for collecting distance sampling data (not the additional assumptions for modeling the detection function):
1.Distances measured Accurately 2. On the point detection probability equals one 3. Objects are detected at their original placement (have not run from you when spotted)
What are the 3 adaptations in the circulatory system?
1.Heart is larger than mammals 2.Ventricles empty more completely than mammals 3.Costs of high performance:high blood pressure. More susceptible to heart failure and stress
List two general advantages of this simple random sampling
1.Increases percesion 2. More information strata
Occupancy Assumptions
1.Sites "closed"to changes in occupancy (= closure); no sites become occupied or abandoned during the survey period 2. Species never detected falsely when truly absent 3. Detecting a species at a site is independent of detecting a species at other sites
Mammalian Social Systems
1.Solitary-Vast majority of mammals 2.Pair/Dyad 3.Group-shared use of space 4.Communal Group-share space and duties 5.Eusociality-division of labor
When Copy?
1.When observation of conspecifics is easy, 2.when asocial sampling is difficult or costly
Number sense
10 "things" are different than 5 "things". Chimpanzees learn number symbals and assign them to sets of objects. Alex the parrot can assign number for sets of objects that look different.
How tall were terror birds
10 ft tall. could swallow small dog whole
Write encounter history from a mark-recap study with 5 occasions for an individual that was captured only on the first and third sampling occasion
10100
How long can sperm stay viable in a turtle?
15 years
Lincoln-Petersen History
1869-Petersen developed this method to estimate abundance of fish pop 1930-Lincoln developed a similar method to estimate abundance of duck pop
History of US conservation 1st major conservation movement:Roosevelt
1891 Forest Reserve Act....Presidential power to conserve 1894 Yellowstone Park Protection Act...Conservation of unique resources 1896 Greer v. Connecticut...Supreme Court Wildlife is property of the State 1900Lacey Act...Ends Market Hunting...no interstate/international commerce 1918Migratory Bird Treaty Act ... Across borders 1926Black Bass Act... No interstate movement
Forest Reserve Act (Conservation Movement)
1891-Presidential power to conserve
What year was the Yellowstone Park Protection Act and what movement was it?
1894 and conservation movement
What year did Greer V Connecticut occur and what movement was this?
1896 and conservation movement
What year did the Leopold Doctrine occur, and what movement was this?
1933 and Conservation
Key animal welfare legislation
1966 Animal Welfare Act 1.Minimally acceptable standard for animal treatment and care. 2.Live or dead cat, dog, hamster, rabbit, nonhuman primate, guinea pig, and any other warm-blooded animals. 3.Research, pet use or exhibition. 4.Not birds, lab mice & rats, farm and cold-blooded animals. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care & Use of Lab Animals 1.Applies National Research Council (NRC) Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, which covers all vertebrates. 2.All funded research & teaching activities require oversight by an Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee (IACUC)
Karl Von Frish, Niko Tunbergen, Karl Lorenz (History of behavior)
1973 Nobel Prize
sistergroup
2 taxa that share a most recent common ancestor
diapsid
2 temporal fenestra
Estimating population Caribou Example: Surveyed n=15, 1-mile wide transects selected from a total of N=286 transects Number of caribou counted on each transect: 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 Sample mean (ybar)= Sample variance (S^2)= Sample standard deviation=
2.59, 919.1 30.3
Caribou example Find the 95% CI for mean number caribou/transect •n= 15 •sample mean = 25.9 •SE of the mean = 7.
25.9±2.145 X 7.6= 25.9±16.3=9.6,42.2 2.145 from t table of 14 degrees sample mean ± (tvalue)(Standard error of the mean)
How many plants do you need to sample to attain an estimate of the mean that you are 95% certain to be within 2 flowers of the true mean? assume Z.05=2 and the variance is 25 n=Z^2 omega^2/B^2
2^2(25)/2^2=25
Below is a set of encounter histories collected as part of an occupancy study. 01001 00100 00000 11010 00000 10100 10010 01000 c. If we completed only the first survey, what would be the naive estimate of 𝜓
3/8
given encounter history of 00011110, what is the estimate of psi?
4/8= 1/2= .5
Below is a set of encounter histories collected as part of an occupancy study. 01001 00100 00000 11010 00000 10100 10010 01000 b. How many times was each sample unit surveyed?
5
Below is a set of encounter histories collected as part of an occupancy study. 01001 00100 00000 11010 00000 10100 10010 01000 a. How many of these encounter histories contribute to estimating detection probability?
6, sites with more 1 or more detentions are known to be occupied an can be used to estimate detection probability
Caribou example Find the 95% CI for total number. caribou/transect •n= 15 •estimated total = 7,417 •SE of the est. total = 2,179
7,417 ±2.145 x 2,179 = 7,417 ±4,674 = (2,743, 12,09) Estimated total±(t value)(Standared error of the estimate total)
8 Possible Models
8 possible models: Mo, Mt, Mb, Mh, Mtb, Mth, Mbh, Mtbh - Mo: null model = det. probabilities constant (i.e., not t, b, or h) *estimate p* - Mt: det. probability varies with sampling occasion *estimate p1, p2, .... , pt* - Mb: det. probability differs between first and subsequent captures *estimate p, c* - Mh: det. probability varies among unidentified "groups" of individuals in the population estimate pa, pb, π • Each group or "mixture" (labelled a and b) of individuals have different detection probabilities • We don't have a way to explain why individuals fall into these groups, though we can estimate the proportion of the population in each group: a (π) and b (1 − π)
Where do humming birds get their energy from?
95% of energy comes from nectar.Takes in liquids. There are problems however
You are interested in studying a population of cotton rats in an area that is 2 ha in size and you decide to use capture-recapture methods. You capture and mark 29 individuals on the first survey occasion and 19 on the second occasion, 5 of which you had marked on the first survey occasion. The appropriate estimator is: N hat=(n1+1)(n2+1)/(m2+1) - 1 c. Estimate density
99/2=49.5
cues
: behavior or character that inadvertently transmit information, but that primarily has another function
Goals of model selection
: find a model that fits the data well and does not have more than the number of parameters that can be supported given the data (= a parsimonious model)
.Ontogenetic
:over the course of development (use 1 tactic when your younger and maybe switch when you're older)
Zones
:vertical sections, 6 degrees of longitude horizontal sections, 8 degrees of latitude
p*
=1-(1-p)^K Use estimate of p* to adjust our estimate of occupancy to account to account for imperfect surveys ψ hat=SD/s X p*
Caribou Example N=286;n=15 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 What is the sample variance s^2?
=919.1 ((1-25.9)²+(50-25.9)²+(21-25.9)²+(98-25.9)²+(2-25.9)²+(36-25.9)²+(4-25.9)²+(29-25.9)²+(7-25.9)²+(15-25.9)²+(86-25.9)²+(10-25.9)²+(21-25.9)²+(5-25.9)²+(4-25.9))/14
Caribou Example N=286;n=15 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 what is the standard error of the mean?
=variance of the sample mean square root (286-15/286)919.1/15=58.1 (N-n)/N * (Sample variance s²)/n =√58.1=7.6
If a distribution is skewed negatively, then the mode ___ median ___ mean (fill in the blank with >, <, or =).
> >
Index of population parameters
A "proxy" used as the basis for inference rather than an estimate of the population parameter itself -Changes in the index are assumed to reflect changes in the population parameter •E.g., counts of nests used as an index to abundance
Hamiltons Rule
A behavior should occur if C<rB Where C=costs, B=benefits,r=coefficient of relatedness more closer related, higher the benefits
Mobbing
A behavior whereby members of a group attacks a predator Hypothesis: Mobbing reduces predation on animals and/or young
Hormone
A chemical signal with a target WITHIN THE INDIVIDUAL that produces the signal
Menagerie -500 to 1800 AD
A collection of animals, usually in cages arranged by family, that served to demonstrate the reach of power and wealth
Ethograms
A description and inventory of all of the behavior patterns used by a species
sensitive phase
A period of time where the developmental decisions have to be made.Own species song is heard. Between 10-50 days
Scatter Plot
A plot of paired observations used to represent the relationship between two variables
Frequency histogram
A plot of the distribution of values observed (x)versus the number of times (=frequency) each value was observed (y)
marginal value rule
A predator should stay in patch until marginal rate of energy gain drops to average rate of energy gain in habitat
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
Food chain
A series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten
Signals:
A signal is a behavior or character evolved to transmit information
It's not always mother.
A stickleback fathers experience with predation risk while he is parenting affects offspring morphology, behavior, and physiology.
gene splicing
A type of gene recombination in which the DNA is intentionally broken and recombined using laboratory techniques.
Paradeisos-1150 BC to 500 -zoo
A walled park in which royal animals are kept for viewing by the leader.
Behavior Genetics
A. Do genes encode behavior? B. Do genes encode learning? C. How many genes encode a behavior? D. Can a gene have more than one effect? E. Do individual differences in behavior in nature reflect genetic differences? F. What is the role of genetic variation in evolution by natural selection?
Goodness-of-fit-tests (GOF) VS AIC
AIC will always yield a top model. This can be a problem when all models are terrible. If all candidate models are bad, even the top will be bad. Therefore, once we have chosen a model, we have to ask whether it does a reasonable job of describing the data
Imprinting studied before
Absent real parents, young will imprint on other birds or species.
What is the function for the large intestine in birds?
Absorbs water and electrolytes
Ecological parameter of primary interest in Capture-recapture studies
Abundance
Confidence interval for cap recap
Abundance +/- t-multiplier* (sqrt Var N hat)
Population density
Abundance per unit area ex: .25 red squrrels/ha
One advantage and disadvantage of point transects compared to line transects
Advantages:When surveying in complex environments, stationary observer can focus on detecting objectsDisadvantages:Objects near the center of the plot are more likely to be disturbed by the observer
What three classes are fish grouped into?
Agnatha-jaw-less fish Chondrichthys-cartilaginous fishes (sharks, skates, rays) Osteichtys: Bony fishes, which are further sub-dived into two groups
Air sacs
Air sacs -9 air sacs - do not play a direct role in gas exchange - serve as bellows to store extra air - allow continuous stream of air to pass through the lungs in a one-way flow - connect to pneumatic bones and remove excess heat as the bird breathes
Step 2 of optimal model
All foraging models include the following conditions: a. 'currency' of fitness □ Rate of energy gain b. description of resource environment □ Prey type □ Patches of prey ® Are Discrete ® Do not replenish ® Have some prey density ® Travel time of t units (Tt) to move to new patch c. foraging constraints - Predator moves at finite speed - Within-patch, amount of energy gained over time follows a fixed, predetermined pattern called gain function
What tradeoff do birds face by having a hard egg shell?
Almost all birds but some reptiles have a hard shell -Hard shell is more durable but less water permeability. This means there is no water for embryo. --To compensate, birds added water to the egg contents in the form of albumen (egg white) -More costly to produce lipids
Teritary consumer
An animal that feeds on secondary consumers in a food chain.
What is a biological community?
An assemblage of populations of two or more species inhabiting the same geographical area at a particular time
Sonogram
An image formed by an ultrasound machine.
Producer
An organism that can make its own food.
What does the analysis of mechanism address?
Analysis of mechanism address -sensory organs and receptors -brains, nerves, and neurons -hormones
What are some evidence that birds are dinosaurs?
Anatomical characteristics, feathers, fircula (wishbone) pygostyle (tailstub), dromaeosaurus (raptors) closely related
Latitude and Longitude
Angles measured as degrees, minutes, seconds of arc -each degree divided into 60 min -each minute divided into 60 sec E.g.: 35°43' 9" = angle of 35 degrees, 43 minutes, 9 seconds•Sometimes convenient to convert to decimal degrees:35°43' 9" latitude = 35.719°latitude
what compass is used to navigate home in ants?
Ants use sun as compass, but if sun is not available, they use the pattern of polarized light in the sky.
What is the missing link between birds and reptiles? How old is it, where was it from, when was it found, and what features does it have?
Archaeopteryx. Dated to be 150 million years old. Found in Germany, and shares features of both birds and reptiles
aerial cover or foliar cover
Area of plant foliage projected vertically onto the ground •Estimated at the perimeter of the plant at it's widest horizontal plane •Can change markedly with seasons
Species distributions
Areas inhabited by a species, landscape scale
intragenomic conflict
Arises when genes inside of a genome are not transmitted by the same rules, or when a gene causes its own transmission to the detriment to the rest of the gene
What are costs of nature-deficit disorder?
Attention and mood disorders, lower grades, obesity, limited respect for the environment
________________________ information is gathered from sample units and is useful when estimating parameters, but it is not the parameter of interest.
Auxilliary
What to avoid in selecting a model?
Avoid: -Overfitting( too many parameters) -Underfitting(too few parameters)
What is a role of a zoo?
Balancing Animal welfare and conservation of biodiversity
Vigilance
Being on the lookout for predators. Example: Prairie dogs looking out
What is cuckoldry?
Birds cheat on each other
Road barrier: Gap avoidance
Birds flying across gaps, as gap gets larger, likelihood of crossing decreases
Mushroom bodies
Brain region thought to be involved in learning in insects
Hamilton's Rule
C > rB C = cost r = relatedness B = number of beneficiaries
Hamiltons rule
C<b *r -The cost should be smaller than the benefit multiplies by relatedness
Hamiltons Rule Equation
C<rB
Formulas for detection probability (detectabilility)
C=pN C=count (really expected count, or average count if surveys were repeated many times) p=detection probability N=true abundance If we solve for N, we have derived an equation to convert a count into an estimate of abundance N hat=C/p hat C=count during survey p hat= estimated detection probability N hat= estimated abundance
GOF processes
Calculate X2 and associated p value -if p<.10 the model does not fit data well -the higher the p-value, the *BETTER* the model fit Ho:Model fits Ha: Model does not fit
What are examples of cryptic coloration?
Camouflage and behavior
Stage 4
Caudipteryz had first vaned pennaceous feathers
Loss-of-function mutation
Causes the complete or partial absence of normal function.
What are causes to nature deficit syndrome?
Causes: Parental fears, restricted access to natural areas, increasing consumption of electronic media
Scan Sampling
Censuses an ENTIRE GROUP at ONCE at REGULAR INTERVALS and the behavior of each individual at the scanning instant is recorded. -larger sampling sizes -more info on group
Biological evolution
Change in allele frequency of a species or population over time
How do we make inferences about population attributes?
Characterize population parameters, such as μor σ2,with estimates based on data from a sample
How are chicks when first born? What are the percentages for yolks?
Chicks are weak when first born. Altricial:blind and helpless. 20% of yolk Semiprecocial-30% Precocial 40% Supercocial 50% Outlier 70%-Kiwi
Species composition
Community‐level measure: relative contribution of each species to the overall vegetation in an area •Synthetic measure derived from measurements made on individual species -Expressed as a percent: all species components add to 100% -Can be based on cover, biomass, or other measure
Black-tailed Prairie Dogs
Competition,infanticide,and vigilance increase as group size increase
Census
Complete enumeration (count) of entities in a population -almost imposible for many species
V(p)=V(g)+V(e)
Components of a Trait Vp=Phenotypic variation Vg=genetic variation Ve= environmental variation
Inference
Conclusions about one set of things based on knowledge about another set of things
Ex situ
Conservation of organisms outside their natural habitat . Ex: Zoo
Where is fat put last?
Convex line and line concave
Do traits show evolutionary trends?
Cowbirds -body size -complexity brain -cephalization
Trophic cascades and the role of predators - only part of the answer?
Creation of a landscape of fear limiting browsing or grazing time and over exploitation of areas
Channel
Cross section containing the stream; distinct from surrounding area due to the changes in bank slope, vegetation, and substrate
Weber's Law
Defines the Just Noticeable Difference (JND) between two stimuli as a function of their magnitude. The JND is a constant proportion across a wide range of values
Do western scrub jays have a "theory of mind"
Demonstrate episodic-like memory - first non-human to do so Attribute others with intentions - hide their own behavior as much as possible from others Projects their own behavior onto others - thieving jays are less likely to "trust" observing jays - come back later to move their cache
How can we account for individuals that are present but that we fail to detect during surveys?
Detection probability -We always plan on having some things undetected so we bring them into account.
What is the development analysis?
Development=Ontogeny -Focus on the development of behavior
What is a grave challenge facing Tasmanian Devil conservation?
Devil Facial Tumor Disease
Range
Difference between largest and smallest observations
Ansiogamy
Difference in gamete size
Events:
Dimensionless,no duration, instantanous
What are benefits of mate choice?
Direct benefits and indirect benefits
_____________ variables are those that can take on only certain values, usually integers, within a particular range.
Discret Value
What is the primary reason to choose systematic sampling over simple random sampling?
Dispersion
What is the primary reason to use systematic random sampling?
Dispersion throughout the population
Feathers for Display
Display feathers often long, showy, and now uniformly distributed over body
Point Transects calucations
Distances are radical -area sampled=Kpiw^2 k=number of plots w=radius of plots If we assumed perfect detection: D hat=n/knw^2
Diversification can be linked to?
Diversification can be linked to "ecological opportunity"
What is an example of an evolution question to why do dogs bark?
Do other canine species (wolves, coyotes) bark back?
What is an example of a function question to why do dogs bark?
Does barking deter intruders?
Describe in detail a case of role reversal in patterns of mate competition, mate choice and parental care.
Dogma-females choose, males compete and females care -species vary greatly in patterns of mate choice, and mate competition and parent care *Examples* In some pipfish and sea dragon species, females have ornaments and males exercise mate choice Also -Females fitness increases with number of mates -male fitness changes little with number of mates
Causes of Reintroduction Failure
Domestication of Captive Animals -Stavation -Predation -Poor reproduction Predation -Poor knowledge of new area Degraded habitat quality Invasive species -new competitors on landscape Human Conflict -Genuine conflict-human safety, economic loss -Spite and retaliation
How are sage grouse displays associated with male‐male competition?
Dominance: -older is better -experience is better -ability to "fight" -dominant males show better feathers and less parasites
Why is negative frequency-dependence important?
Drives diversity
What are some examples of thermoregulation in ducks?
Duck have increased down feathers called nodal prongs which are modified feathers. Barbs are to keep placement but not known how down feathers do not get tangled in ducks. Down feathers keep them warm.
Imprinting on birds
Ducks and Geese will imprint on parents and occurs 24-48 hours after hatched. called the sensitive phase . Involves vision, olfaction and sound -Ducks will imprint on other species if parents are not around
How do birds fly over the Himalayas? What species does this?
EX. Bar-headed goose High altitude: lower oxygen levels & increased respiratory rate Adaptations: - high oxygen affinity of their hemoglobin - increase capillary density in muscle tissue (more surface area to get the oxygen to the cells) - increased cerebral blood flow when experiencing hypoxic (low oxygen) conditions
What are the basic components for song?
Each discrete bit is a note. -Group of notes separated from others are syllables. Syllables can have 3 notes but not always. -Each note is like a word. If a syllable is broken, it doesn't make sense -Trills are repeating -Formation of dialects-different way of "talking/singing" -Bewicks wren is highly variable
Grassland Birds & Mowing...Trap?
Ecological Trap EX. - birds will make nest in tall grassland areas, but then the area is mowed during this nesting time and kills some of the birds and eggs
Forest Birds & Edgers...Trap?
Ecological Trap EX. - edges from fragmentation leads to forest birds being more vulnerable to parasitized nesting birds like the brown-headed cowbird.
Intrauterine chemical cues
Effect -Personality -Food -Siblicide
Effective strip width
Effective strip width is the distance at which as many objects are seen beyond w hat as are missed within w hat
What is an example of removal methods of fisheries?
Electrofishing
Which groups are extinct?
Enantiorithines, primitive ornithurines,
What are the 5 main diversifications
Enantiorithines, primitive ornithurines, paleoghathe, neognathae, neornithes
1900 Lacey Act (Conservation Movement)
Ends Market Hunting. No interstate/international commerce
Randomization
Ensures that every potential set of samples units (i.e., sample) has a known probabilityof being selected -Reduces the chances of selecting a sample that is not representative of the population
Problem 2 with deprivation experiments
Environmental factor may be important even if deprivation does not affect behavior. Example: Kittens deprived of mother express species-typical social behavior. Is mother unimportant? No. Rather, kittens deprived of mother play more with other kittens. Extra stimulation compensates.
Which one of these assumptions do we NOT address with field methods
Equal detection probability
Capture-Recapture Species Richness
Estimate richness using an approach similar to estimating abundance of a pop using capture-recapture To estimate richness, substitute species for individuals
Why stratify?
Estimates hate higher precision (less uncertanity) than a simple random sample with the same effort
Constant-effort removal methods
Estimator for 2 survey occasions Nhat=n1^2/n1-n2 SE (N hat)= (n1n2sqrt(n1+n2))/(n1-n2)^2
Hawaii Climate change and mosquitoes with birds at higher elevations
Even though birds at higher elevations may be okay now from mosquitoes, climate change could allow mosquito to travel to higher elevations where the birds are at
Extrapair fertilization (EPF) in Monogamy
Even though those 90% of birds that are monogamous, it is found that some offspring are the result from extra-pair fertilizations -Can come from "Gifts" or better genetic qualities
What is an example of a functional behavior?
Ex: Infrared tail signaling in ground squirrels known as tail-flagging • Temperature in tail changes when threatened • Make tail hot for rattlesnake, but not for gopher • Some snakes can sense differences in temperatures. Have pit organs. Uses this will make the tail flick visible for snakes • Rattlesnakes shifts from predatory to defensive behavior when squirrel signals with hot tail Hypotheses: 1. Squirrel with hot tails looks bigger. (currently supported) 2. Tail signal informs rattlesnake that squirrel has detected it
Group defence
Ex: Ox make a wall to protect young inside
What is an example of development?
Ex: Song development in sparrow -Young male must hear song of an adult male using sensitive phase, in first 2 months of life.... Dependent on sensitive phase -Sensitive phases -Learning, habituation, imprinting -role of social interactions
Hydro/thermodynamics
Ex: geese flying in a v helps others draft behind the leader. Thermodynamics: Javalina cuddle together to get warm
Reproductive success varies
Ex: males success depends on the choosing of the females
Handicap hypothesis
Exaggerated male traits are essentially handicaps. Female prefer males with these handicaps...... because such males have demonstrated an ability to survive despite their handicap
Foster and cross-fostering
Example Old blue and Chatham Island Warbler
What is an example of a cost of an aggressive personality?
Example: funnelweb spiders vary in their aggression towards prey. Costs:Sexual cannibalism, eat a mate instead of reproducing -Wasteful killing/risk -Benefits (prey capture
What is the trouble with "just-so" stories?
Examples seem to be compelling evidence of adaptation but we : 1. Risk bias by hand-picking examples 2. Must show that a trait works as we suggest it does 3. Must show that a trait's benefits exceeds its cost 4. Would like to show differential reproduction by different genotypes (but rearely do )
Biotic communities examples
Examples: •Sonoran desertscrub •Chihuahuan desertscrub •Semidesert grassland •Madrean evergreen woodland •Alpine tundra
Change in the environment example: preadaption
Falcon was on verge of extinction due to ddt, now live in urban populations are repopulating. Birds are now hunting at night. urban changes make birds change calls.
What does a high temperature need?
Fast metabolism for replacing proteins etc
Jakob Von Uexkull (History of behavior)
Father of Ethology.
Given an encounter history of 01001. How many times was the site surveyed?
Five
Powered flight, a more parimnious conclusion:
Flight evolved independently in arthropods and chordates
What is further evidence of flight being independent evolution?
Flight in bats evolved after origin of mammals
Once habitat is filled birds must be?
Floaters
What are the types of sampling?
Focal, scan, behavior, ad libitum
Ontogeny
Focus on the development of behavior
Causation
Focus on the mechanistic cause of behavior
Evolutionary
Focus on the phylogenetic/evolutionary history of behaviors
Functional
Focus on the survival value of behavior
Alpha
For a 95% CI, alpha = .05
Types of elephant training techniques
Free contact Management Style: No barrier used between elephant and humans. Ankus and chains commonly used Protected Contact: Use of barriers and voluntarily
Disruptive Selection
Genotypes at both tails fare best. May result in two distinct kinds of individuals
Directional selection
Genotypes at one end of the distribution do worse
Where is the most concern for endangered or threatened areas?
Hawaii
Humans did (and still do) consider themselves to have special abilities relative to other animals. List three that we discussed in class and explain how recent experiments in birds have placed doubt on the 'special abilities' you listed?
Higher learning ability-Japanese crow drops walnuts into crosswalks so cars can crack open seed. Tool use-Crow uses stick to get bugs out of logs, crow bent wire to lift bucket handle. Language-Alex the African Gray Parrot can comprehend things
When is it advantageous to use stratified random sampling instead of simple random sampling?
Higher precision of estimates
Vasopressin
Hormone thought to promote pair bonds and social behavior in voles
Allocation of sample units
How many sample units to survey per stratum? - several alternative approaches for allocation - the more we know about the population, the more efficiently we can allocate sampling efforts What would we like to know about each stratum? - size:number of units - relative variation among sample units - cost of surveying units
Things animals might know
How many, When, What Do I Know, What, Where and When Together, Thoughts and Ideas, What Do Others Know
Genetic Managment
How many? Effective population size How long? Population viability analysis and minimum viable populations Problems to avoid: -Inbreeding depression Genetic drift and the founder effect
What are proximate causes?
How? Imminent cause responsible for a behavior - Causation - Ontogeny
Why is reliability of abundance important?
If it is not constant, the index will not track changes in true abundance reliably. Inferences from indexes that are unreliable can be misleading
Comparative approach of mobbing
If mobbing is an adaption, then species that live under strong threat of predation should show mobbing -whereas species that do not should not show mobbing
Imprinting is what kind a process?
Imprinting is a developmental process
Mating opportunities
In a group increases changes of selecting a better mate
What is the unique design feature that distinguishes experiments from observational studies?
In experiments, the investigator can manipulate factors. While observational studies is about the unaltered state of things.
Sexy sons hypothesis
In this case, the good genes are strickly to do with being attractive to females Male trait favored by natural selection females evolve preference for male trait female preference selects for male trait Exaggeration continues until natural selection against male trait balances sexual selection for male trait
How are the 'good genes' possessed by 'sexy sons' different from the good genes considered in good genes models?
In this case, the good genes are strictly to do with being attractive to females . It factors in natural selection that brought about the trait Male trait favored by natural selection females evolve preference for male trait female preference selects for male trait Exaggeration continues until natural selection against male trait balances sexual selection for male trait
Ultimate Causes
Includes Functional and Evolutionary. Evolution of a behavior. Why?
Measures thought to be related to true abundance and are based on the assumption that detection probability is constant across space or over time
Index
Major Threats
Introduced mosquitoes -avipoxvirus -avian malaria Habitat loss and degradation -fragmentation by humans -degradation by feral goats and hogs introduced nest predators -cats and rats
Challenges in elephant conservation
Ivory
Times of female energy
Jan through May-Lactation, Jan through July-Pregnancy Maintenance Metabolism all year Molt from July to October
Impact assessments
Large-scale studies where treatment replicates are impossible -often designed to detect effects of an environmental impact
Group Foraging
Looking for food in a group. Ex: Coati
Mesopredators and the loss of apex predators
Loss of top down pressure on resources shared by predator clade and loss of the landscape of fear allowing for unrestrained exploitation of available resources
Dilution effect
Lower likelihood of being encountered. Dilute the risk of being the victum of predation
Detectability
Many organisms cannot be surveyed perfectly, so p<1 if p is the probability of detecting an individual during a survey, then we expect to count (on average) only a portion of individuals present on the area surveyed.
Biomass
Mass of plant material in a given area •Production sometimes used interchangeably, but that term represents biomass produced over some period of time •Disadvantage: time consuming •Based on harvest = clip, dry,
What two mechanisms are involved in sexual selection?
Mate competition and mate choice
Metabolic rate scales with?
Metabolic rate scales with body mass
Stage 5
Microraptor gui has pennaceous flight feather,archaeopteryx has asymmetrical flight feathers and probably couldnt fly as well as microraptor
Median
Middle value in an ordered set of observations -There are an equal number of observations that are greater than or less than the median
Idea of Tropic Cascades
More Carnivores->herbivores->More plants Less Carnivores-> more herbivores->less plants
Absorbing nutrients
More passive,no energy needed, we try to absorb nutrients
Major Causes of endangerment
More-------------->Less -urbanization -competition with introduced species -controlled pests -naturally rare -past exploitation -pesticides -unknown -illegal killing -legal hunting
Estimating richness formulas
N hat= C/ p hat Nhat=# species prsent C=# species observed during surveys P hat= prob detecting a species at each location Detection prob could vary among species for several reasons: -Abundance -Activity patterns -Coloration =heterogeneity
Canonical abundance estimator
N hat= C/p hat -Convert a count to an estimate of abundance by incorporating detection probability into the estimator
Detection Probability
N hat=C/P hat when characterizing plant and animal populations, we cannot always ensure that counts on sample units are perfect
Define Census
Name for a complete Count of individuals in a population
Ne
Ne=effective population size Ne=4NmNf/(Nm+Nf) Nm is the number of males Nf is the number of females
Stage 3
No fossil evidence
_____________________________ variables are those where the data values are labels and their order is not meaningful.
Nominal
Examples of small population problems
Northern Elephant seal Hunted to <20 animals in early 1900's Mating system is one of polygyny Dusk Seaside Sparrow Barrier island of eastern Florida Captive breeding program Lonesome George Last of Pinta Island subspecies
Even if all assumptions are met, removal methods for estimating abundance only work well under what circumstance?
Not sure if this was covered
Seeing is knowing
Not the same as a theory of mind; many experimental tasks can be solved using various behavioral abstractions and don't require a theory of mind
Continuous recording (motion picture)
Notes ALL occurrences of behavior and tries to keep an exact record of behavior. -Pros: detailed, with duration and sequence -Cons: time consuming, subject reactivity, small sample -Behavioral type STATE
______ studies explores nature in its unaltered state with the goal of describing patterns or quantifying associations
Observational
What are the main differences between oscine and suboscine birds?
Oscine -learning guides vocal development in oscine songbirds -practice songs in stages -more complex syrinx than other bird -Oscines have 6 pairs of intrinsic syringeal muscles in addition to extrinsic muscles. suboscine -vocalizations of suboscines are inherited
What types of birds have more complex syrinx than other birds?
Oscines
Statistical Hypothesis
Pair of complementary statements (H0 and Ha)
What are terror birds?
Phorusrhaicids
Homing in Pigeons
Pigeons have been known to engage in homing behavior. Pigeons have been used to send messages over long distances
Olfactory map hypothesis
Pigeons use olfactory input from various directions to build a map
Lighting placement
Poor -------------------------> save energy - place cover by light to direct light to area that needs it
What are some costs of communication?
Possible negative affects • Cost of communication itself • Reduced individual efficiency ○ Misinformation cascades ○ Called symmetry breaking: implies non-adaptive concentration of foragers and inflexibility
Below is a set of encounter histories collected as part of an occupancy study. 01001 00100 00000 11010 00000 10100 10010 01000 g. Write out the probability statement for a sample unit in an occupancy study with an encounter history of Pr(1 0 1). Assume detection probability is constant over time.
Pr (hj=010)=ψp(1-p)p
Confidence intervals
Range of values within which the true value of a parameter is likely to exist with a fixed probability - for a 95% confidence interval (95% CI): If we drew 100 different samples of size n, the 95% confidence interval for the estimate will include the true value of the parameter 95 of 100 times
Advantage of Minimum Convex
Ranges on large areas to find potential ranges for conservation projects
Mental time travel in animals
Remembering the past and being able to plan for the future has been viewed as soley a human feature
___ methods to estimate abundance are based on not returning captured individuals until all surveys have been completed
Removal
Strategies based upon behavior: Foster and cross-fostering
Removing eggs from mother bird so she will lay more eggs, than having another species of bird raise it.
Capture-recapture
Require two or more surveys 1.Mark then release a subset of animals (ear tag, sharpies, mark, etc) 2. Estimate the proportion of animals in the pop that are marked
What are systematic sampling disadvantages?
Risk of bias
What explains the difference in mating systems?
Robert Trivers believed it to be Parental Investment such as the size of gametes-anisogamy
What is an example of camouflage?
Rock Ptamigan. Males and females are white in winter, females loose white but males keep white plumage longer. After breeding, males try to make themselves cryptic to surrounding. Males who find mate will try to make their feathers dirty after, while males who do not find mate will be more clean.
What are examples of an evolutionary stable strategy?
Rock-Paper-Scissors Prisoner's Dilemma
First Major Conservation movement
Roosevelt Doctrine
Can wolves be used to restore natural systems?
Scotland has proposed reintroduction of wolves to help relieve this problem and restore native community structure Reintroduction of wolves could spread foraging efforts more evenly
Directional Selection
Selecting for ONE extreme EX. tall people
What are some examples of flight modifications?
Silent flight in owls, modified babules and modified barbs
Convergent
Similar among unrelated lineages. Example:Bill
In _____________________________ sampling, groups of sampling units should be selected to be as different as possible within a grouping.
Simple Random
Lifelong monogamy
Single partner for life ( or until one partner dies)
Lifelong Monogamy
Single partner for life or until partner dies
Stage 1
Sinosauropterx has "protofeathers"
What is the timing for incubations?
Some females will incubate when start laying eggs or when last egg is laid -Start of incubation starts development -If incubation starts the first day an egg is laid, all chicks will be born at different days and thus will be different in size.
Mountain gorillas competition
Some groups have multiple males, and dominance is established through aggression. Domance determines male mating success
How do bodies of water impact songbirds when migrating?
Songbirds don't like to cross bodies of water
SSP
Species Survival Plans -breeding, husbandry, conservation, education -Reintroduction -Habitat restoration -Public Awareness campaigns -Education
How do juveniles impact migration?
Species as whole doesn't migrate until juvenile is ready. Depends on social interactions. Not confirmed
What is sperm competition and why does its intensity vary among species?
Sperm Competition: Female birds tend to mate with more than one male, even if monogamous. Sperm of different males may be stored in storage tubules or the oviduct. Males compete to fertilize the ova released from the ovary. Male adaptions in sperm competition 1.)Large testes 2.)larger sperm stores 3.)Long sperm-faster 4.)Mate guarding 5.)Frequent copulation Females, however, control the pace, timing, and probability of paternity. Dunnocks are subject to extreme sperm competition. Male Dunnock pecks at the exposed cloaca just before they copulate. Female ejects a droplet of sperm from previous copulation
Sperm Competition:Increased sperm production (some primates)
Sperm competition should be more intense when females mate multiply . -In primates, frequency of mating varies
Population Differences in Learning
Stickleback fish: high predation fish learn predation avoidance faster
Ethology
Study of animal behavior
What reptilian characteristics does Archaeopteryx have?
Tail, teeth, trunk vertebrae are free, ribs:slender without joints or uncinale processes, claws, bones not hallow, no keel (breast bone)
The False Belief Task
Task tests for an understanding that someone else may hold a belief different than your own; children under 4 can't do
TAG
Taxon Advisory Groups. Zoos has an institution representative that is liaison between the TAG and the Zoo
Detection Probability: -What if we don't survey the entire population? -That is, what if we use sampling and survey only a subset of units in the population?
Thats when we use Spatial Sampling
History of US conservation second major conservation movement
The 2ndConservation Movement 1933Aldo Leopold "Father of Wildlife Management" publishes Game Management 1966(1973)Endangered Species Preservation Act1969 NEPA...requires consultation between agencies 1972Marine Mammal Preservation Act 1989African Elephant Conservation Act 1992 Wild Bird Conservation Act 1994Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Act 1997Asian Elephant Conservation Act 2004Marine Turtle Conservation Act
Elasticity
The ability of a material to bounce back after being disturbed
Step 3 of optimal model
The graphical optimal patch time solution makes use of the marginal value rule-a predator should stay in patch until marginal rate of energy drops to average rate of energy in habitat
What is the basis for establishing characteristics of sampling units (e.g. their size and shape).
The objects we are measuring has been measured before. THings like scale, efficiency, can be looked up for more help.
Conservation
The practice of management of wild animals and plants in such a way as to provide for their continuance
imprinting
The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.
Confusion effect
The stress of a predator selecting prey due to a lot of commotion and sensory overload. Example: Its difficult to focus on a single zebra in a group
What is the evidence for good genes in turkeys? What exaggerated male trait signals good genes?
The wattle is the red dangly bit under the turkey's chin. The red thing on top of the beak is called a snood. Both sexes have those, too, but they're more functional in male turkeys. Studies have shown that female turkeys prefer mates with longer snoods, which may indicate health and good genes.
You are interested in studying a population of cotton rats in an area that is 2 ha in size and you decide to use capture-recapture methods. You capture and mark 29 individuals on the first survey occasion and 19 on the second occasion, 5 of which you had marked on the first survey occasion. The appropriate estimator is: N hat=(n1+1)(n2+1)/(m2+1) - 1 f. If marks are lost, how would the estimate of abundance be biased?
There will be an overestimate.
What survey data do we used to estimate?
These parameters ψi=probability that site i is occupied pij=probabiliy that species is detected at site i during survey j is the species is truly present on the site
Why do we need to understand social and mating systems?
To conserve, understand, etc
Where is SSH?
Top
Concept of Zero
Understanding the idea of none as a number
Stem and Leaf plots
Use observed values to create a simple histogram
Narrow-sense heritability of a trait
Vp=Vg+Ve Vg=Va+Vd+VI+Vm Va=additive Vd=dominan Vi=epistasis Vm=maternal h^2=Va/Vp
Chronic noise plasticity of birds
Wake up earlier so calls can be heard
Avian Body Condition scores
Wattles and fleshy structure pigmentation and luster of plumage (feathers)
When can you be confident that an index to abundance will gauge changes in true abundance
When detection probability is constant and if the index changes so does the abundance.
Eggs and chemical cues
When eggs are exposed to chemical cues from predators, post-hatching salamander larvae move less and seek shelter more. Results: From embryos learn predator cues. Tadpoles exposed as embryos to newt odor plus alarm cue as embryos reduced activity when exposed to newt odor. Tadpoles in other treatments did not.
What are ultimate causes?
Why? Evolution of a behavior - Functional - Evolutionary
Epigenetics
a stable alteration in gene expression without changes in DNA sequence
parent-offspring regression
a statistical technique used to examine the similarity between parents and their offspring in the traits they possess
clade
a subgroup
Insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
tradeoff in patch time
a tradeoff between time to find next item in current patch and time that could be spend in the next patch
Source population (flow chart)
adequately sample the heterozygosity and allelic diversity of the source population
eusociality
advanced form of sociality involving reproductive division of labor and cooperative brood care
Biogeography
an example with the paleognathe. Study of geographic distribution of organisms
Occupancy sites with ≥ 1
are known to be occupied and can be used to estimate detection probability
beacon orientation-birds
birds migrate long distances -in lab, they enter a state called zugenruhe(state of restlessness) experiment: using an area with an ink-pad in the center, surrounded by paper. You can map direction of their restless behavior -possible stellar compass hypothesis
shiver
birds shiver to generate heat.Changes in ΔT
Head/Neck attatchment for birds/reptiles and mammals
birds/reptile 1 occ condyle, 2 for mammals
number of lower jaw bones for birds/reptiles and mammals
birds/reptiles 5-6, mammals 1
ankle location for birds/reptiles and mammals
birds/reptiles Between tarsi bones, between tibra tarsal for mammals
Abundance changes with
birth, death, immigration, emigration
Where is BMP2
bottom
floral sonication
buzzing to extract pollen
How can altruism be costly?
by increasing status and thus ultimately mating or access to resources.
Discrete variables
can take on only certain values within a range -often (but not always) consecutive integers
A______ is a complete count of the entities in a population
census
physiognomy=
characteristic features or appearance
Pheromone
chemical signal with a target within ANOTHER individual of same species
______________________ is the term used within the distance-sampling framework for detections of groups of objects (such as a school of fish) rather than individual objects.
cluster
CF
coefficient of conductance
Torpor
controlled hypothermia
Sexual size in dimorphism with seals and related marine mammals is
correlated with number of females monopolized by males
Harem size
correlates with fighting success and dominance rank -male mating success increases with the size of male's harem
assignment of number vs counting
counting is a serial operation. Assignment of number makes no resumption about order. Counting sets the stage for operation such as addition and subtraction
If detection probability remained constant over time,
counts would be reliable indexes of abundance: N2-N1=C2/P2-C1/P1=C2-C1/p
How would you expect standard error to change as sample size increases?
decrease
In capture-recapture studies, the assumption of population closure has two components:______________________________ and ______________________________.
demographic closure, geographic closure
Absence is ___ to confirm
difficult
Species Id is
discrete and nominal
Number of arms on a saguaro is
discrete and ratio
Condition is (excellent, good, fair, poor)
discrete, ordinal
Studbooks
document the pedigree and entire demographic history of each animal within a managed population among AZA member institutions including genetic history
Third order stream
downstream of the confluence of two second-order streams
gradient
drop in stream elevation/length of channel
Examples of siblicide
egret hatchlings kill siblings -spotted hyenas are born to kill. subordinate sibling is cowed by constant attacks that is stays away from its mother and starves to death. accounts up to 25% of mortality of young
Which group did modern birds come from?
enantiorithines
Large mammals require less
energy "mouse to elephant curve"
Sweat bees-ancestral behavior
evolution of eusociality
Strategies based upon behavior: Behavior models
feeding with puppets that look like parents
Focal sampling
focuses on a single individual or unit for a particular time period recording all instances of its behavior
Testes size
for species with the promiscuous mating system tend to fall above line fit to all the data
siblicide
form of offspring-offspring conflict in which siblings fight to kill their siblings other siblings
synaptogenesis
formation of synapses
Direct fitness
genes passed on via direct descendants. Ex: Grandmother to mother to daughter
elevation
height above sea level
genetic polymorphism
heritable components of characters that occur along a continuum in a population
____________________________ data vary with the characteristic of interest and therefore provide a good basis for stratifying the population.
heterogenous
visual plant cover disadvantage
high potential for bias
high heritability = ?
high selection -> high response
intermittent—
holds water periodically
Diversity of sensitivities
humans cannot perceive the world of sound like animals. This limits our understanding of how sounds affect many species. Example, animals like cats and dogs can hear different frequencies of sound.
Song helps ____ birds
identify
Evolutionarily Stable Strategy :
if adopted by a population of players in a given environment, cannot be invaded by any alternative strategy that is initially rare ex: Rock paper Scissors
Evolutionary trap
in an environment that is altred suddenly by humans, an organism makes an maladaptive behavioral or life history choice based on formerly reliable environmental cues, despite the availability of higher waulity options
Dot (.) notation
indicates that a parameter is held constant
acute noise
instant noise and then it is gone
mesoriparian=
intermittent or shallow groundwater
trophic egg feeding
involves depostion of egg that is used a food by developing larvae
Precision
is a measure of similarity among estimates from multiple samples drawn from the same population - results are not scattered - no estimate is likely to equal the population parameter exactly but incomplete information introduces some UNCERTAINTY (called sampling error) - Precision is how we quantify the amount of uncertainty
Bias
is error introduced into sampling data that causes estimates to differ systematically from the true value of the parameter -average is skewed from the actual population average
Base Line
is the referenceline dividing townshipsthat run north and south
Goal of sampling
learn about an population by surveying a subset of that population
Pool-riffle ratio
length or percentile of ripple divided into the length or percentage of pools for a length of stream
Types of transects
line or point
Intrauterine chemical cues-Food habitat
mother does not eat a lot of protein then you will not eat a lot of protein
Notation used by otis et al. 1980 to identify a model indicating that detection probability varied across survey occasions.
mu sub t
umwelt
need to understand the sensory - perceptual world
Umwelt=
need to undestand the sensory-perceptual world
Example of sympatric speciation in African brood parasitic Indigobirds Indigobird
nestlings are reared along with host young, and mimic the mouth markings of their respective hosts. As adults, male indigobirds mimic host song, whereas females use these songs to choose both their mates and the nests they parasitize
Invasive species failure
new competitors on lanscape
CPUE graph
ni=# of individuals removed during sampling occasion i fi=effort expened during sampling occasion 1 xi=cumulative removals prior to (up until) sampling occasion i Yi=ni/fi -use the slop of this line k to estimate n1, abundance before sampling began N1 hat= x bar+ (ybar/-k)
Do big mammals need less energy?
no. big mammals require more energy. Think in terms of the shrew example.
Chronic noise
noise that is constant like traffic which can really affect many species
Cooperation
non breeding or floating individuals help take care of others. Can't secure territories, cant find mate. May be delayed breeding
Secondary Dimorphism
not directly connected with insemination, but they raise the success of the possessor in coemption for mates -Example: Birds of paradise
Mo
null model = det. probabilities constant (i.e., not t, b, or h) *estimate p*
eusociality is lost
numerous times
Sympatric
occurring within the same geographical area; overlapping in distribution.
sex linkage
occurs when certain traits are determined by genes on sex chromosomes
biparental care
occurs when offspring are highly unlikey to survive without both parents caring Examples Birds-incubation, feeding Carnivores-oreventionof infanticide
Endothermic
organism able to maintain body temperature by generating its own heat
Non-cooperative breeding has most recent?
origin
Calculate the probability that a species is detected at least once after K surveys of a site (p*):
p = prob. species was detected during one survey 1 - p = prob. species was not detected during one survey (1 - p)K = prob. species was not detected during K surveys so p* is 1 minus the probability of the species going undetected during all K surveys
Fill in the blanks with >, <, or =: -If animals are "trap shy" p ____ c
p>c
A _____________________________ around an estimate represents the range of values within which the true value is likely to lie with known probability.
parameter
parental care
parental investment in offspring in the form of behavior
Change in intrinsic characteristics:passerines
passerines diversed recently. Smart=more behavioral innovation. 80% of passerines are oscines. Rest of suboscines do not learn song. Psittociformes (parrots) sister group.
Mimicry
pheromones subverted for deception
Behavioral traits often correlated with
physiology life history traits. Examples: Barn owls, more docile the owl bigger the spots they have. Silver Fox experiments: breed more docile foxes=some phenotypes changed like colors
On what basis do we establish the size of sample units?
picking a size that is practical
Accumulation curves
plot cumulative no. species observed versus a measure of survey effort to create a rarefaction curve •E.g., cumulative no. species observed versus no. of surveys •Asymptote is the estimate of species richness, S
What are examples of visual display?
plumage coloration, pigmented
A ____ transect is a line transect of length L=0
point
Bank
portion of the channel that restricts lateral moment of water
What gave rise to mammal predators?
possible rise due to terror birds extinction
Extrinsic
postzygotic isolation: environment-dependent Overall population density - can have big territory if low population density - less energy spent on fighting Patch quality - defend small patch if it has good resources
What is bruce effect?
pregnancy block refers to the tendency for female rodents to terminate their pregnancies following exposure to the sent of an unfamiliar male.
Frequency
prob of a species occurring on a sample unit -based on presence-absence on a set of sample units plots -# of plants within a plot is not relevant -expressed a s percentage # units where the species present/# units surveyed x 100 -easy to measure, do data collection is rapid
(1-p)^K
prob. species not detected during K surveys
p
prob. species was detected during one survey
1-p
prob. species was not detected during one survey
p value
probability of obtaining a test statistic as large or larger than one we computed result if the null hypothesis is true
Presence is ___ ___ to confirm
relatively easy
Hooked penis bone
rodents have to possibly remove plugs
Principal Meridian i
s the referenceline dividing rangesthat run east and west
Estimating population parameters
sample near ybar is an estimator of the population mean µ ybar= Σⁿi=1 yi/n Sample variance S²=Σⁿn=1(y1-ybar)²/n-1
Histograms and sampling
sample number (n) creates y-bar (mean of the sample) which we can estimate multiple times and look at histograms
reverse genetics
seeks to define effect on a DNA sequence on the phenotype; newer approach
Forward genetics
seeks to define genetic basis of a particular phenotype
precopulatroy: endurance rivalry
selects for traits that improve a males endurance; i.e allowing a longer stay at breeding sites
Communal group
share space and duties. Example Pairie dogs identifying prey and altering others. Lions group hunting.
Phylogency
showing evolutionary history of a group or ogranisms
sex-linked
some genes for trait are on X-Chromsome
What is a gonopodium?
some species of males have a rod like anal fin that is used as a copulatory organ
agent of selection
something in the envronmet that results in reproductive differences
Oscine songbirds must learn ___
song
Trachea movement affects ___ modulation
song
Sexual Selection:
special form of natural selection. -Differences in repoductive success among genotypes are due to variation in mating success
Allopatric
speciation that occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with genetic interchange. EX. Hawaiian honeycreeper - bright colors from both sexual and ecological selection - get similar colors from low sexual selection - Darwin's Finches
Foregut
stomach fermentation - alkaline forestomach has bacteria that can extract more energy from fiber of leaves and branches (Ruminant)
Structured sampling
strategy used to choose sample units to survey from the sampling frame -structured sampling allows us to justify inference about a population by observation called sample
In _____________________________ sampling, groups of sampling units should be selected to be as similar as possible within a grouping.
stratified
Evolutionary psychology
study of the adaptive nature of human behavior -adopts a functional prespective on human behavior
sociobiology
study of the biological basis of social behavior
What is sociobiology? Why did E.O. Wilson's book Sociobiology generate so much controversy?
study of the biological basis of social behavior *controversy* -Argued all animal behavior, including that of humans, is the product of heredity, environmental stimuli, and past experiences, and that free will is an illusion. -biological bases of behavior as the "genetic leash" -all animal social behavior is governed by epigenetic rules worked out by the laws of evolution. This theory and research proved to be seminal, controversial, and influential -Nature vs Nurture debate -religious belief is an adaption -considers atheism unprovable and agnosticism a copout -polarized academic community
Sum of squares
sum of squared deviations from the mean
SA
surface areas
What do both experiments matriphagy show?
survival of no-matripagy brood was 71% and matriphagy was favored
Caribou Example N=286;n=15 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 What is the estimate of the total number of caribou?
t hat =286 * 25.9=7,417 N* sample mean
Estimate the population total (t hat)
t hat =Nybar=N X∑n i=1 Yi/n
estimate of the population total
t hat ± t √(N-n)s²/n=t x √var t hat= t X st
Half-width
t x SE
stellar compass hypothesis
tested by putting birds in a planetarium -experimenter can choose what kind of sky the birds see Position of stars was shifted Autumn sky: birds should be moving south. Birds moved south Spring sky: birds should be moving north. Birds moved north
What is a tetrachromatic visual system? Using your knowledge of the function of rods and cones, describe how color vision works.
tetrachromacy has 4 cones and can see ultraviolet colors.
Hearing
the detection and interpretation of sound
For a sample to yield a reliable inferences, information from the sample must represent __ _____ ______ __ ______ How can we ensure that?
the entire population of interest We can ensure it by: -Random sampling
Predators can limit populations
the increase and decrease of prey and predator populations affect one another
What line yields the optimal patch time?
the line just tangent to the curve
Sodium constraint line
the minimum rate of sodium intake that mooses need to survive
What would you conclude about a model if a goodness-of-fit test yields a P-value = 0.65?
the model fits the data well
reciprocity
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us
What is reciprocity? Is it cooperation or altruism? Explain
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us. Example - Chimp A groomed Chip B, Chimp A was more likely to get food from B -bar-pulling test: animal gets food if partner pulls a bar, capuchin monkeys pull more if partner has pulled food for them. -Reciprocity is altruism, reciprocal altruism: somebody does something for someone else at the cost to themsevles
Why do birds defend a territory?
the owner of said territory benefits by having almost unlimited resources of shelter, water, food, and areas for matting and rearing offspring
Scope of inference
the population to which inferences from a sample apply
Abundance estimators must consider both
the proportion of area sampled and detection probability N hat = C/ alpha p alpha=proportion of area sampled p=detection probability
Parapatric
the relationship between organisms whose ranges do not significantly overlap but are immediately adjacent to each other; they do not occur together except in a narrow contact zone.
On a perfect distribution, mean, median, and mode are
the same.
sensorimotor phase
the second of the two phases of bird-song development, during which juvenile birds progress from subsongs to adult songs. Hear its own song
Personality on the rise
the term personality started to rise in 2007. Found in journals in behavioral ecology and other behavior type journals
Variation
traits have to be variable
Heritable
traits have to have a genetic basis
riparian zone
transition area between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (ripais Latin for shore or bank
Common garden experiment
transplant species to different environment so can isolate what factors shape distribution of a species
shunt
tube implanted in the body to redirect the flow of a fluid
G x E interactions are?
ubiquitous and everywhere
Distance sampling is most effective when objects of interest are _________________.
uncommon
Ordinal numerosity
understanding the order and rank between numbers
If line transects are established at random, the distribution of objects with respect to distance from the transect line is expected to be _____________________.
uniform
Sampling _____________________________ is the approach used to choose samples from a collection of potential sample units
unit
Sampling _____________________________ is the approach used to choose samples from a collection of potential sample units.
unit
three eyelids
upper, lower, nictitating (clear eyelid)
Quartiles
used to commonly and divide a set of observations into 4 equal parts
Variance of the estimated population total
var t hat)=N² var ybar=N(N-n)s²/n
Caribou Example N=286;n=15 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 What is the variance of the estimated total?
var t hat= (286)^2 * 58.1=4,748,879 N² * variance of sample mean
Variance of the mean:
var(ybar)=(N-n/N)s²/n
s²/n
variance of a sampling distribution
Caribou Example N=286;n=15 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 what is the variance of sample mean?
varybar=(286-15/286)919.1/15=58.1 (N-n)/N * (Sample variance s²)/n
Trachea length affects _____ richness
vocal
Discharge (Q):
volume of water flowing past a stream cross section per unit time (cubic meters/sec = m3/sec) •Flow characteristic most important to regulatory agencies •Multiply cross sectional area (A) x flow velocity (V) Because flow velocity varies with both depth and width of a channel, we divide it into sections to measure discharge
When surveys are imperfect
we cannot distinguish non-detections from true absences
Establishing sample size
we establish the number of units to survey to obtain estimates with a *desired level of precision* -decide on desired bounds (B) for estimate B=half-width of confidence interval B=Z x SE
Line transects
we expect a uniform distribution of objects with respect to distance
schreckstoff pheromone
when a fish gets injured, they let out a pheromone that warms other fish it has been injured. this is in hope that the other fish will create a distraction in trying to get away and allow the injured fish a chance to get away itself. - pheromone located in scales
Communication
when and what information is exchanged and with whom
Why do behaviors occur?
when benefits surpass the costs
Boundary decision
when using plot-based sampling, plants often fall along plot
Mu
µ
What are benefits for living in groups?
· Overall, benefits involved in living in groups are mate choices, foraging, predator defense, thermoregulation, pooling of resources and division of labor. · For division of labor, different organisms in a community will specialize in different aspects.
Sigma
σ
Lotic
—flowing water, e.g., springs, creeks, streams, river
ephemeral
—holds water for a short period after rain or snowmelt; shorter duration than intermitten
perennial
—holds water year‐round•
lentic
—still water, e.g., lakes, ponds, marshes, playas, reservoirs, stock tanks
Intensity
• : almost all foraging en masse in response to signals, most individuals independent scouts, anything in-between
Information content
• : presence, quality, type, location or resources
What are benefits of learning?
• Beneficial when environment changes unpredictably, enables environmental tracking. Animals can predict future events. • Learning allows animal to modify behavior to suit current environment • Learning enables environmental tracking. • Habituation
What are costs of learning?
• Cost of being naïve ○ Until learning occurs, behavior is poor to match to environment. ○ Example: errors in trial and error learning • Cost of becoming experienced ○ Process of matching behavior to environment. May be costly. ○ Example: Song learning involves specialized regions of brain. Neural tissue is metabolically expensive. Learning may incur cost of additional neural tissue. Brain=10-20% metabolic expenditures.
Longitude:
•Vertical reference @ 0°= prime meridian, through Greenwich, England •Lines (meridians) are perpendicular to lines of latitude and range from 0°to 180°E or W of the prime meridian •λ = longitude, prime meridian is the reference line
What is the difference between chronic and acute?
Chronic is always there, acute is unpredictable
amphibian disease
Chytridiomycosi •Batrachochytriumdendrobatidis (Bd)(in anurans) •Zoosporic fungus •Found in aquatic habitats •Breaks down keratin, infecting outer layers of skin and mouthparts of tadpoles •Neurological signs: toxin or electrolyte imbalance
What spacing pattern is most indicative of colonial behavior?
Clumped
Prehistoric -pre 1150 BC-zoo
Collection and domestication of animals, for use and status
The NEW Majors - Institutions that have greatly expanded in the last 30 years
Columbus Zoo Omaha Henry Doorly Zoo Giants - Zoo designed from scratch as major Zoos with large areas -Minnesota Zoo -North Carolina Zoo -Miami Metrozoo
Surveyor-based encounter histories
Columns correspond to surveyors (substitute surveyors for time) •Each surveyor develops a species list independently •Again, consider heterogeneity models (Mh) to allow detection probability to vary among species •Mthmight be worth considering too -why?•permits detection probability to vary among species and among observer
What are the consquences for other levels of organization?
Community-level consequence of sound such as oilpads. Pollination and seed dispersal are impacted differently. More hummingbirds are pollinating so benefits flowers. Pine trees negative impacted as there are more mice with increased noise and also less Jays are present.
______________ studies are those where data are collected along a range of conditions to determine if the conditions affects the characteristic of interest.
Comparative
What models do we need to consider to account for varition in detection probabilities among species?
Consider heterogeneity models to account for variation in detection probabilities among species
_____ variables can take any value within a range
Continous
_____________________________ variables are interval variables that have a meaningful zero point that truly represents the absence of the quantity being measured
Continuous
_____________________________ variables are interval variables that have a meaningful zero point that truly represents the absence of the quantity being measured.
Continuous
Sample standard deviation
Convenient: same units as original measurements
What are the costs and benefits of migration?
Costs -Physiological changes are associated with migration -Eat a lot of food to fuel themselves for their trips -many species double their body mass -Decrease breast size, increase leg, intestine, stomach, liver -Right before migration they reverse as studies in Red Knots and Eared Grebe -Energy loss -Staying in north is costly because of energy due to higher thermoregulation -lower food availability in winter -first to arrive picks first territory. Race to breeding ground Benefits -Less competition in North -for leaving tropics -High species diversity in tropics -less predation pressure in North-for leaving tropics -Breeding opportunities -Red Knots that migrate to West Africa use 40 percent less energy each winter day compared to Red Knots that stay in Britain.
Code-Breaking in Brood Parasites
Cowbirds and cuckoos parasitize others and have broken the code of egg morphology and gaping response in baby birds
What evolutionary process is more common in humans than in non-human animals? Why does this matter when interpreting the biological evolution of human behavior?
Cultural Evolution: A process of non-genetic change caused by social learning. In humans cultural evolution is far more important than in other animals
What are the cycles for birds respiratory?
Cycle 1 Air travels down the trachea into the left or right bronchus, into the POSTERIOR AIR SACS As the bird exhales, the abdomend contracts and forces the air in the sacs into the lungs. Here gas exchange happens. Cycle 2 When the bird inhales again, the air in the lungs is pushed out into the ANTERIOR AIR SACS. When the bird exhales, the air is pushed out the trachea and out the nostrils
Estimating density
D hat= N hat/A=n/2WL Where n=number of objects detected L=transect length w=distance from transect line to outer edge However, its unlikely that all objects are detected, so we need to adjust this estimator Change the area surveyed (A) to effective area surveyed (A hat)
What does the video showing the tortoise mounting the garden clog suggest about male mating behavior? Which sex is commonly choosier about mates?
DIDN'T WATCH :( -females are usually choosier
What are alternative mating strategies? Give as many examples as you can
Example: Satellite males in frogs-Males hang out in the vicinity of a holder of high-quality territory and mate with females as they move to the territory Example: Bluegill sunfish -territorial males-mate with females that come into their territory -Sneaker males-sneak in and mate with females when the 'dominant' or territorial male is not looking. -Female mimics-Males similar in size and coloration to females. Mimicry allows male to stay close to another's territory and release sperm when territory-holder is pairing with a female. Example:The rock-paper-scissors game in side-blotched lizards There are 3 male morphs in side-blotched lizards. Differences are genetically-based -Orange are ultra dominant, blue guard mates, and yellow mimic females and sneak matings
Collective behavior and colony success consequence of personality
Example: Collective tasks: - Web maintenance - Foraging -Mixed groups better at getting prey -Defense Asocial/repulsed vs attracted/social Asocial -Aggressive towards heterospecifics -Better at prey capture -Web building - Not having offspring Social -Parental care -Worse at getting bigger prey Mixed group does better
Postcopulatory:infancticide
Example: A male lion kills cubs of rival when it takes over a pride. Why? 1.Fewer resources to someone else's cub 2.Females come into estrus sooner
What is predator confusion?
Example: fish □ Harder for predators to catch fish -Gecko experiment □ Dish with mealworms □ Observe with worm gecko sightings □ When there is a lot of meal worms gecko looks around □ Time of fixation and time to eat is observed □ Time to eat 20 meal worms take longer than just 1 mealworm □ Harder for Gecko to get them when there are more mealworms than one
What is an evolution behavior example?
Example: initiation of breeding and global warming • Red Squirrels in Canada are breeding 18 days earlier than years ago( 6 days per generation) • Possible for food sources • Brown Bat Example: White footed mouse and meadow vole, the brains of animals from cities or suburbs were 6% bigger than the brains of animals collected from rural areas • May enable getter learning in a complex environment
Types of questions
Examples: Number of birds -Patterns (Birds closer to equator) -Potential Explanations (climate)
Telling Apart Kin
Experiment:switch eggs. Could figure out siblings callnotes
Fairy wren embryos learn a vocal "password" from mother
Fairy wren embryos in egg listen to mother's incubation call. After hatching, chicks make a begging call that shows more similarity to mother's call than does a cuckoo's begging call or the call of a chick from another nest="password". Mother wren responds by feeding her wrens more. If cuckoo is only bird left, she may even abandon nest.
Where do feathers at early stages originate from?
Feathers at early stages originate from scales
What are some structural modifications examples?
Feathers for climbing. An example would be woodpeckers using their tail for balance, barbs are fused.
What are some examples of sensory feathers:Filoplumes?
Filoplumes are hypothesized to sense feather positions. Sensory cells at base, 8-12 filoplumes associated with primary, many filoplumes on nape.
Maniraptora
Fun fact: sister group to this clade is Tyrannosauroidea (aka T-rex and relatives)
Exclusive male care
Giant waterbugs show exclusive paternal care. Males aerate eggs and defend them from predators Males are the carrying sex because eggs are glued to male's back immediately after he mates with female and paternity is generally assured second explanation: males that carry some eggs more likely to get a second mate
Soft release:
Gradually acclimate to enviromment before final release
Cults
Groups of people who share intense admiration or adoration of a particular person or principle.
Positional data
Described with respect to a X‐Y coordinate system, such as: •Latitude and longitude •Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Accuracy
Describes uncertainty in an estimate - two aspects of accuracy are bias and precision
In words, define each of the components that make up accuracy.
Describes uncertainty in an estimate. Two aspects of accuracy are bias and precision
Noise pollution and calling in frogs
Direct effects: Elicits reduction in mating calls and reduce attraction of mates. -Traffic noise inhibits communication in tree frogs. Frogs reduce calling when faced with traffic noise pollution. -Put more effort in chorus than calling alone, but there is an energetic cost.
Quantiles
Dissect distributions into equal portions
Detection function g(x)
Distance data, xi, are used to identify a function that describes the relationship between detection probability and distance from transect line g(x)= probability of detecting an object as a function of distance x from the line
Group selection
Doing something for the "good of the group/species" to keep the species alive -Not thought to work in evolution. Essentially because "cheaters" evolve to take advantage.
What are fishes?
All Fishes:• Are vertebrates • Have a brain protected by a braincase and an obvious head region with eyes, teeth, and other sensory organs .Most Fishes: • live in water • breathe primarily using gills rather than lungs • have paired limbs, fins that aid in locomotion • are unable to regulate their body temperature(ectothermic)• have scales covering the body for protection
Define allopatric, sympatric and parapatric speciation and give examples of each.
Allopatric -speciation that occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with genetic interchange. -EX. Hawaiian honeycreeper - bright colors from both sexual and ecological selection - get similar colors from low sexual selection - Darwin's Finches Parapatric the relationship between organisms whose ranges do not significantly overlap but are immediately adjacent to each other; they do not occur together except in a narrow contact zone. Sympatric occurring within the same geographical area; overlapping in distribution.
Strategies based upon behavior: Headstart
Eggs removed from wild raised in captivity and released later when more mature
A key assumption of distance sampling is that the probability of detection on the line or at the point equals ____________________.
*P=1
What are some removal strategies?
*capture and remove live animals* *mark and release individuals that we ignore during later sampling occasions* - this means that the most capture- recapture data can be viewed as removal data *Through harvest*
Retinas
- 2-5 times as many cones - detect fast movement
Differences in mammal and bird kidney
- humans are much less efficient - human regulate salt balance - Birds: similar to reptile and mammals - very few similar to mammals
Changing face of lake victoria
- increase in people along the cost over time - light pollution increases - for local fish the water is getting more polluted and warmer - this increases zytoplankton and plants reducing the fishies ability to see - sediments are being deposited and filling the lake, this leads to more plants growing
Dromaeosaurs
- sister group to birds - informally known as the "raptors"
In what ways do animals and humans behave similarly? In what ways are they different?
- taking care of the next generation/offspring
Electrofishing
- upper and lower limits of a stream section "closed" with nets - area traversed with electroshock unit - fish that float to the top are collected and placed in holding tanks - same reach is traversed ("shocked") again
Examples of Polygynandry
-Acorn woodpeckers -Bononboes -Foxes
Line intercept plant estimator
-Aerial cover estimated along a transect by noting the points where the canopy of each plant begins and ends -Useful for species with dense canopies % cover= distance a+b+c+d+e+f/transect length
Channel morphology consists of?
-Channel width -Channel depth -Gradient -Sinuosity
Why do species distributions expand or contract?
-Climate change -Species introductions Ex:Buffleglass expanding to new areas
Stream morphology consists of?
-Floodplain -Channel -Bank
How is thermoregulation used in groups?
-More efficient heating/ cooling by clustering or "cuddling " -Bee clusters are warm
Vulnerability to road kill
-Slow moving -Ground-dwelling -Freeze response:deer, rabbits -Large home range -Dispersal and migrating -Key habitat nearby:pond or lake -Forage on road : Birds of prey, deer
Why learn song?
-Songs vary in quality. -Females prefer better copies - Song copy quality indicates health of male
Avian Auditory system
-no external structures - birds do not have a pinna (flap around the ear) - funnel sound by modified feathers around the ear canal (no barbules) -one ear bone,stapes (columella)Similar to our hearing -semicircular canals. Balance crystals, more movable have bigger semicircular canals -Air pressure changes in paretonpanic -Birds don't hear well as humans except owls
Developmental homeostasis:
Animals may develop species-typical behavior through alternative routes. Development is buffered to some extent from variation in the environment.
Ideal estimators
1) Provide estimates that are close to the value of the true population parameter=unbiased 2) Estimates from multiple samples drawn from the same population would be similar to one another=precise
To characterize the population mean
1) Select and survey sample units 2) Use sample data to estimate the population mean (μ) with the sample mean *This is an unbiased estimate of μ 3) Use sample data to estimate the population variance (σ2) with the sample variance (s2) *This is an unbiased estimate of σ2) 4) Calculate variance or standard error of the mean These are measures of precision.
NEW SPECIES TO THE COLLECTION EVALUATION
1) climate and space requirements 2) compatibility with staffing and other zoo resources 3) importance to conservation and the educational stories they tell 4) visitor appeal appropriate long term exhibit? adequate staff? Can we meet nutritional, medicinal, and behavioral requirements? Do we have experience with this species?
How did flight evolve?
1. Based on physics and biomechanics of flying (Arboreal hypothesis) 2. Based on ecological evidence from fossil record (cursorial hypothesis (ground dwelling))
Monogamy evolves by?
1. Male participation in rearing offspring is essential 2.Males cannot easily monopolize resources necessary to support extra mates
How do we study animal behavior?
1. Question of interest - scientific method - hypothesis testing 2. A way to study that question - study system - quantification scheme
Step 1 of optimal model
1. State goal of optimization -Goal to optimize patch time-called decision variable
How does the avian circulatory system differ from the circulatory systems of humans and reptiles? What are the costs and benefits of these unique features?
1.Heart is larger than mammals 2.Ventricles empty more completely than mammals 3.Costs of high performance:high blood pressure. More susceptible to heart failure and stress
What are two problems with learning?
1.instincts may be partly learned 2. Learning can be biased
What year did the Black Bass Act occur, and what kind of movement was this?
1926 and conservation movement
Caribou Example N=286;n=15 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 What is the sample mean (ybar)?
25.9 Add them up and divide by how many there are
Adaption
A trait that serves a definable function and has evolved under natural selection
Comparative Studies
An observational study where data are collected across a range of conditions to determine if the response variable changes as conditions vary
Time budgets, energy allocation and efficiency in squirrels
Animals are more alert when turbine is loud and results in decreases foraging.
Epigenetics experiment
Artificial selection for maze-running performance in rats. -Separated dull and bright rats-bidirectional selection Experiment: bright and dull rats in 3 kinds of environments -Restricted (1 : cage/no toys) -Normal (3/cage/no toys) -Enriched (12/large cage/5-6 objects) -Effect on genotype depends on environment -called genotype x environment interaction - Rats in enriched environment had -Thicker cerebral cortex -More synaptogenesis EFFECT ON GENOTYPE DEPENDS ON ENVIRONMENT CALLED GENOTYPE X ENVIRONMENT INTEARCTION
Myths about optimal foraging theory
Assumes that animals know algebra or calculus. NO! • Attempts to show that animals are perfectly adapted. NO!! •Proves that behavior is shaped by natural selection. FOR PETE'S SAKE... NO
What are 3 myths about optimal foraging theory?
Assumes that animals know algebra or calculus. NO! • Attempts to show that animals are perfectly adapted. NO!! •Proves that behavior is shaped by natural selection. FOR PETE'S SAKE... NO
Stage 2
Biepiaosaurus has branched integumentary structures
Pinyon Jay Experiment on Transitive Inference
Birds (A>B>C) and (1>2>3). In experiment, 3 (subject) sees 2 submissive to B and later 3 is submissive to B
Magnetic experiment pigeons
Birds fitted with helmholtz coils -Counterclockwise current generates magnetic field in same direction as earth (up) -Clockwise current generates field in the opposite direction (down) -Reverse magnetic field and birds fly in opposite directions -but only on overcast days -so sun compass is dominant, magnetic compass is a backup
Birds have a higher or lower metabolism?
Birds have a higher metabolism
Cramptons muscle
Birds have million per square of cones. -Produce sharp images. -See prey easy. - muscle used to move the sclerotic ossicle - mammals have 1 muscle and birds have 2 for adjustment
Different models
Can add more parameters to add complexity and twists. y=b0+b1X+b2X
Ecological parameter of primary interest in distance studying sample
Density
Spatial Plant Pattern Analysis
Density/Abundance is useful, but does not tell the whole story -uniform -Random -Clumped The distribution of organisms in space reflects the underlying processes that explain why organisms occur where they do, including: -Resource availability -Competition
Serial Monogamy
Different partners in each breeding season
Leatherback Turtles...Trap?
Evolutionary Trap EX. - eat jellyfish - plastic bags mistaken for jellyfish CUE: translucent objects = food TRAP: plastic bags
Evolution of fishes
FishesFishes are the earliest known vertebrates and are ancestral to all terrestrial vertebrates. Currently there are some 32,00 recognized species of living fishes, making them the largest and most diverse group of vertebrates.
Confidence Intervals and n
As n increases, df (degrees of freedom) increases, CI decreases
How distance sampling actually looks
As some species are missed -Number missed increased with distance from transect line
Fermentation Foregut vs Hindgut
Foregut -occurs prior to enzymatic digestion -microbes are digested -can persist on lower quality range -require predictable range Hindgut -Occurs after enzymatic digestion -microbes are defecated but coprphagy -require higher quality range -can persist on less predictable range
How many species of squirrel are found in Arizona?
Four species and eight subspecies: Mt Graham Red Squirrel Aberts Squirrel Arizona Gray Squirrel Rock Squirrel Round tailed ground squirrel Harris' antelope squirrel Cliff Chipmunk Mexican Fox Squirrel Thirteen-lined ground squirrel Introduced red fox squirrel Gunnison prairie dog Blacktail prairie dog Spotted ground squirrel Various chipmunks
How many genes encode behavior?
From all experiments, results suggest: 1. Song production is polygenic 2. Song production is sex-linked, meaning some genes for trait are on x chromosome
Indirect Fitness
Genes passed on via indirect descendants. Ex: Cousins to aunt/uncles to niece
Sensory Phase
Hears its own song
A _____________________________ is a mechanistic explanation for a phenomenon
Inference
What is one advantage of stratified random sampling?
It is more precise since the population is more heterogenous
What are some modifications of feathers?
Locomotor, thermoregulation, Crypsis, Displays, Sensory Systems, Oddities.
Bower birds
Males creates bowers to attract females.
Kidney Fat Index or KFI=
Mass of Fat/ Mass of Kidneys
hybrid
Offspring of crosses between parents with different traits
Capture-Recapture:Species Richness: Survey one location multiple times
Assume that community composition does not change between first and last occasions T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 could represent different: •Time periods •Survey methods (M1, M2..., M5) •Observers (O1, O2, ... O
Predation failure
Poor knowledge of new area
_____________________________ is the entire collection of entities about which we want to make an inference.
Population
_________ is the statistic that characterizes variation in the quantity of interest among sampling units in a population.
Population Variance O^2
__________ is the statistic that characterizes variation in the quantity of interest among sampling units in a population.
Population Variance O^2
____________________ is the parameter of primary interest in a distance-sampling study.
Population density
Why should imperfect mimicry exist?
At least 11 hypotheses attempt to explain imperfect mimicry such as -developmental constraints -adaptive hypothesis -relaxed selection -eye of the beholder
What is an example of principle of parismony?
Powered flight
An estimator is said to be ___________ if estimates from multiple samples are similar.
Precise
periods of zoo history
Prehistoric -pre 1150 BC Paradeisos-1150 BC to 500AD Menagerie -500 to 1800AD Classical Zoo -1800 to 1900AD Modern Zoological Park-1900AD
Hard release:
Release immediatly into habitat
What happens with increased availability of food on the cost and benefits curve?
Resource quality should make territory size decrease -Cost curve stays the same but benefits move. Moves to the left.
____________ of an estimate is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of that estimate
Standard Error SE = O^2/n
_____________ is the statistic that characterizes variation (uncertainty) in an estimate.
Standard Error SE = O^2/
Learning can be biased-Rats
Avoidance learning in rats. -Rats learn to avoid taste associated with an illness called food aversion learning -Rats also learn to avoid sounds associated with electric shock -But rat cant learn sound/nausea and taste/shock
What is the vicariance biography hypothesis?
The continents drifted and reason why ratites dispersed. Genetics showed Moas were related to ostriches
What features are unique about the Trachea?
They have loops and are complex
What is 'runaway' about runaway selection?
This cycle : - females evolve preference for male trait - female preference selects for male trait
Strategies based upon behavior: Post-release avoidance
Training them to avoid predators
Przewalski's Horse
Wild horse reintroduced from captive breeding
Tucson Connections
Wildlife passage on oracle
Do genes encode learning?
Yes-Drosophila learning mutants
cultural evolution
a process of non-genetic change caused by social learning
What is the difference between a histogram and bar graph?
Bars touch each other in histograms because of a continuous measure
Ray Defense
Base of tail •Modified dermal denticle •2 ventral grooves with venom producing tissue •Toxin produced by gland under spine
Dispersion strategies of elk
Based on the maternal dominance, the higher dominance for a female offspring doesn't change the reproductive success, but an increase in maternal dominance will result in a higher reproductive success for males.
Use the marginal value rule to solve for optimal patch time.
Be able to draw the line on a graph
Why do birds have such a great diversity in beak and tongue form? Describe the form and function of your favorite specialized beak or tongue.
adaptions in beaks for foraging -Raptors have tearing beaks -Crossbill -Heron has spear -Ducks filter feed -Conical shaped beaks for seed cracking Ex:parrots -Hummingbird tongue, bushy ends for capturing nectar.long, thin, with "feather dusters" on the end for nectar -Woodpecker-long tongue with barbs at the end to catch insects larvae, sticky saliva to extract insects, tongues wrap around in skull when not in use Fish eaters-tongues have hooks to hold fish into place -Tragon tongue Duck- tongues have lamellae and fringes for filter feeding
Evolutionary trap of beetles and beer bottles
Because Jewel beetles look for large brown cues, they end up mounting beer bottles. This is an example of an evoltionary trap
An additional implication of anisogam
Because females invest so much in the gamete, they should invest more in offspring care. Pattern: Females generally do invest more in parental care
What additional factor favors females being the sex that shows more parental care?
Because females invest so much in the gamete, they should invest more in offspring care. Pattern: Females generally do invest more in parental care Lower uncertainty of perantage
UTM
Because the U.S is entirely in the northern hemisphere, we only need a zone number and a pair of easting and northing values to locate a point on a map -in the nothern hemisphere, 0000000 northing is a the equator -midpoint of each zone is given a reference value of 50000 easting UTM's are blue lines on USGS maps
What are some pros about the waggle dance?
Bees communicate where food is. ○ Individuals do better if they do not listen to waggle dance. They find average food. Bees who do waggle dance find really good sources. Best strategies if every bees follow waggle dance
Behavioral syndrome
Behavior traits are often correlated. correlations=behavioral syndrome Example: if you're aggressive you're bold. docile-social etc.
J.B Watson (History of behavior)
Behaviorism and the importance of environment - Baby Albert experiment - thinking in a scientific way in behavior - classical conditioning
Neighbor effects in mouse womb
Being surrounded by 2 females in womb (=0m) causes male to be bathed in amniotic fluid which is higher in estradiol than in male surrounded by 2 males (=2M) 0M males are much less aggressive towards strangers at 90 days of age Female mice also show an effect on embryonic environment on behavior. .
Tradeoff with social learning
Benefit:Watching takes less energy than inventing the technique... Benefit:And inventions are a rare thing... Cost:But watching and remembering may require well-developed cognitive abilities.
Territory Size and Economic Defendabililty: Cost curve Where are the benefits maximized? Where is the most common territory? What are the costs on this curve?
Between the two intersections. Most common in center between the two intersections Activity, body size, fighting, mating opportunities, scent marking
___________ is error introduced in sampling that causes estimates to differ systematically (on average) from the true value of a parameter.
Bias
perceptual bias
Bias resulting from our inability to see ourselves as others see us.
In general, how does bias change (on average) as sample sizes inc. ?
Bias will stay the same as sample size increases
____________________________ of an estimate is the average of the estimate's sampling distribution. When this quantity is equal to the true population value, the estimator is said to be _____________________________.
Bias, unbiased
_____________________________ of an estimate is the average of the estimate's sampling distribution. When this quantity is equal to the true population value, the estimator is said to be _____________________________.
Bias, unbiased
Birds have two kinds of vision...
Binocular vision - see with both eyes, - predators will have more binocular vision then prey animals Monocular vision - see with either left or right eye
Whooping Crane imprinting (now)
Biologists dressed as whooping cranes so offspring would imprint. Biologists also trained them migration route
Why be monogamous?
Birds-both sexes can help provision or incubate Mammals -Help feed Ex: Male provides food for female in wolves -Help Transport Ex:-carry young -Help care at nest Ex:-when young role out of nest, he rolls them back in
Rhino conservation
Black Mambas
Most birds don't have a ?
Bladder. Poop part that is white is uric acid, dark is feces.
Mammal indicators of body condition
Body condition score, KFI, bone marrow indices
What phylogenetic trend might influence behavior?
Body size: increases with recency of origin Complexity: increases with recency or origin Brain: body size ratio: increases in bird and mammal lineages Cephalization (having head): No obvious trend!
Plural cooperative breeding is ?
ancestral
solitary behavior in sweat bees is
ancestral
slope
angel between horizontal plane of the ground surface
Simple navigation
beacon orientation -using beacons or compasses
Scan sampling
censuses an entire group at once at regular intervals and the behavior of each individual at the scanning instant is recorded
What factors affect the rate of heat exchange in birds (affect flux)? Pick one and describe an example of how it affects flux.
concurrent exchange,shunt, heat conservation, shivering, torpor
Ecological dimorphism
connected with different habits of life such as differences in foraging
Advantages of Kernel Methods
easier to site id, more defined areas
Placode
end of similarity between scales and feathers
xeroriparian
ephemeral
sample mean ybar
estimate of the population mean µ
If variation is not genetically-based then..
families will show no such clustering
Whitten effect
females exposed to a male become synchronous in estrus
elephant seals competition
fighting established dominance and dominance determines male mating success
Instincts
fixed action patterns
Constraints on selection
genetic (adaptations constrained by extent of genetic variation), physical(mass/SA ratio), sufficient time (generations), unpredictability (evolution only works with current materials, if environment changes, so can direc. of evo.)
Differential Reproduction
heritable traits must be passed on in different proportions
Florida panthers are an example of
inbreeding depression -"kinked tails"
Standard error of an estimate
is the standard deviationof the sampling distributionof that estimate, which quantifies the amount of uncertainty in that estimate
What are some geographic constants?
land area, isolation, available energy/supplies
Same sex parenting in albatross
less than 30% were attended by both females -59% more females in population -females are tightly bonded and 1 female or both will mate and bring a fertilized egg, but only 1.
Fitness consequence
live longer for delayed breeding
Why are high altitudes harsh environments?
lower oxygen levels and increases respiratory rate. There are adaptions for Bar-Headed geese. -Increased capillary density in muscle tissue (more surface area to get the oxygen to the cells) -Increased cerebral blood flow when experiencing hypoix (low oxygen) condition
Why do females care more for young?
lower uncertainty of parentage Especially an issue when fertilization is internal. Mother must be parent, but father may not be
Homeostasis
maintaining constant or stable conditions
Density may not always be ____ or ____ to quantify
meaningful, easy
Index of abundance
measure thought to be correlated with true abundance -indexes are not estimates of abundance, but are measures thought to be related to true abundance -often based on observations of the organism of interest or other signs of their presence
If much of variation is genetically-based then...
members of a family will cluster together.
Mate choice
members of one sex choose mates among members of the opposite sex
Mate competition (intrasexual selection)
members of one sex compete with members of the same sex for access to mates
episodic memory
memory of what, where, and when
beacon navigation sea turtles
migrate too, out to the ocean as hatchlings and then back to their natal beach as adults.
Beacon orientation-moths
moths use a lunar compass to fly in straight line, keeping theta constnat
Polygyny
multiple females, one male
You are interested in studying a population of cotton rats in an area that is 2 ha in size and you decide to use capture-recapture methods. You capture and mark 29 individuals on the first survey occasion and 19 on the second occasion, 5 of which you had marked on the first survey occasion. The appropriate estimator is: N hat=(n1+1)(n2+1)/(m2+1) - 1 a. Estimate abundance. and
n1=29 n2=19 m2=5 ((29+1)(19+1))/(5+1) - 1=99
Emergence from Hibernation...Trap?
Evolutionary Trap EX. - emerging early and earlier in the year - temp. over time has become warmer but there's more snow on the ground. - male marmot wake early but have trouble finding food due to the snow and still frozen ground
What is evolutionary psychology? How does it differ from sociobiology?
Evolutionary psychology is the study of the adaptive nature of human behavior. Adopts a functional perspective on human behavior and assumes that natural selection has molded human behavior and seeks to define how. Sociobiology is interested in SOCIAL behaviors and investiages the adaptive value of social behaviors -Functional approach vs comparative appraoch. Adaptive nature vs Adaptive Value
Promiscuity
Both sexes have more than 1 mate(6 % of birds, 60 % mammals)
Promiscuity
Both sexes have more than one mate -6% of birds, 60% of mammals
Bowerbirds
Bowerbirds so called because males build structures called bowers with which to attract females -satin bowerbird and spotted bowerbird are two species of avenue builders -analysis based on dna sequence data yields a similar pattern. -maypole bower builds are monophyletic, and avenue bower builders are monphletic
In situ breeding
Breeding animals in their natural environment or habitat
Ex situ breeding
Breeding animals outside their natural habitats such as BFF and Red squirrel. This is usually done in captivity and young are released into wild to increase species numbers
Polygamy
one sex mates with more than 1 mate
Inference
statistical inferences are inductive Specific->general sample->population we generalize from the sample we observe to all possible samples that we might have observed
How would you expect standard deviation to change as sample size increases?
stays the same
Latency
time between end and start of a behavior
relative positon
where you are now relative to where you were earlier
Strategy
•: Blackboard, trail, beacon, individual interaction, small group interaction
Species richness
# of species inhabiting an area -Usually considered for specific taxonomic groups Ex: small mammals, reptiles, grasses, trees
Darwinian Fitness
# offspring lifetime/# offspring lifetime by most productive
Inferences from indexes to population parameters are based on either:
(1) assumptions or (2) evidence of a relationship with true abundance
Estimate detection probability
(M^2)/n1
Define these parameters in cap recap (N hat): N1: N2: M2:
(N hat): Abundance N1: # of indivs in first sampling occasion N2: # of indivs in second sampling occasion M2: Number of marked individuals
Road impacts on behavior direct
*Direct* -Mortality -Barrier effect- Traffic, edge, gap, effect -Travel corridor -Forage -Ecological Trap
Random Dispersion
- Distance is not predictable (no predictability) -Distance is variable
What would we like to know about each
- size:number of units - relative variation among sample units - cost of surveying units
What is an annual cycle. What is an example?
-Across years, birds go through a cycle Mallard Example:Prebasic molt, migration fall, wintering grounds, migration spring, Breeding:summer/spring
What reproductive behavior influences pheromones?
-Bruce effect -Lee-Boot effect -Whitten effect -Vandenberg effect -Coolidge effect
Conflict between the sexes
-Females can get injured during male copulation pursuit -Complex interactions between female and males -copulatory plugs
Tetra Vs Trichromatic color
-Humans have 3 types of cones -Birds have 4 types of cones. One is stimulated in birds
Why do we need to understand social and mating systems?
-fitness -Reintroductions -Sex differences in limiting resources -sex differences in likelihood of disturbance -genetic diversity issues -population management strategies
Locomotor modifications
-flight"asymmetry and wing shape -Structural modifications
What kinds of resources are provided in nuptial gifts?
-food for female-roadrunners bring lizards -food for female's young-grasshoppers transfer protein-incorporated into eggs -defense for female's young-blister beetles transfer toxin-incorporated into eggs
Give examples of insight in non-human primates.
-food sharing in chimps -food acquision by chimps
Objects enrichment
/"toys"
What is polygyny? What percent does this account for?
1 male mates with multiple females. Accounts for 2% of bird species.
You are interested in studying a population of cotton rats in an area that is 2 ha in size and you decide to use capture-recapture methods. You capture and mark 29 individuals on the first survey occasion and 19 on the second occasion, 5 of which you had marked on the first survey occasion. The appropriate estimator is: N hat=(n1+1)(n2+1)/(m2+1) - 1 e. For this estimate of abundance to be unbiased, what three assumptions need to be met?
1. All individuals have the same chance of being captured on every survey occasion (= equal detect. probability) 2. Marks are not lost, gained, or overlooked 3. The population is closed
Benefits of coloniallity
1. Higher predator detection and mobbing 2. Food information centers (others tell you where food is) 3.Predator swamping 4.Access to predator free environment 5.Access to abundant food resource
For any sampling study list 2 factors that influence precision of a parameter estimates.
1. How homogenous and heterogenous the population is itself 2. How many sample units were measured which determine variation
Evolution by natural selection requires that
1. Individuals in a population vary with respect to some trait 2.At least some variation is genetically-based. 3. certain genotypes reproduce more than others 4.Differences in reproduction are attributable to an agent of selection
Artificial Selection
A kind of selection in which humans are the agent of selection. Example: Dog breeding
Making the Best of a Bad Job tactic
A less tactic but still productive
Menageries
Cages solely for confinement •Safety and visibility •Less focus on welfare of animal •Barriers = cages, fences, walls
Fovea
Central Fovea:where eye is focused. -Some birds who move fast have central and teporal - 2 in eyes (maybe three in some species) - area of the eye where cones are concentrated for better focus - hummingbirds have 2
Behavioral plasticity
Change in behavior in response to an environmental stimuli.
Measures of Central Tendency
Characterize the center of a distribution of observations, including the mean, median, and mode
Altruism
Helping somebody at a cost to yourself as an individual in the short term.
Use of Gene Microarrays
Honeybee workers start adult life out as nurses, caring for brood. After two weeks, they become foragers for nectar and pollen. Thousands of genes extracted from brains of honeybees of different ages, stamped onto glass slide, and their activity measured. Blue means no activity. Some genes active in young nurses but not old foragers and vice versa. Take home message: A lot of genes are involved in the expression of multiple behaviors.
Chanel width
Horizontal distance from shore to shore along the water surface
AZA and IUCN meeting reviews
IUCN: Echo Parrot -Elimination of Gill nets in the Range of the Vaquita •Over 100 resolutions •Invasive species •Trade of ivory •Hunting of captive lions •Tigers, elephants, giraffes, pangolins, vultures, bats •New world sites •Indigenous rights AZA conference -Vaquita -River Dolphin
Deafening of White Crowned Sparrows
If a young actually deafened from hatch, he doesn't sing the isolate song. Only screeches. ○ Conclusion: young male must hear himself practicing his own song.
If all nests were detected example
If all nests were detected, on average we would expect to observe the same number of nests in each distance class
Sample Variance (S^2)
If all observation are equal, s^2=0
Strategies based upon behavior: Maroon
If cannot find habitat maroon on small island with no know predators or threats
How to estimate detection probability?
If survey methods involve: counting individuals -double sampling -line or point transects capture and marking -removal methods -capture-recapture methods
Primer
Impact is a long-term development -time required to reach sexual maturity
Transitive Inference and Animal Societies
In a large social group, an individual cannot observe every dominance encounter so they use transitive inferences to learn about where individuals fall on the dominance hierarchy
Define Cluste
In distance sampling, Cluster, is the term used for objects that are detected together and at the same time
Epigenetics honeybee example
In honeybees, workers begin life as nurses and later become foragers -reverting foragers back to nurses re-establish dna methylation levels for a majority of genes assayed
Copulatory plugs
In insects, some mammals, and reptiles -Sperm plugs up females reproductive tracts to prevent other copulations
What is frequency-dependent selection?
In population genetics, frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a genotype depends on the genotype frequencies in the population
What are some theromoregulation examples in Ptarmigan?
Increase aftershaft size for insulation
Founder population
Increase population size to carrying capacity as soon as possible and subdivide into demes subdivide captive population introduce new founders where possible (uses gene flow)
5 Periods of Zoo HistoryClassical Zoo -1800 to ~1900 AD
Institutions for recreation, education and science
Measurements on the_____ scale do not have a true zero point?
Interval
Problem 3 with deprivation experiments
It can be challenging to deprive an animal of all possible environmental input. Example: Ducklings isolated from mother at egg stage prefer their own species' vocalizations. If isolated and devocalized at hatching, they sill prefer own species call. If devocalized in the egg, they fail to recognize own species' vocalizations.
What does the functional approach ignore?
It ignores the ways that feathers GROW.
What about ostriches in India?
It is thought they diverse in India and went extinct. Also India was attached to India longer.
Relative numerousness discrimination
Judgments of more or less -Rats, monkeys, birds, and small children can all solve these tasks. When large amounts are presented, mistakes follow weber's law
Stratified Sampling
Just like other sampling designs: - population mean (mew) estimated with sample mean (y-bar) - Population total (t) estimated with sample total (t-hat) - population variance (sigma) estimated with sample variance (s) - Calculate variance of estimates to gauge uncertainty
Genomic imprinting example
Knocking out paternal copy of mest gene reduces pup growth. Females with knockout failed to care for young. ○ Why does an allele from the father only promote increased pup growth and increased care by the daughter mother? ○ Answer: Tradeoff-increased pup growth in current litter reduces number and fitness of future litters. Since father of current litter might not sure future litters, father's gene favor investing more in growth of current litter (the one he sired) than would mother's genes. Called intragenomic conflict
Stratified Notation
L=number of strata Ni=number of sample units in stratum i
Exceptions to birds eating
Lammergaier has HC1 strength gastric acids, eat bones, nutrition in marrow, most animals cant digest bones. -Owls eat prey whole and produce pellets
Be able to identify the structures in the eye and ear that we discussed in class and be able to describe their function and any unique features relative to mammalian (or human) structure and function.
Large Eyes, more variable shape -Flat Hered. (Common) -Globular. Hunters. Hawks -Tubular. Nocturnal. Owls -Birds cant move eyes like ours. Eyes place on side of head Monocular Vision:area seen with either left or right eye. - due to them being prey animals, birds have low level binocular vision (direct frontal vision) -Pigeons can see around but lack binocular vision.Depth perception low. Binocular vision: See with both eyes. Owls have. Pecton Vascular dark material in eye.(amount of folds and location depends on taxa) Nourishes eyes. no blood vessels in retina all in PECTEN. - Acute vision, more vision, more efficient. - Know funtion at the most basic level. - Hypothesis: reduce glare, navigational function, dark mirror (see things close to sun), and regulate eye temp. and hydrostatic pressure. Other reasons for pectons possibly: -Reduce glare -Navigation function -Dark mirror for viewing objects close to sun -regulate eye temperature and hydrostatic pressure -We have blood vessiles in Rectina, birds don't and its in pecton. Sclerotic ossicle - little bone ossicles rings around the eye that help adjust the cornea. We only have one muscle. -They have additional muscle of cramptons muscle Cramptons muscle Birds have million per square of cones. -Produce sharp images. -See prey easy. - muscle used to move the sclerotic ossicle - mammals have 1 muscle and birds have 2 for adjustment Retinas - 2-5 times as many cones - detect fast movement Fovea Central Fovea:where eye is focused. -Some birds who move fast have central and teporal - 2 in eyes (maybe three in some species) - area of the eye where cones are concentrated for better focus - hummingbirds have 2 Oil Droplets -resting on top of cones is a drop of oil that is clear or has carotenoid in it. This gives the bird's eye color. Under research. Birds have two kinds of vision... Binocular vision - see with both eyes, - predators will have more binocular vision then prey animals Monocular vision - see with either left or right eye Avian Auditory system -no external structures - birds do not have a pinna (flap around the ear) - funnel sound by modified feathers around the ear canal (no barbules) -one ear bone,stapes (columella)Similar to our hearing -semicircular canals. Balance crystals, more movable have bigger semicircular canals -Air pressure changes in paretonpanic -Birds don't hear well as humans except owls Most birds do not hear as well as humans - cannot hear sound as light as people hear - low frequency - owls have better hearing than people strigiformes Avian auditory system for owls Asymmetry of ears on vertical -Facial discs -High number of auditory neurons - extreme feathers around ear - "naked" feather at front of eat - really dense feathers at the back to funnel sound better - ears offset to get more range of hearing for hunting
Landforms
Large-scale, 3 dimensional characteristics of the land surface with distinctive shapes formed of soil, sediment or rock -mountains -canyons -valley bottoms -bajadas -playas
Last Male Sperm Precedence
Last ones are more successful possibly because they incapacitate the previous ones, or displace the previous ones, or end up on top of the previous ones ( last in-first out)=stratification
Sperm Stratification
Last sperm in end up on the "top" later in storage sites and will be accessed first
Duration
Length of single occurence
2nd Major Conservation Movement (Conservation Movement)
Leopold Doctrine. Aldo Leopold "Father of Wildlife Management". 1933
What traits are not very heritable? h^2
Life History traits - Fitness - Longevity
Pair/Dyad
Male and females or a pair of just females. Share benefits
Who cares?
Mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish=vertebrates insects, crustacea, spiders=antrhopods
A(n) _____________________________ is a type of study where one or more factor is altered purposely by the investigator.
Manipulative experiment
Detectabilityfor N
Many organisms cannot be surveyed perfectly, so p<1 if p is the probability of detecting an individual during a survey, then we expect to count (on average) only a portion of individuals present on the area surveyed.
Using data in unmarked
Model fits the data well if p>.10. Model does not fit the data if P<.10
Hindgut
Modifications of cecum and colon allow fermentative digestion in hindgut similar to rumen. VFA
Molecular mechanisms?
Molecular mechanisms compared between taxa. Example duck and alligator
Monarch butterflies use of sun compass
Monarchs migrate hundreds of miles to winter roosting sites in California & Mexico,Where they blanket trees and obscure the sky -Mark-recapture studies have defined the migratory routes. -Hypothesis: use sun compass Problems: need to know time of day. Must be time compensated As sun moves across sky, angle maintained relative to sun would have to be changed appropriately
______ studies are designed to evaluate trends over time
Monitoring
What traits are most heritable? h^2
Morphometric traits - jaw length
How do males differ? Energy budget of males
Most energetically expensive times are: 1. Territory maintenance (if applicable) 2. Mate acquisition 3. Molting
Mode
Most frequent value in a set of observations. Make sense of unimodal distributions.
What are exceptions of fishes?
Mudskippers live partially on land -Lungfish use lungs to breathe Lampreys don't have paired limbs or body scales -Tunas are endothermic, or "warm-blooded"
Promiscuity
Multiple females, multiple males -sperm competition expected to be most intense
Sperm Competition:Sperm trains
Murine rodents have hooked sperm. SPerm hook together in female tract . -move faster than individual sperm -hooked in species with larger testes, indicative of stronger sperm competition
Variation is mostly continuous. Is this variation genetically based or is it due to environmental factors?
Must ask where genetic relatives are found on distribution
Lincoln-Peterson Notations
N hat= estimated abundance n1=# individuals captured then marked in the first sample n2=# individuals in the second sample (marked + unmakred) m2=# individuals in the second sample that were marked previously Expect the proportion of marked individuals in the second sample to reflect the proportion marked in the pop: n1/N hat = m2/n2 n1/N hat = proportion marked in the pop m2/n2=proportion marked in the second sample
Grottos
Natural appearance for visitor •Less different from perspective of animals •Barriers = moats, rocks, reduced visibility fencing
Parent-offspring conflict
Natural selection could favor genes that help children get more resources from parents than these are willing to give -parent equally related to all offspring and should distribute resources evenly. But each offspring benefits more from having more resources. Each offspring should attempt to gain more from parent than parent will attempt to give -both parents and offspring are responsible
Why do some birds get lost when migrating?
Navigation is partly innate and partly learned -inexperienced birds often get lost -some birds need to be taught
Avian urogential system
Nitrogenous waste:excreted as uric acid in kidney (get rid of a solid form). Benefits:use less water, less toxic Costs:requires more energy to synthesize
Do non-songbirds have pathways in the brain for songs?
No
One-zero recording
Notes whether a behavior has a (+) occured druing the sample interval -Pros: economical, no reactivity -Cons: Difficult to interpet
Write out the encounter history from a mark-recapture study with five survey occasions where an individual was captured only on the first and last survey occasions.
Occasion 1 2 3 4 5 Individual A 1 0 0 0 1
Transgenerational effects
Offspring has more resources due to complicated natures of parent
Polyandry
One female multiple males
What controls Monogamy and Polygamy?
Outcome depends on -resource distribution -relative competitive ability of both sexes -population structure
Recovery after Agent of Decline is Removed
Overexploitation -Great whales, Bison, Elephant seals, Ducks, Alligator -Remove Pesticides -Peregrine, Bald Eagle, Brown Pelican -Restoration of Habitat -We are not all that great at this
Examine the patterns of sexual dimorphism within mating systems of wildlife and relate this to idea of Trivers on which sex should be the 'choosiest'?
Parental condition is associated with offspring condition; Differences in offspring condition will persist into adulthood; Being in condition differentially affects the mating success of one sex more than it does the other. Triver's idea on which sex should be the choosiest stems from parental involvement. The female's gametes are often much larger than the male's gametes and because of this males often have more offspring than females do. Because of both of these things females should be the choosiest. Since females because they are investing more into the offspring.
In general, how does precision change as sample size increases?
Precision increases as sample size increases
What are the 3 kinds of traits that differ between males and females?
Primary Secondary Ecological
Was common ancestor of cowbirds specialist or generalist?
Probably specialist
Flux
Rate of temperature change ΔT x C x SA
Evolution of Rays
Rays evolved from shark like ancestors in the Jurassic around 200 mya. •Rays are only a little older than the first birds. •Belemnobatiswas a late Jurassic ray that resembled modern guitarfishes
coevolution
Reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species.
Example of ecological selection as a source of divergence and cause of reproductive isolation?
Red Crossbill can pry open a pine cone cress to get to seeds that are not available to other birds - white wings will take cones and eat while holding it with one foot OVERALL: Natural selection will push the ecological selection towards certain seed types
Types of Pheromones
Releasers, Primers, Information
Intrinsic
Resources holding potential - time cost - motivation, desire, and ability to win so you don't have to fight - takes up energy to fight - home field advantage when fighting - size of "weapon"
Three clay snake phenotype to measure fitness experiment
Results -Controls were attacked more than good mimics •Good mimics and perfect mimics were attacked at equal rates, despite being 100% discriminable Discussion: Inference:limited predator cognition
Where did feathers come from?
SSH and BMP2: 2 proteins important in determine growth of structures
__________________ is the name for the uncertainty that is an inherent part of sampling - a product of making inferences based on incomplete info. about the pop.
Sampling error
____________________________ is due to the random variation in choosing a sample.
Sampling error
_____________________________ is due to the random variation in choosing a sample.
Sampling error
_____is the name for the entire collection of sample units that encompass a population
Sampling frame
Township and Range
Sections within each township are numbered beginning with the NE corner and increasing to the west Sections are divided into quarter sections Traditionally, a location is described as occurring within a quarter of a quarter section e.g., in the NE ¼ of the NW Location descriptions are read from the smallest division to the largest
How many times did a behavior evolve? song learning example
So learning evolved 3 times. -It may have evolved once and was lost in some groups To decide, count up the gains and losses required in each case One-origin hypothesis requires 1 gain but 3 losses=4 total evolutionary events -Choose the explanation requiring the fewest number events
What behaviors would be of greatest interest?
Social behavior •Social structure & dominance •Introduction of new animals •Dispersal •Territoriality/home range •Aggression •Maternal care •Visitor influence •Avoidance •Learning•Enrichment
How soft is soft?
Soft-Spring capture, summer release Softer-winter capture, winter release
How soft is soft?
Soft-Spring capture, summer release Softer-Winter capture, winter release
Delaying reproduction
Some birds are delaying reproduction on purpose. Yes. Female helpers are rare
How effective can wolves be?
Some data shows that wolf predation is not enough -Not all elk respond the same-females with calves=landscape of fear -Male elk=landscape of forage
When to care? Role of Future Reproduction
Species that benefit more by future reproduction should invest less in case of current offspring =tradeoff between current and future reproduction
How does the tradeoff between current and future reproduction affect the expression of parental care?
Species that benefit more by future reproduction should invest less in case of current offspring factors -resource availability -lifespan
Assimilate sugars Problem
Sugars in nectar complex, sucrose and maltose. Cells want simple sugars such as glucose and fructose. Solutions: - high activity of sugar processing enzymes - high rates of intestinal glucose transport - high active transport - sugars in nectar are complex, sucrose and maltose - cell wants simple sugars, glucose and fructose
Encounter histories occupancy
Summary of survey results at a site -Survey history for each site -when surveys complete, we have two types of sites Detection-Occupied No detection-Not occupied or occupied, but not detected
1896 Greer V Connecticut (Conservation Movement)
Supreme court wildlife is property of the state
What is the surface of the egg. What does this protect from?
Surface of egg is cuticle and protects from microorganims
Notation for Occupancy
Survey for the species of interest at i sites over j occasions s=number of sites surveyed sD=number of sites where species detected at least once K=number of surveys per site ψi=probability that site i is occupied pij=probabiliy that species is detected at site i during survey j is the species is truly present on the site
Ratio estimation
Survey the parameter of interest y on a sample of units •Survey auxiliary variable x on the same units•Use these data to estimate the ratio of y to x y=counts on plots, assumed perfect x= axuliary data related to y
Describe the structure of the syrinx and explain how it works.
Syrinx operates with nearly 100 percent physical efficiency to create loud, complex sounds and can produce 2 independent songs simultaneously. Located in the body cavity and the junction of the trachea and the two primary bronchi. Sound is caused by the vibration of the air column as air passes through the syringeal passageway. Projections called the internal labium and the external labium constrict these narrow passageways. One each side of the syrinx is the internal tympaniform membrane. Pressure in the interclavicular air sac pushes the tympaniform membranes of the syrinx into the bronchial air space. The opposite sides of the syrinx can produce different songs simultaneously. Syringeal muscles control syrinx action during song production. Nonpasserine birds have two pairs of narrow muscles on the sides of the trachea above the syrinx called extrinsic muscles . Oscines have 6 pairs of intrinsic syringeal muscles in addition to extrinsic muscles. The intrinisic syringeal muscles originate within the syrinx and intsert onto the bronchial rings, the internal and external tympaniform membranes and the syringeal cartilage
Pleiotropy
Tendency for a gene to influence more than one trait
Neophilia/problem solving
Test response to novel objects like puzzle boxes with meats or coolers. Measure how many individuals approach items and get food.
What is conservation behavior?
The application of knowledge of animal behavior to solve wildlife conservation problems
Aldo Leopold on the loss of wolves
The declines of wolves from government agencies caused herbivores to forage on most vegetation. Herbivores are overpopulated
Sampling frame-
The entire collection of sample units in a population
Element
The entity that we measure or count, such as individual plants or animals
Why have personality?
There are benefits to having less plastic behavior -Lower developmental cost -Reduced neural/sensory investment -Avoid having to sample the environment -Behavior matches other trais
Does breeding in phytotelms drive evolution of trophic feeding and biparental care?
There is a significant (p<.0001) correlation between the evolution of phytotelm breeding and evolution of parental care. But many species how care without phyotelms
What one trait is important in mimicry in king and coral snakes?
There is a strong selection on ratio of red:black
What is the potential risk associated with using the systematic random sampling design?
There is some risk of bias
Scale
To learn about something at one scale, we assess the next lower scale Ex: Interest in pop of sahuaros, collect info on individuals
Top down or bottom up control
Top down: Predators influence everything below them Bottom up: lower predators influence everything above
Strategies based upon behavior: Pre-release training
Training them to exhibit natural behaviors that they would in wild
Paraemeter
True value of an attribute across the entire population -We want to come to know this, but don't want to go through effort to survey every unit -unknown, but we want to know -Expressed by µ (mu) σ (sigma)
Be able to describe the 6 different territory types and provide examples of each.
Type A: mating,nesting, and feeding territory. Song Birds Type B:mating and nesting territory. Blackbirds Type C:nesting territory. Area right around the bird. Colonial birds. Type D: paring or mating territory. Display space. Widspread Type E: roosting territory. Sleeping space. Chimney swift. Type F:winter territory. Foraging. Kingfisher
Diagnostic
Useful or necessary to distinguish a species or a group of species from its relatives. Example: Feathers as no other living animal has them
How might theory of mind me useful?
Using others to gain information -intentional deception -Communicating with intent to inform
What other V are in VG? (4)
VA - Additive VD - Dominance VE - Epistasis VM - Maternal
Vaquita and the Yangtze River Dolphin
Vaquita is endangered and river dolphin is extinct
Example of Solution to Code-Breaking
Wasps attracted to orchids that mimic female wasps, but can learn to avoid (because their is not positive reinforcement)
What are floaters?
What are floaters? birds that can't reproduce, will help raise/feed/protect other offsprings - DELAY REPRODUCTION - YES - if breeding pair is removed then a floater will take the place of new breeder - this process is done very quickly - ARE THEY REALLY HELPING - YES - helps create more fledglings - non territoriales - indicators of habitat and/or food resource limitation
What are functional approach questions?
What is the simplest possible structure and how might it be elaborated? What were the functions on each of these stages?
Game Theory
When fighting is costly, assess your opponent and run away if chances of winning are low
Advantages of point transects
When surveying in complex enviroments, stationary observer can focus on detecting objects
When to stratify
When the population is heterogenous -divides the population homogenous subpopulations
How does the Lincoln-Petersen Estimator allow us to estimate N?
When the second sample is a random subset of individuals in the population, the proportion of marked individuals in the sample will reflect the proportion of individuals marked in the population (on average)
When would you choose stratified random sampling over simple random sampling?
When your population is more heterogenous. This way you get a more precise estimate.
Divergent evolution
Wherein closely related species evolve differences in the nature of selection
Convergent evolution
Wherein distantly related species independently evolve a similar adapatation
sclerotic ring (yes or no for Birds/Reptiles and Mammals)
Yes birds/Reptiles, No mammals.
Difference between broad and narrow heritability
You can see the difference in the equations. basically the broad sense heritability includes all genetic variation no matter the source whereas narrow sense includes only a specific (narrow) source of genetic variation.
What is one disadvantage to stratified random sampling?
You must know something about the population in advance
A point transect is a special case of a line transect where line length= ____?
Zero
Keystone Species
a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its abundance
paraphyletic
a group that doesn't include all descendants from common ancestor
What is Batesian mimicry?
a harmless organism (the mimic) resembles a dangerous one (the model), gaining protection from predators
First order stream
a headwater stream segment with no tributaries
Waggle Dance
a honeybee behavior that indicates the direction to a distant source of food -Response to resources-evolved communication -Important environmental cues are quite different. A recurring theme -Used to "vote"
Estimate (statistic)
a quantity computed from observations in a sample -we estimate population parameters with sample data -Expressed by y bar or s
Second order stream
a segment downsteram of the confluence of two first-order streams
Sound
a vibrating distribution in the pressure and density of a fluid (air, water)
How do birds defend territories? What intrinsic factors may influence a bird's ability to win a territorial interaction?
aggression -Western Bluebird needs a hole made, such as nest boxes or premade cavities Intrinsic Qualities -resource holding potential -motivation to win -body conditions -"Birds have weapons" Example:Claws, Rooster, Cassary -As body mass increases, territory is more needed
Mth
allows detection prob to vary among species and locations
Sampling distributions
always normally distributed
Theory of mind
an animals knows about the mental state of another animal
Observational Learning
animal learns something while observing another animal doing the behavior; type of social learning; OCTOPUS
Noise Pollution
anthropogenic sounds that inhibit perception of natural sounds
parental investment
any parental expenditure (time, energy etc.) that benefits one offspring at a cost to parents' ability to invest in other components of fitness, and is thus a form of sexual selection. Components - Robert Trivers
parental investment
any parental trait that potentially increases fitness of an offspring at some cost to the parent
Actual boundaries
are fuzzier; affected by local phenomena including elevation, slope, aspect, and soil characteristic
functional perspective
assumes that natural selection has molded human behavior and seeks to define how
Red Blood Count for birds/reptiles and mammals
birds/reptiles nucleated, mammals not.
_____ is a measure useful for comparing variation between groups measured on different scales
coefficient of variation
Richness changes with
colonization and extinction
Personality
consistent among-individual differences across time and/or context
Serial Monogamy
different patterns in each breeding season
Primary Dimorphism
directly connected with the act of reproduction
Genomic imprinting is an example of?
epigenetics
Stratified random sampling
established by -dividing the population into non-overlapping strata -selection a random sample from within each startum
Phylogeny
evolutionary history of a group. Usually takes form of a tree.
Thermoregulation
feather modifications for insulation
What avian characteristics does Archaeopteryx have?
feathers, opposable halux (big toe), braincase is expanded, backward pointing pelvis
Problems with the Dogma
females choose, males compete and females care -species vary greatly in patterns of mate choice, and mate copetion and parent care
Polyandry
females have more than 1 mate (1% of birds, < 1% mammals)
Reverse genetics: Knockout technique in ice
fosB+ mice show normal maternal care. fosB- mice are indifferent to pups. -Use of knockouts informs about the mechanism involved in parental care. -stimuli from pups integrated in hypothaiamus->fosB alleles activated in preoptic area (POA)->fosB protein produced->fosB leads to alterations in POA neural circuits->maternal care
Operation Oryx
goal was to capture last surviving Oryx in Oman and use them to begin a breeding program at Phoenix zoo for eventual release to the wild.
What are the origin of ratites
gondwanaland
cooperative breeding
helper at nest brings food to offspring not its own and defends nest from pedators, a form of altruism
Auxiliary data
is information about sample units in addition to the parameter of interest -when values of auxiliary data vary with a parameter of interest, it can be used to improve the estimates from the sampling studies
Social Learning
kind of learning in which animal learns behavior faster or exclusively in the company of other individuals; involves model and observer; sweet potato washing
Intrauterine chemical cues -Personality
level of aggression (hormones, area of the uterine determines this, leads to sex being male of female
Mean deviation
mean of absolute deviations for all observations -used less than squared deviation
Population viability anaylsis
method of predicting whether or not a population will persist
Fill in the blanks with >, <, or =: -If animals show no behavioral response to trapping p ____ c
p=c
Beacon orientation
process of orienting towards or away from some beacon which is emitting or absorbing energy
Visual plant cover advantage
quick
If the mean is greater than the median, the distribution is skewed to the
right
Male coati are
solitary
Ecological trap
specific type of evolutionary trap dealing with habitat choice
How do we assess scale?
to learn about something at one scale, we assess the next lower scale
If surveys imperfect p<1, classifying sites with no detections as unoccipied will
will underestimate true occupancy because some proportion of sites are likely to be occupied even though the species was never detected
What is the evolution analysis?
• focuses on the phylogenetic/evolutionary history of behaviors
Attribute data
•Consist of nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data just likenon‐spatial data •Can be points, lines, areas, or surfaces (3D) •In geographic information systems (GIS), attribute data is associated with position data in database Ex: -Elevation, slope, aspect •Land use/cover •Soil type •Landmarks •Average annual primary productivity
Immersive
•Mimic habitat for animals and visitors •Multi-species displays where possible •Barriers = often more natural or even non-existent
Assumption:Equal detection probability:behavior
(b) detection probability changes in response to initial capture -trap happy: p< c -trap shy: p> c -no behavioral response to capture:p= c *Behavior Response* With the information in encounter histories, and assuming closure, we can separate detection probability into two parts: 1. p = capture probability- probability of initially capturing an individual 2. c = recapture probability- probability that a marked individual is recaptured
How do Endocrine distributing chemicals (EDC) impact animals?
*Activity* - Impaired balance -Decreased or hyperactivity - Decreased locomotor performance *Feeding* -Reduced prey capture/foraging efficiency *Antipredator* -Reduced or increased fear response -Increase vulnerability -Decreased response to predator cues -Increased feeding under predation risk *Communication* -Reduced pheromone production -Decreased response to maternal calls *Mating & Courtship* -Decreased or impaired courtship and mating -Increased female mating *Parental Behavior* -Reduced nest attentiveness & maintenance -Reduced incubation *Social Behavior* -Increased response to intruder -Increased rough play -Altered sociosexual behavior *Learning* -Reduced learning & memory
Why are red squirrels being displaced in Ireland?
*Competition* -red outcompeted in broadleaved and mixed woodlands -greys have larger fat reserves -more varied diet -greys can digest acorns better *Impact juvenile recruitment in red pop *Squirrel red pox*
Which method to estimate plant density?
*Distance sampling* •Animate or inanimate objects •Line or point configuration •No assumption about perfect detection •No assumption about the spatial distribution of objects *Point-Centered quarter* •Stationary objects •Point configuration •Assume perfect detection •Assume objects distributed randomly Point‐centered quarter only provides an unbiased estimate of density when objects are distributed randomly because it reflects spatial patterning
How do we assess space use?
*Observations* -Direct: scan or focal animal sampling -Indirect-cameras, hair snares *Telemetry* -Radiotelemetry-VHF -GPS: store on board, remote download
Lincoln-Petersen Estimator
*Occasion 1* -a sample of animals is captured, marked, and released (n1) *Occasion 2* -a second sample of individuals is captured (n2) and the # of animals marked previously is counted (m2)
Identify precopulatory mechanisms of mate competition. Identify postcopulatory mechanisms. Be sure to know what is meant by each.
*Precopulatory competition: Before copulation, includes:* -scramble-find females quickly and mate with as many as possible, first one in wins -mate guarding-males guard immature females until they are ready to mate (rare) -endurance rivalry-selection for traits that improve endurance-(longer stay at breeding sites will get more females)-"the last one standing" wins -contests-compete for either direct access to mates or monopolize resources needed by the female, the "baddest one" wins-sometimes actual combat or sometimes ritualized display-selects for better WEAPONS *Postcopulatory competition: after copulation, includes:* -Sperm competition-sperm of second male may displace or incapacitate sperm of the first male -Mate guarding-after copulation, guard female until eggs are laid-to make sure no other male can interfere infanticide-killing off the offspring of another male
What do evolutionary psychologists predict about the differences between mate choice in human males versus females? Why? What is predicted about patterns of jealousy? Is there evidence to support any of these predictions?
*Predictions* Both sexes will give weight to 'good looks' and good care-giving. BUT ...Females will give more weight to partners who provide good care-giving (males with wealth, experience, status). Males will give more weight to partners who are young(and fertile) and have 'good looks'which indicate 'good genes' for health and child-bearing *Why* Because Females prefer older men in personal advertisements.Males prefer younger women in personal ads *Patterns of Jealousy* For men: female's sexual infidelity risks parental investment in another male's offspring. For women: male's emotional involvement with another woman risks lost parental resources. *Evidence* Expect evolved sex difference in jealous mind: •male should respond primarily to cues of sexual infidelity. •female should respond primarily to cues of extra-pair emotional involvement
Stream Order
*first-order sream*-a headwater stream segment with no tributaries *second-order stream* a segment downsteram of the confluence of two first-order streams *third-order stream* downstream of the confluence of two second-order streams *nth order stream* located downstream of the confluence of two (n-1)th order streams
What is the difference between parental investment and parental care? Examples please.
*parental investment* any parental trait that potentially increases fitness of an offspring at some cost to the parent Example: Parents help young acquire nutrients via Parental investment -yolk-filled eggs -body secretions (milk, mucus) -bringing food to young -teaching young to get food -laying eggs at food sources *parental care* parental investment in offspring in the form of behavior Parental care -bringing food to young -teaching young to get food -laying eggs at food sources
What is sexual dimorphism? What categories of traits show sexual dimorphism? Cite examples of each
*sexual dimorphism*: there are two different forms that depend on the sex of the organism. Includes differences in morphology, behavior, and physiology *Three categories include:* Primary: directly connected with the act of reproduction Example: (gonads, copulatory organs) Secondary:not directly connected with insemination, but they raise the success of the possessor in coemption for mates Example: Birds of paradise (coloration in male birds) Ecological:connected with different habits of life such as differences in foraging Example:
The half width of a 90% confidence interval would be __________ than the half width of a 95% confidence interval for the same estimate. Narrower
- 95% has more info., so it would be wider than 90%
Optimal Allocation
- All allocation methods are simplified versions of optimal allocation, where COST, VARIATION, or SIZE OF STRATA are unknown, assumed equal, or ignored - optimal allocation weights the sample allocation to maximize sampling efficiency, which means providing the highest degree of precision for a given sampling effort or cost -Number of sampling units from each stratum are proportion to SD, Size, and Cost of sampling in each stratum
Arboreal Hypothesis
- Ancestors arboreal (adapted for living in trees) - Gliding evolved first - Powered flight evolved later *linked to the archosaur hypothesis Microraptor argued to be arboreal
visual causes can be lost via pollution
- Eutrophication of lake victoria - pundamilia - nyererei - only long wavelengths can get through polluted water - radio wave length - red/orange due to water pollution, the fish are only able to see red/orange colors which is not good since they use visual cues since the very beginning - Monochromatic orange light decrease in reproduction and inc. in hybridization - this leads to the new fish having more dull colors, different/mixed up patterns and tend to be less attractive
Females territory overlap
- Females always defend exclusive territories; whereas males do not - Males sharing a territory are not related and have a strict dominance hierarchy - Size of female territories reflects resource availability and competitive abilities - Dense hedgerows may have enabled the evolution of such complex mating strategies
Rock-Paper-Scissor:How can more than one 'tactic' be retained in the population?
- Go for rock -Go for scissors the opponent used previously -Use the tactic
Measures of uncertainty
- Standard error - confidence intervals - quantified by precision
Becco: Where is the nutty narrows bridge?
- The Nutty Narrows Bridge is a squirrel bridge located in Long view, Washington. - "World's Narrowest Bridge" & "World's Narrowest Animal Crossing" - Before it was built, squirrels had to cross speeding traffic by running across the street resulting in high mortality.
Allocation of sample units - alternative strategies
- Uniform - Proportional to size - proportional to variation - Optimal
Model Selection
- Use AIC to compare among models (lowest AIC = "top" model) - Estimate N with top model
What is a sneaker in bluegills?
- a male sneaks in with mating couples and releases sperm - sneakers tend to be smaller then regular males - this sneaker or "satellite" mimics the female bluegills
How do some birds drink salt water?
- all birds (not passerines) have salt glands - salt glands use active transport (energetically expensive) - glands are rich in blood vessels - salt water drip from tube near rose once gone through the gland
Most birds do not hear as well as humans
- cannot hear sound as light as people hear - low frequency - owls have better hearing than people strigiformes
Great lakes of Africa
- change in light due to pollution changes in environment for the fish.
tips for gaining unbiased observations
- choice of subject age, sex - Temporal effects time of day season - Spatial effects how subjects use objects in its space - Observer effects hide presence habituate reaction from subject can be affected - Interobserver effets enhancing the believability of the data
Evidence to show that birds have a sense of smell.
- experiment was done to see how long it took for a bird to enter a nestbox with different scents at the entrance (water, quail, predator). Predator scent made the birds take longer to enter the nestbox and made them leave it faster.
Sclerotic ossicle
- little bone ossicles rings around the eye that help adjust the cornea. We only have one muscle. -They have additional muscle of cramptons muscle
Estimating abundance of closed populations- Removal methods
- multiple sampling occasions - individuals captured are not returned to the population, at least until sampling is completed Abundance should decrease with repeated sampling occasions because of removals. N1 > N2 > ..., >NM Sometimes called "depletion sampling" Want to estimate N1, the number of individuals in the population before any were removed
Facts about Naked Mole Rat
- neither mole or rat - poor eyesight - lose skin helps pass each other in tunnels - highly organized society - 1 queen - workers find food ans dig - soldiers defend - longest living rodent - temp. of body changes due to environment - division of labor
What is the function for the small intestine of birds?
- nutrient absorption - Villi - microvilli - humans have active transport - birds have passive transport for speed - short in fruit, meat and insect species - long in seeds, plant, and fish species
What is the law of diminishing rewards?
- putting more in then getting out -An economic assessment on the reward over time
habitat fragmentation changes ambient light
- red birds come out during sunset for red light - change in tree cover changes the amount of light birds will get - birds that cant deal with the light change, almost disappear due to fragmentation of light
Couch's Spadefoot Toad
- respond to rain - burrow underground for 3 years - come up to mate in pools of water - if water is shallow, then develop quickly - more water = more time to grow (tail/body) - temp - resources - heritability is high so they can get out of the pool - desert pop. responds quickly and dramatically
Turkey Vultures hunt through smell
- smell dead animals - very complex nasal cavity - Concha - surface covered in scent receptors - use vultures to find oil leaks
Caribou and UV light
- snow blind - use UV radiation - caribou avoiding electrical wires - little burst of UV light from the electrical wires - Caribou avoid them and it changes their use in habitats and where they cross areas - they use UV to avoid predators, find food, and find each other using urine left behind by their pack - for absorbs UV and they can see predators like wolves
How are distance measurements made?
-*Exact*: distance recorded to each object detected -*Grouped*: distance recorded in intervals. Interval boundaries are called cutpoints -*Individuals*: Each subject detected is a single individual -*Cluster*: each object detected as a cluster of individuals. To estimate density of individuals that occur in clusters, we must also estimate cluster size
What percentages do males and females incubate?
-49.7% species share incubation -37.4% only female -1.2% no incubation. Example Australian Brush Turkey. Uses sand insulation. In Megapodes Order. They scratch out with feet, some babies can fly, and are mostly developed
What are some behavioral responses to regulate temperature for keeping warm?
-Adjust feathers-fuff feathers to trap air -microhabitat selection-for example stay in shade to be cool -postural change-for example vultures fast, plumage absorbs heat and increase metabolism-spreading wings
tortoise reintroduction
-Adult breeding enclosure -Biannual physical examinations Each tortoise is weighed, measured, body condition is recorded and females are radiographed during nesting season to determine number and shell development of egg -Fluorescent dye helps identify nest site eggs are collected and divided among 5 different incubators each set at different temperatures to optimize sex ratio of hatchlings -Hatchlings getting prepped for ID tags. Over 500 hatchlings have been produced to date. The El Paso Zoo has been invaluable in providing facilities for endoscopic sexing of juveniles. Sex is determined by egg incubation temperature
Possible approaches to controlling chytridiomycosis in wild population
-Antifungal chemicals •Encouraging the growth of micropredators; studies of midwife toads in the Pyrenees Mts. found toad survival was correlated with higher numbers of protozoan , crustacean, and other predators apparently feeding on chytrid zoospores
What features are used to define strata?
-Any feature associated with unit-to-unit variation in the attribute interest -Common: vegeation community, soil type, elevation -Can stratify the same population multiple times Key idea: minimize variation of units within strata and maximize variation of units among strata
Developing Neonate Rearing and Release Guidelines
-Apply field observations to kit rearing• -Rear young under simulated ideal wild habitat conditions -•Monitor released offspring to determine survival and fecundity rate
Avian auditory system for owls
-Asymmetry of ears on vertical -Facial discs -High number of auditory neurons - extreme feathers around ear - "naked" feather at front of eat - really dense feathers at the back to funnel sound better - ears offset to get more range of hearing for hunting
Sensory enrichment
-Auditory •Novel sounds •Species specific sounds -Olfactory •Novel scents •Pheromones •Predator/prey
Impacts of grey squirrel
-Bark stripping damage -Loss of red squirrel
Maintenance energy of female
-Basal metabolism -Voluntary Activity -Product Formation -Digestion and Absorption -Thermal Regulation
Why is it easy to get false absences?
-Because the species may just be unavailable at the time to be counted
Invasives include
-Brown Snake in Guam -Rats -Feral Hogs -Goats, Judas Goats -Disease
What are some examples of invasives?
-Brown Snake in Guam -Rats -Feral Hogs -Goats 'Judas Goats' -Disease
How is kin recognized?
-By smell -By song -By learning/familiarity -visual similarity
Levels of analysis
-Causation -ontogeny -Functional -Evolutionary
Lessons of Clever hands and Morgan's Canon
-Clever Hands could presumably understand German, count, and do arithmetic. - Hans "answered questions by varying the number of hoof touches to the ground -Hans could do this even when his owner was absent -Oskar Pfungst found that as long as someone was present knew the answer, Hans could use cues to give his answer.
Constant-effort removal methods assumptions
-Close pop-noo animals move in or out of area -equal sampling effort on both occasions estimator will not work n2>n1
What are the different categories of communication?
-Communication between individuals that have common interests such as bees are efficient, no noise and sensitive -Communication between individuals with different interests such as baby birds are manipulative, exaggerated and loud
What are the costs of animals living in groups?
-Competition -Disease/Parasitism -Cuckoldry -Conspicuous to Predators -Reproduction Suppression
Ratio
-Continuous or discrete -Constant interval size -True zero point ->true absence of quantity being measured
For animals detected in clusters we many be interested in:
-Density of all individuals -Density of clusters -Average cluster size Assess whether detectability varies with cluster size. -Might be easier to detect a large cluster than a small cluster, so large clusters may be over-represented in the data
AIC Process
-Develop a set of candidate models -fit each model to the data and compute its AIC -select the lowest AIC as the best or top model
What are some concerns about Ex situ breeding?
-Difficult to establish viable captive populations (genotypic losses) -Poor success in reintro (phenotypic loss) -Cost -Domestication -Pre-emption of other conservation measures -Disease -Administrative continuity
What are the benefits of animals living in groups?
-Dilution effect -Confusion effect -Vigilance -Group defence -Group Foraging -Mating opportunities -Hydro/thermodynamics -Information transfer
What are the forms of natural selection?
-Directional -Stabilizing -Disruptive
What is encounter dilution?
-Don't depend on cooperation -Example: Cicadas □ Lay eggs in ground and eggs stay for many years □ Every 17 or 19 years millions of them come out and mate and lay eggs □ Group living for a temporary time □ Predators would need a 19 year hibernation schedule so predators can't specialize on them □ Predators are "diluted" in mass amounts of cicadas
Sperm Competition: Sperm removal devices
-Dragonflies and damselflies -in damselflies, males have evolved: clasper to clutch female -new penis with scrub brush (stiff hairs and other structures that remove sperm from old matings) -female places genitalia over new penis -male scrubs old sperm from female's sperm storage organ, removing 90-100% and deposists sperm
Adaptions for eating:processing
-Esophagus -Crop. Ex:display, pigeon "milk", short term food storage for offspring.food held here to carry back to offsprings - nestlings keep food here for later -Stomach. Different from mammals. Has 2 specialized structures: -Gizzard:crushing, sometimes rocks get in and gizzard crushes.strong muscle used to crush up food, birds swallow rocks to help with this process -Proveriticulus:chemical digestion -Pellets. the mass of undigested parts of a bird's food that some bird species occasionally regurgitate. The contents of a bird's pellet depend on its diet, but can include the exoskeletons of insects, indigestible plant matter, bones, fur, feathers, bills, claws, and teeth. In falconry, the pellet is called a casting.
To estimate occupancy without bias, we must address
-False negatives -False Positives Always account for imperfect surveys by estimated detection probability
What are the 3 functions of the Kidney, and what does each function do?
-Filtration: separating protein -Excretion. Excrete waste. -Absorption.Maintain water balance. Passive waist collectors, similar to reptiles. Active waste collectors. Similar to animals.
How do we create a detection function?
-First, assess the need for truncation -Choose one function from a set of function that best fits the general shape of the distance data
Large Eyes, more variable shape
-Flat Hered. (Common) -Globular. Hunters. Hawks -Tubular. Nocturnal. Owls -Birds cant move eyes like ours.
Boldness measuring
-Flight initiation distance: see how close you can walk to bird before it takes off -response to predators -rock squirrel vs snake: see response of squirrel to live snake
Sampling methods to study behavior
-Focal sampling
What are 3 Ecological factors leading to evolution of coloniallity
-Food supply unpredictable -Escape Predators -Nesting space limited
Harris Hawks and Polyandry
-Group living raptor -Forage together
Strategies based upon behavior:Release strategy (hard vs soft)
-Hard release: Release immediatly into habitat -Soft release: Gradually acclimate to environment before final release
Stratified Advantages
-Higher precision of estimates -more information: separate parameter estimates for each stratum plus the usual estimtae for the entire population
What species of animals have learned vocalizations?
-Humans -Cetaceans -Some bats -Oscine songbirds -Parrots -Humming birds -Passeriformes learn their song
Diverse morphology in beaks and tongues
-Hummingbird tongue, bushy ends for capturing nectar.long, thin, with "feather dusters" on the end for nectar -Woodpecker-long tongue with barbs at the end to catch insects larvae, sticky saliva to extract insects, tongues wrap around in skull when not in use Fish eaters-tongues have hooks to hold fish into place -Tragon tongue Duck- tongues have lamellae and fringes for filter feeding
What does it mean to specialize in a group?
-In a group where individuals specialize in different aspects - Universal - Only cooperative groups show division of labor -Division of labor is rare in animals -Multicellular Algae □ Small molecules power □ Larger molecules reproduce - Occurs in humans - Occurs in division in cells - Advancement in evolution - Assembly line is an extreme version of division of labor
What form of reciprocity appears to be unique to humans? Explain.
-Indirect reciprocity in which the return for a donor's act comes from someone other than the recipient -Calculated reciprocity:what they have done for you will determine what you will do for them
Urban Renewal - Zoos that had horrible reputations that have totally redeveloped their sites to become community supported gems
-Lowry Park Zoo -Audubon Zoo -Zoo Atlanta Theme Parks -Busch Gardens -Disney's Animal Kingdom -Sea World Parks
Otis et al. (1980) developed a framework for using capture-recapture methods to estimate abundance reliably when one of the assumptions is violated. a. Which assumption did they "relax"? b. They identified three ways that this assumption might be violated, which they used as the basis for the set of models they developed. Below, list those three ways:
-M0, assumption that every individual has N chance of being detected -time,behavior, heterogeneity
How might helpers directly benefit from helping? List three reasons.
-More fledglings present -kin selection -ecological constraints
Fate of copulatory plugs
-More than half consume -less than a quarter discard -more than a quarter retain
What are causes of delayed dispersal?
-No available territories -High cost of dispersal -Poor breed conditions
Eating food for birds
-No teeth means no chewing. (less weight for flight) Small jaw muscle in most birds. -Most birds follow food whole with minimal processing. -Seed eaters are an exception to the minimal processing since they manipulate food to get the nut out - esophagus can expand
Foraging consequence
-Predator and prey can have equal probability of success -depends on who their interacting with - Study: spider in mesh and black cage. In black cage a lightbulb shinned and they built their nest away from light. Filter paper with cricket. Cricket scent is near light. Some spiders take risks and build nests near cricket. Considered more bold. Measured how crickets would come out. Bold cricket dies, shy always captured. Bold shy cricket were not caught
how is pooling resources used in groups?
-Reduces risk of complete loss - Can lead to added benefit not achieved alone - Food sharing against risk of starvation □ Vampire bats □ If a vampire bat can't find food, they will share blood -Brood insurance □ In multiple foundress of wasps. Many females join together to help care for brood □ Long periods for broods to be cared for □ If one wasp is by herself, she will die before brood can be on own □ This helps raise broods with other females
"The nature of Love" Experiment
-Rhesus monkeys deprived as infants of mother and other conspecifics develop social pathologies: - Withdrawal from social interactions -Self-clasping and other self-directed behavior -Deficits in sexual behavior - Failing to care for young, even abuse. - Harlow defined the Maternal stimuli to which rhesus infant responded. - Would prefer to be fed on cloth mother. -Example of deprivation experiments-experiment in which animal is deprived of particular environment cues for particular periods of time.
Stream structure components
-Rifle or rapid-fast, shallow, steep, turbulent -Run or glide-not a pool, not a rifle, flow is arpid and smooth -pool -slow, deep, gradient is zero,smooth
Why are roads of interest?
-Road crashes from: Wildlife Vehicle Collisions is increasing -Oct,Nov,Dec: More travel, animals are getting ready for winter -California and Maine: Deer are a huge issue. They are mostly hit -Insurance Issues: Raise awareness, provide money to design over and under passes. Some work wildlife groups -Lanes: two lane roads are more dangerous more WVC. Swerving
What are some lek species?
-Sage grouse -Prairie chickens -Manakins
Simple random sampling
-Sample units to survey chosen completely at random, so every unit in the population has the same probability of being selected -Ensures that each sample of size n units from the population (or frame) of N units has an equal chance of being selected
Examples of Polyandry
-Sandpipers: Females are usually bigger -Lilytrotter : female is bigger and defends males, kill male babies then mate with him to have her own offspring -Goeldi's Marmoset -Harris Hawks
Cooperative mating tactics
-Satellites: males help attract females and will intercept females on way to mate with dominant males
Sampling scheme for occupancy
-Select a sample of s units (# of sites in sample) from a larger set of S units (# sites in pop) -Survey each site multiple times (K) and record whether the species of interest is observed or no observed during each survey -Resurvey all sites, even those where the species was detected previously- this redundancy is the basis for estimating detection probability -Can use direct (visual) or indirect (tracks, scat) evidence, whichever is appropriate for the target species
Squirrel red pox
-Server ulceration, haemorrhagic facial scabs -Antibodies found in 61% of grey, also in greys from Ireland and US -High seroprevalence, but absence of disease suggests greys act as a reservoir host -Disease not reported in reds before introduction of greys -Loss of red squirrels up to 13 times faster where SQPV is a factor (25->2 years)
How can detection rates vary among individuals?
-Sex, Age, Social Status -Activity, Behavior -Timing of life history events
What evolutionary process likely gives rise to sexual differences? What is required for traits to evolve under this process?
-Sexual selection which is a special form of natural selection. Differences in reproductive success among genotypes are due to variation in mating success. Traits required: 1. individuals in a population *vary* with respect to some trait. 2. at least some variation is *genetically-based* (i.e., heritable). 3. certain genotypes *mate more successfully*. 4. differences in reproduction are attributed to an *agent of selection*
Road barrier: Edge avoidance
-Sharp contrast of the edge is the major factor influencing movement
What are the sampling designs?
-Simple random sampling -systematic sampling -stratified sampling
Red squirrels leprosy
-Skin lesions, growths, carry bacteria but asymptomatic
Song learning in White Crowned Sparrows
-Song learning has a species bias. White crowned sparrows are prepared to learn their own song. -Mountain subspecies and coastal subspecies prefer to learn their own song. Subspecies bias in song learning. -Males from a given population learn local dialect in nature, but in lab will learn any dialect. - If song played 1-10 days they would sing isolate song -If 10-50 sang normal song -If played 50-death would sing isolate song. -Male begins to sing at day 150. young make first sings subsong, with practice, the song becomes a full song (crystalized song)
genetic differences examples
-Spottiness on owls heritable -Some genetic signal in variation • Example with behavior: ○ Parent offspring regression for anti-predator behavior in Alpine swifts. ○ Aggressive is high score, if bird flew away low when approaching nest ○ Some chicks raised by genetic parents ○ Some by foster parents ○ Parent offspring regression for both experiments. ○ Data with genetic parent h^2=.362 ○ Data with foster parent h^2=-.02 ○ Conclusion: anti-predator behavior is heritable, and no indication of social copying affects anti-predator behavior Continuous genetic variation alone forms a bell curve ○ This means that genetic differences in behavior in nature are due to small differences in loci
Sampling design
-Strategy used to choose sample units to survey from the sampling frame
Pattern assessment
-Studies of patterns or "association" are most common -Often sufficient to inform management
Animal Welfare
-Suitable housing -Stress-free environs -Quality veterinary care -Opportunity to express normal behavior
Animal Welfare of zoos
-Suitable housing -Stress-free environs -Quality veterinary care -Opportunity to express normal behavior
Pigeons are thought to use which compass systems?
-Sun compass -Magnetic Compass -Local landmarks when near the loft
What are the different types of reciprocity proposed by Brosnan and de Waal? Which ones are shown in nonhuman animals?
-Symmetry-based reciprocity: symmetrical relationship characteristics prompt similar behavior in both dyadic directions:low degree of contingency in close relationships-"We're buddies" *Animals Have* Capuchins have shown this in de Waal Experiments-Attitudinal reciprocity: Parties mirror each other's social attitudes:High degree of immediate contingency-"If you're nice, I'll be nice" *humans have* -calculated reciprocity... what they have done for you will determine what you will do for them-" What have you done for me lately?" -humans have indirect reciprocity: which the return for a donor's act comes from someone other than the recipient-"I'll scratch your back, if others will scratch mine in return".
Variation within and between species
-Territory size correlated with body size - herbivores need smaller territory sizes then predators -Territories overlap between but not within species - no crossover within species
Population
-The entire collection of elements we wish to know
What is science?
-The systematic study of nature, both its physical *structure* and its *processes* -Overarching goal is to understand nature and how it functions -Use *observations* and *experiments* to gather information about nature in ways that ensure new knowledge is *reliable*
What is the advantage offered by using the median as a method to quantify central tendency?
-There are an equal number of observations that are greater than or less than the median
What are the requirements for Natural Selection?
-Variation: traits have to be variable -Heritable: traits have to have a genetic basis -Differential Reproduction: heritable traits must be passed on in different proportions
Conserve Proteins and salts problem
-Very low protein requirements -Ability almost all of the minimal electrolytes in water -Kidneys that are able to process large amounts of water -Decrease water absorption rate in intestine
What are the major sensory systems/modalities?
-Visual -Audition -Olfaction -Gustation -Somatosensory-Touch -Electroreception
Large intestine:
-absorbs water and electrolytes -small -ceca attached:Multifunctional -Digestion of plant material. -Production of some immune components. -Absorption of water. -Metabolism of uric acid.
Adaptions for eating:getting food
-adaptions in beaks for foraging -Raptors have tearing beaks -Crossbill -Heron has spear -Ducks filter feed -Conical shaped beaks for seed cracking Ex:parrots
Defend Territories
-aggression -Western Bluebird needs a hole made, such as nest boxes or premade cavities
Explain three unique features of avian respiration and how these features make avian respiration more efficient than respiration in mammals.
-air sacs- are in bones all through body . -lungs different than ours. Ours is an airbag and surface exchange never fully expels air or lungs collapse. Birds lungs are dense surface exchange where air sacs pushes air around. Very dense gas exchange. We leave 20% of air we dont exchange
Pine Marten diet and density survey
-baited hairtubes with chicken and marmalade -Pine marten high in density in midlands and low to east -Density in Ireland can be much higher than elsewhere in their range
What are the types of plant cover?
-basal cover -seasonally stable -aerial cover
Kernel methods
-based on the likelihood of finding animals -underestimates of home range -Advantage: easier to site id, more defined areas
How will you measure individuality?
-behavior tests -activity levels -Novel open field trials -Neophilia problem solving -boldness tests -Aggression/sociability
What are some cons about birds being endothermic?
-costs a lot of energy to maintain endothermic status -close to danger zone
Must remove the cause of decline
-cruz of endangered species conservation -research and experimentation to identify -example: -brown tree snake on Guam was not immediately recognized -condor limiting factors required telemtry to Id not 1080, not disturbance at nest, not shooting, likely lead poison because condors need open habitat to find food and lead shot is common there
Defining a site for occupancy
-depends of species ecology and behavior -For some species with no natural physical boundaries, it is common to establish sites that are at least as large as a home range
Landform attributes
-elevation -slope -aspect
Territory behavior Costs
-energy lost -injury -increase with habitat size -High quality always preferred over low -High predation risk due to revealing fighting
subdivide captive population
-extend generation length -control fertility to maintain population at carrying capacity -adjust representation of allels -select against extreme characteristics -fully utilize reproduction technology
Sexual selection
-females select males or vice versa -males fight for access to females -success may depend on traits that are costly -A trait is sexually selected if it confers increased mating at a cost to survial
Direct benefits:nuptial gifts
-food for female -food for female's young -defense for female's young
Grey Squirrel
-from E America -came in as pets -One-off introduction in 1911 -Greys spread throughout eastern half of Ireland -Path possibly blocked by River Shannon -2007 grey spred -Red squirrels were widespread put patchy -Large gaps where greys have been found
How do squirrels deal with noise pollution? Study?
-have high pitch call to other squirrels in territories. -Studied how gaps, edges and noises influences movement of squirrels -looked at likelihood canopy cover influenced rate of crossing -Model: Max Canopy cover+season+distance to midden+slope:cover relationship to rate of crossings -Studied noise influence with noise measurement -Road width and canopy wasn't much important compared to sound. Distance to road had little effect -Noise influenced occupancy. Occupancy rate changes by 6% as traffic noise increases by 1 dB occupancy <50% when traffic noise level is >40 dB
Precopulatory:scramble
-locating a mate is key -males compete to locate females as fast as possible, mate as fast as possible, and mate with as many females as possible -selects for earlier male than female hatching, malturation, or appearance
History of red squirrels in Ireland
-native? -recorded in 655 AD -Disappeared 17th century from deforestation -10 reintroductions in 19th century -possible remnant pop in SW -still considered native fuana
Demographic closure
-no birth or death
Nominal scale
-non-ranked categories -order not meaningful -only discrete
CPUE Assumptions
-pop is closed -all individuals in the pop have the same prob of being captured during sampling period i
Can we expect the number of species we observe during surveys to be a reliable estimate of true species richness?
-possibly uncommon or not available at the time
Habitat Selection
-processes that animals use to identify areas with the resources they need, usually at the landscape scale or smaller scales
Why captive breed?
-produce stock for reintroduction -preserve genetic variability -produce stock for research -produce animals for public education -provide insurance against extinction
Midlands of Ireland and squirrels
-reports of disappearance of greys in midlands in 2007 survey -Region where grey squirrel is longest established -linked to recent resurgence of pine marten
Olfactory cues are used for?
-reproduction condition -reproduction cycling -alarm -social status -physical condition -territory marking
What are the differences between the human and avian respiratory systems? Describe how these differences in form lead to differences in function.
-require more oxygen. Exchange CO2 for O2. For birds it is different. -air sacs- are in bones all through body . -lungs different than ours. Ours is an airbag and surface exchange never fully expels air or lungs collapse. Birds lungs are dense surface exchange where air sacs pushes air around. Very dense gas exchange. We leave 20% of air we dont exchange
Intrinsic Qualities
-resource holding potential -motivation to win -body conditions -"Birds have weapons" Example:Claws, Rooster, Cassary -As body mass increases, territory is more needed
Oil Droplets
-resting on top of cones is a drop of oil that is clear or has carotenoid in it. This gives the bird's eye color. Under research.
Challenge of roads
-roads can be influential with noise and pollution -Habitat loss and fragmentation -Impacts local soils, hydrology -Chemical and nutrient pollution -increasing hunting and trade -introduced invasive species
What are some variations in metabolic rate?
-seasonal changes in basal metabolism -temperature regulation (bigger in winter than summer) -less active in winter than summer -Em, energy used for digestion -R and M, energy for reproduction and migrating *(refer to graph when posted)
What aspect of male traits does Zahavi's handicap hypothesis seek to explain? What must be true of a courtship signal for it to evolve as a handicap, according to theoretical models?
-seeks why the traits for mate choice are so exaggerated-to the point of possibly being a handicap Exaggerated male traits are essentially handicaps. Female prefer males with these handicaps...... because such males have demonstrated an ability to survive despite their handicap -it is costly and only the best males can afford it-it prevents males from "cheating"
Genetic differences in behavior in nature due to small differences at many loci. However there are exeptions. What are they?
-sexual differences in behavior .-male and females can result from genetic polymorphism. some have simple genetic basis. Example: fruitless locus in drosophilia. -Original fru phenotype involve males that do not mate successfully. They even court other males, forming a chain. -For one fru transcript, gene splicing is different in males vs females. -males spliced transcript produces a protein, in females protein is not made. FruF males court females less and rarely mate. FruF males court males, forming chains. FruM females court females. Conclusion: fru is a sexual behavior gene switch. Meaning, sexual differences due to a single gene has large efffects.
What are some behavioral responses for keeping cool?
-shunt -Gular Flapping expands bright red breast area in order to increase surface area and increase evaporative cooling. this is a change in temp. -Other birds open mouths to plant. Bad in dry places because panting will result in losing water. -Birds do not have sweat glands -Ostriches use controlled hyperthermia to stay cool in dry places. Elevates body temp in hormonal controlled manner. Gives in to heat.
Parasite infection
-some behavioral traits make individuals more susceptible to infection -parasite infection alters host behavior -fatal attraction syndrome
Detection probability, capture success
-some individuals more likely to investigate traps -some individuals more likely to be observed -samples behaviorally biased, probably other traits too
capture stress and handling
-some individuals more negatively impacted by handling, negative impacts -assess by respiratory rate, struggle rate
Why does colonial breeding behavior evolve? What are the costs and benefits of this behavior?
-something limited is something abundant like the ocean -depends on flux is better to clump together Ex:Penguins Ex:A specific type of land used for mating is shared by many due to it being right next to a abundant food supply like the ocean Costs diseases -attract predators -increased competition for nest sizes -increased cuckalary and cheating -stealing nest materials Benefits 1. Higher predator detection and mobbing 2. Food information centers (others tell you where food is) 3.Predator swamping 4.Access to predator free environment 5.Access to abundant food resource
Indicators of inbreeding depression
-sperm defects -heart defects -crpytorchidism of testes -reduced immune response -morphological abnormalities (fur, tails, toes, teeth)
Alternative Reproduction tactics squirrels
-year 1 males had less copulation's than year 2 Fox squirrels: When Females are closed to being receptive, male follows female for about 5 days. -Females smack males away until the day she is receptive. -Other males fight for access to the females. -Some satellites are around -Find out female is in estrus from pheromones -Because her pheromones have been released in an area, he cannot pinpoint where she is, so he has to rely on sight and sound. Follow any kind of movements like crow or baseball in attempt to find her - females groom themselves and may find a plug and attempt to remove it. -females may eat plug for protien source
List 5 strategies for sperm competition. Give examples of the ones we discussed in detail.
.a Increased sperm production (some primates) In primates, frequency of mating varies from Monogamy, polyandry,polygyny, and promiscuity b. Retaliatory copulation (bighorn sheep) c. Copulatory plugs/repellants (butterflies) d. Traumatic insemination (bedbugs) e. Sperm trains (murine rodents) -Murine rodents have hooked sperm. Perm hook together in female tract . -move faster than individual sperm -hooked in species with larger testes, indicative of stronger sperm competition f. Sperm removal devices (dragonflies & damselflies -Dragonflies and damselflies -in damselflies, males have evolved: clasper to clutch female -new penis with scrub brush (stiff hairs and other structures that remove sperm from old matings) -female places genitalia over new penis -male scrubs old sperm from female's sperm storage organ, removing 90-100% and deposists sperm
A point transect is a line transect where length L = _______________
0
singular cooperative breeding
1 pair and usually 1 helper rear young
Assumptions of data collection
1) All objects of the line are detected (p=1) 2) Objects are detected at their initial location 3) Distances (and angles) are measured accurately -Heaping occurs when distances are rounded off to convenient values -Measurement bias common when disntances estimated
General Strategy for analysis of distance sampling data (line transects):
1) Plot histogram of the distance data, check for evidence of potential problems: heaping, evasive movements, etc. 2) Identify a truncation point (common to truncate 5‐10% of farthest observations) 3) Fit several models with different detection functions 4) Identify the top model (lowest AIC) 5) Assess goodness‐of‐fit. If it doesn't fit, consider alternative models 6) Interpret estimate of density.
What components are comprised under the first assumption , that is equal detection probability, of encounter histories for mark-recapture?
1) Time 2)Behavior 3)heterogeneity
Tinbergen addressed a framework of approaching questions in ecology, behavior and conservation. First, address the development of these ideas and then apply these to the question of 'Why do mammals display flehmen?'
1)What is a cause of a behavior: causation-focus on the mechanistic cause of behavior- physiological, hormones, season 2)how does a behavior develop? Ontogeny-how they learn, is it instinctive, practice and make own song? Focus on the development of behavior. 3) what is the survival value of a behavior?-functional. 4) how did a behavior evolve? Evolutionary--focus on the phylogenetic/evolutionary history of behaviors. Causation and ontogeny are proximate cause- its the how question. imminent cause responsible for behavior. Functional and evolutionary are ultimate causes-its the why question. -flehmen response- curle the lips of upper lip. They are detecting information by smelling. Have a vomeronasal organ or jacobsons organ and allow molecules in the environment to be concentrated. The purpose is to concentrate resources and access is. Can detect if chemical is present or not. Be able to detect mates, if other females are present, determine if dominant or subordinate. Tied to olfaction communication.
Lincoln-Petersen Assumptions
1. All individuals have the same change of being captured on every survey occasion (=equal detect probability) 2. Marks are not lost, gained, or overlooked 3. The population is closed
Good genes experiment drosophila melanogaster
1. Allow Drosophila melanogaster females to choose mate(s) from among 5 males. 2. Force other females to mate with a randomly-selected male. 3. Let females lay eggs and keep track of offspring survival Result:Offspring of females allowed to choose had higher survival than offspring of females not allowed to choose
What are problems with the olfactory hypothesis?
1. Attempts to replicate these findings at other lofts produced wise differing effects. 2. Odors of the required characteristics and distribution do not seem to exist. 3. Some effects of olfactory manipulators do not seem to depend on the availability of odors.
General Strategy of Stratified Sampling
1. Calculate estimates for each stratum 2. Combine stratum-specific estimates to get estimates for the overall population
Ways to calculate Stratified Sampling variables
1. Calculate the sample mean, sample total, sample variance for each stratum separately 2. Calculate variance of estimates (var-haty-bar, var-hatt-hat) 3. Calculate overall t-hat and var-hat*y-bar
Types of research in zoos
1. Education and ambassador animals-captive animals are from breeding program and are in large "habitat" pens or even accompany people to schools, etc. 2. Support for species recovery-captive animals are in a breeding program for reintroduction to the wild- or for head- starting to increase survivorship and build populations 3. Hosting Extinct in the Wild species-last change to save species from extinction 4. Managing global in-situ programs by provinding funds, expertise and even taking the lead to prevent extinction
Species differences in song learning
1. Effect of early deafening-canaries sing normally 2. Effect of acoustic isolation-cowbirds sing normal song 3. Timing of memorization and motorphase-zebra finches memorize other songs even as they are singing old ones 4. King of song learning-mockingbirds, parrots, mynah,lyrebirds learn vocalizations of other species
What are the 6 Sub-Disciplines of Behavior?
1. Ethology (study of behavior) 2. Behavioral Ecology 3. Behavioral Genetics 4. Comparative Psychology 5. Evolutionary Psychology 6. Cognitive Science
What are the three stages of speciation?
1. Expansion - Range Expansion in a species 2. Subdivision - Population subdivision - Distribution area divergences and one population creates two subdivisions within that single population 3. Divergence - EX. Glacier splits land and splits a population up creating subdivisions within a single population
Describe the three stages of speciation.
1. Expansion - Range Expansion in a species 2. Subdivision - Population subdivision - Distribution area divergences and one population creates two subdivisions within that single population 3. Divergence - EX. Glacier splits land and splits a population up creating subdivisions within a single population a) colonization of a new environment, b) population subdivision and geographic isolation, c) divergence due to sexual selection, ecological selection, and accumulation of genetic incompatibilities (i.e. allopatric speciation). Speciation can happen in sympatry but this scenario is apparently rare.
Scientific method
1. Identify patterns from our observations 2. Define a question of interest 3. Develop a strategy for collection relevant data -/ What to measure? When and where to measure it?/ -/What are and time-frame is of interest?/ (1-3 assess patterns) 4. Generate *research hypothesis* (=potential explanations) to explain _why_ these patterns occur 5. Develop a strategy to *test* hypothesis (4-5 test hypotheses) 6. Analyze and interpret data to make conclusions or draw inferences
What are the uses of auxiliary data?
1. In stratified random sampling, use auxiliary data to establish strata during the design phase; affects how we choose sample units 2. Can measure auxiliary data on sample units during surveys and establish its relationship to the parameter of interest during the analysis phase This can help us to (1) estimate detection probability and (2) increase precision of estimates Especially useful when surveys for the parameter of interest are difficult or expensive to and measuring the auxiliary variable is easy or inexpensive
Evolution by artificial selection requires that
1. Individuals in a population vary with respect to some trait. 2. At least some variation is genetically based 3.Certain genotypes reproduce more than others 4. Differences in reproduction attributable in agent of slection (humans)
Anisogamy often associated with difference in gamete number:
1. Males make many, many sperm, each of low investment. 2. Females make a small number of eggs, each of high investment Consequence 1. Male fitness will be limited by number of mates. 2. Female fitness will be limited by quality of mate
Variance of estimated population total
1. Multiply variance of the sample mean in each stratum by the number of sample units squared (N^2) 2. Sum across all strata
Deer location of scent glands
1. Preorbital 2. Forehead - mark stuff 3. Preputial - rutting buck 4. Nasal 5. Interdigital - age of traks 6. Tarsal - rutting buck with urine 7. Metatarsal - alarm
Cross-modal process Alex went through
1. Seeing array of intermixed subsets of four, five, and six objects. 2.Hearing a question 3.Translating phrase into search for a specific object among distractors. 4. Determining number 5. Vocalization cardinal amount viewed as the label such as "six"
Reproduction Key information
1. Selection of a mate 2.Courtship 3.Mating systems 4.Reproductive Mechanisms 1.Anatomy 2.Physiology-reproductive hormone cycles 3. Sex determination 4. Nest/ den requirements 5. Monitoring and Assessing Reproductive Status
Sites with a detection history of all zeros represents sites where we cannot distinguish between two possible "states" of species of interest on those sites. What are they?
1. Site is not occupied 2. Site is occupied but was not detected
Capture-recapture species richness two ways
1. Survey multiple locations at one time=spatial replication 2. Survey one location multiple times=temporal replication
Below is a set of encounter histories collected as part of an occupancy study. 01001 00100 00000 11010 00000 10100 10010 01000 f. Encounter histories that are all zero (0 0 0 0 0) represent sample units where we cannot distinguish between two possible occupancy "states". What are those two states?
1. The site is truly unoccupied (1-psi) 2. The site is unoccupied, but the species was never detected psi(1-5)^5
Evolution by sexual selection requires
1. individuals in a population vary with respect to some trait. 2. at least some variation is genetically-based(i.e., heritable). 3. certain genotypes mate more successfully. 4. differences in reproduction are attributed to an agent of selection
Why might a lek mating system evolve? What factors influence males' abilities to gain copulations in such a system?
1.)Hotspot model: males gather where most likely to find females. Not a good explanation though 2.) Hotshot: males gather around best male to increase their chances of being noticed with large populations 3.) Female preference: females enforce leks. Prefer to visit. Prefer large clusters of males. MOST SUPPORTIVE! Factors that influence: -Competition among males are high -intense competition ranks male in a dominance hierarchy and determines which males sire most of the next generation -By mating with dominant male, a female may obtain for her offspring the genes responsible for the males superior traits. -In Sage Grouse successful males are 1)socially dominant birds 2)hold central positions on lek 3)are more active and visually or vocally attractive. Generally better in health.
What are the three problems with depreivation experiments?
1.Experiments frequently deprive animal of more than the factor intended 2.Environmental factor may be important even if deprivation does not affect behavior. 3.It can be challenging to deprive an animal of all possible environmental input
When are indexes used?
1.When the cost or effort required to estimate abundance is thought to be prohibitive •Species are difficult to capture or observe directly 2. When only RELATIVE changes in abundance are needed •Relative change at one location over time •Relative differences among multiple locations at one time
What year did the Lacey Act happen, and what movement was this?
1900 and Conservation Movement
What are the 10 unique aspects of avian VISUAL system? (compared to mammals)
1Large eyes, more variable shape 2 Placed on side of head 3 Presence of pecten 4 Sclerotic ossicle 5 Crampton's muscle 6 3 eyelids:upper, lower, nictitating 7 Retina:2-5 times as many cones 8 Fovea:2 maybe 3 in some species 9 Oil droplets 10 Tetrachomatic
What specialized aspects of anatomy and physiology enable hummingbirds to survive on a diet of nectar?
95% of energy comes from nectar.Takes in liquids. There are problems however.1.Assimilate sugars 2.Process excess water 3.conserve proteins and salts Assimilate sugars Problem Sugars in nectar complex, sucrose and maltose. Cells want simple sugars such as glucose and fructose. Solutions: - high activity of sugar processing enzymes - high rates of intestinal glucose transport - high active transport - sugars in nectar are complex, sucrose and maltose - cell wants simple sugars, glucose and fructose Process excess water problem Humming birds produce pee. - evaporative water loss - kidneys that are able to process large amounts of water - shut kidney down at night and highly active during the day - decrease water absorption rate in intestine . Conserve Proteins and salts problem -Very low protein requirements -Ability almost all of the minimal electrolytes in water -Kidneys that are able to process large amounts of water -Decrease water absorption rate in intestine
Map
: a simplified, spatially‐explicit abstraction of reality; a spatial model Geographic data can contain two kinds of information: 1. Position -geographic location of an entity 2. Attributes -a characteristic of that entity
Variation in mating success
: differences in reproductive success
Modalities
: pheromone trail, signposts or volatile signals;tactile;substrate vibration; visual cues
Symmetry-based reciprocity
: symmetrical relationship characteristics prompt similar behavior in both dyadic directions:low degree of contingency in close relationships-"We're buddies"
Latitude
:•Horizontal reference @ 0°= equator •Lines form rings (parallels) from 0°to 90°N or S of the equator •φ = latitude,equator is the reference line
Space Use patterns
<--------> -Nomadic, Home Range, HR w/core, territorial -Area (add when slides are up, went fast) Nomadic-uncommon Home Rage- Common
Ecological + sexual selection =
= Reproduction Isolation
hydroriparian
= perennial
Plural cooperative breeding
>1 female in territorial group rear young with helpers
Sample
A collection of sample units drawn from the sampling frame (population) -sample is a collection of units, not elements -To learn about a population by surveying a subset of that population is a sample
Species diversity
A combination of species richness and abundance (evenness)
Declination
A compass needle points to magnetic north, not true north Declination is the angular difference at the center of a map between magnetic north (MN on map) and true north (polar north indicated by the "star" symbol) If the arrow is to the right, then subtract declination to get the correct compass bearing If the arrow is to the left, then add the declination to get the correct compass bearing Declination between true north and the orientation of the UTM grid nor this indicated by "GN" Magnetic declination near Tucson is about 15 degrees
Ethogram
A description and inventory of all the behavior patterns used by a species
What is a sneaker in bluegills?
A female sized male fish that releases sperm when a dominant male is copulating to reproduce. -Parental Males will start reproducing at about 6 or more years to get big enough to be territorial, where sneakers start around 2 years. -Both Parental and sneaker have about the same number of offspring
Transitive inference
A form of inferential reasoning using previous knowledge, given an example, being able to apply learned rules to novel stimul (1,2,3,4,5 then which is bigger such as 2 or 5)
Why is infanticide in lions considered a kind of mate competition?
A male lion kills cubs of rival when it takes over pride. WHY! 1.fewer resources to someone else's cub 2. females come into estrus sooner
Heritability
A measure of degree to which variation in a trait is genetically-based variation. h^2= genetic variation (Vg)/Total variation (Vg +Ve) Where Ve is amount of variation due to environmental influence h^2 will vary between 0 and 1. -sometimes measured by comparing parents and offspring using an offspring-parent regression. genetic differences in behavior in nautre due to small differences at many loci
generalized reciprocity
A mode of exchange in which the value of the gift is not calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified
What is the alternative hypothesis to how many times power flight evolved in chordates?
A total of 2 origins and 2 changes
What two components makes up Closure?
Abundance assumed constant across surveys Two components: 1. *Geographic closure* 2. *Demographic closure* can be relaxed if mortality is unrelated to capture; that is, if mortality is not related to being captured
Density Formula (Cap Recap)
Abundance/ size of area
How does natural selection shape behavior?
Adaptation for parent care in frogs
Number sense-Alex
Alex gave english language assignments of number to arrays of objects.80% accuracy was unaffected by arrary quantity, or object mass and shape
Be able to understand and describe examples different examples of speciation.
Allopatric -speciation that occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with genetic interchange. -EX. Hawaiian honeycreeper - bright colors from both sexual and ecological selection - get similar colors from low sexual selection - Darwin's Finches Parapatric the relationship between organisms whose ranges do not significantly overlap but are immediately adjacent to each other; they do not occur together except in a narrow contact zone. Sympatric occurring within the same geographical area; overlapping in distribution. nestlings are reared along with host young, and mimic the mouth markings of their respective hosts. As adults, male indigobirds mimic host song, whereas females use these songs to choose both their mates and the nests they parasitize
Encounter histories Mark recapture
Also called capture histories 1= individual captured on that sampling occasion 0= individual NOT captured on that sampling occasion
AZA
American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) is defined by 42 CFR 9.2 as "the professional society composed of individuals with various backgrounds and interests that are devoted to advancing the knowledge and understanding of zoo animals and the management of zoos in the United States."
secondary consumer
An organism that eats primary consumers
Primary consumer
An organism that eats producers
quarternary consumer
An organism that eats tertiary consumers.
What is the role of zoos?
Animal Welfare and Conservation of Biodiversity
Conditional Discrimination learning
Animal learns to respond to A when B is presented, but to C when D is presented. Response to A versus C is conditonal on B versus D
Can behahavior be used to build phylogenies?
Answer might seem :no because behavior varies so much, even within a species but bowerbirds show an example
What is a zoo?
Arizona State Statute "Zoo" means a commercial facility open to the public where the principal business is holding wildlife in captivity for exhibition purposes United States "Zoo" means any park, building, cage, enclosure or other structure or premise in which a live animal or animals are kept for public exhibition or viewing, regardless of compensation European Union "zoo" means all permanent establishments where animals of wild species are kept for exhibition to the public for 7 or more days a year, with the exception of circuses, pet shops.
Relating an index to true abundance
As abundance changes, assume the index also changes •Commonly assume a linear relationship between C and N, with zero intercept
Norway rats process involves DNA methylation
At birth, promoter of glucocorticoid receptor gene is demethylated -over time, the promoter in pups of neglectful mothers become more methlayed than in pups of nurturing mothers Receptor gene of neglected pups is expressed less. Leading to stress
Example of parent-offspring conflict that might not be
Boobies seem to allow siblicde to occur but possibly 2nd egg in clutch is insurance. Letting one sibling kill other determines which chick is more fit
How did cross-fostering provide insight into the nature of species differences in siblicide in boobies?
Boobies seem to allow siblicide to occur but possible 2nd egg is insurance. Letting one sibling kill other determines which chick is more fit. -variation among species in siblicide is due to parent and chick 1. Blue-footed boobie parents intervene more to prevent sibllicide than masked boobie parents 2. Blue-footed boobie siblings attempt sublicide less than masked boobie siblings
Artificial Selection
Breeds of dogs, horses, cattle
Compare and contrast the Brown and Fretwell models of territoriality. Which one best explains territorial behavior in birds?
Brown:High quality preferred over low. One habitat is filled, there are floaters. Fretwell:settlement depends on both competitors. No floaters
Waggle dance:
By performing this dance, successful foragers can share, with other members of the colony, information about the direction and distance to patches of flowers yielding nectar and pollen, to water sources, or to new nest-site locations. - UV & polarized light eyesight (allowed to see sun no matter what) - figure 8 dance - waggle = resource - response to resources that might be limited
How are instincts triggered?
By releasers ○ Releases are stimuli to elicit behavior ○ Releasers represent a small subset of available stimuli ○ Example: In stickleback fish, a red belly acts to release territorial behavior by males ○ Human releasers: What makes babies smile . § Pair of eyes make babies smile ○ Run completion even in the absence of releaser § Example: egg rolling in goose. Goose continues to roll egg to nest even though egg has been take away
Continuous Variables
Can take on any value within a range
Predators can influence individual behavior
Changes in times of activity
Enrichment
Changes that increase behavioral choices available to animals and draw out species appropriate behaviors that enhance welfare
Sinuosity
Channel length /straight line distance between two points =1 for straight channels to >4 for meandering channels low sinuosity=steeper gradient high sinuosity= lower gradient
Instincts may be learned-Herring gulls
Chicks beg for food by pecking at mother's bill. Mother than regurgitates a meal Model of heads were waved in front of chicks. Natural head, Standard Model, Bill only, and stick. -A yellow bill with a red spot was sufficient to release food begging behavior. -Releasers of food begging changed as chicks matured. First releasers were with orange bill, but later required complete model.
Number assessment and count of animals-Chimpanzees
Chimpanzees defend their territory: -Go on patrol (parties range from 1-20) -Attack and even kill chimps from other groups -Territory boundaries shift as larger groups fight for more land -some groups obliterated Experiment Groups of only females or 1-2 males quietly leave Groups of greater than 3 males quickly approached speaker Males move faster the more they outnumber intruders
___________ is a statistic that is especially useful for comparing variation between groups measured on different scales.
Coefficient of variation (CV)
Hindgut digestion examples
Common Wombat -Orangutan -Pony -Zebra -Rhinocerous -African Elephant
1894 Yellowstone Park Protection Act (Conservation Movement)
Conservation of unique resources
Estimate ψ and p
Consider two process, one ecological, one survey-based -Occupancy: a site is either truly occupiedwith probability ψ or unoccupied with probability 1-ψ -Detection: •if a site is unoccupied, species cannot be detected •if a site is occupied, then there is some probability of detecting the species during each survey (p) Sites where species detected = ψ Sites where species not detected = 1 -ψ or ψ(1-p) Probability that: •a site is occupied: ψ •a site is unoccupied: 1 -ψ •species will be detected if present during one survey: p •species will not be detected if present during one survey:1-p
What do we need to consider in detection probability when estimating species richnes?
Consider variation in detection probability when estimating species richness
What are the types of numeric data?
Continuous and Discrete
Temperate at the start of survey is
Continuous and interval
Continuous genetic variation can form?
Continuous genetic variation alone forms a bell curve ○ This means that genetic differences in behavior in nature are due to small differences in loci
When to record techiques
Continuous, Instantaneous, and One-zero recording
International Wildlife Conservation and the Big 5 agreements
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) 1971 •Convention Concerning Protection of World Cultural & Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) 1972 •Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) signed: 1973 enacted:1975 •Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals(Bonn Convention) 1979 •Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio Convention)1992...U.S. not a signatory
Sperm competition Dungflies
Copulation lasted more than 30 minutes. Males stayed with females during egg deposition
experiment to test the hypothesis that scarlet kingsnakesare Batesian mimics of coral snakes
Coral snakes decrease in abundance from Florida up into North Carolina -The relative abundance of scarlet kingsnakes increases towards the northern extent of the coral snake's range
Maintaining Connectivity-Restoring Permeability
Crossings to allow animals to cross, underpass, bridges
Basal cover
Cross‐sectional area of plants near the ground •Measure:•2.5 cm above ground for herbaceous plants •140 cmabove ground for trees
What are the two basic epigenetic processes?
DNA Methylation and histone acetylation alter gene expression by affecting how tightly coiled the DNA molecule is. Both processes are affected by the environment
How do the descending motor pathway and anterior forebrain pathway relate to song development?
Descending motor pathway: - regulates song -stimulation of the motor neurons in this pathways contracts the syringeal muscles that control tensions and dimensions of the vocal tract -Descending motor pathway transmits nerve impulses from the high vocal center (HVC) of the hyperpallium layer of the fore-brain to the robust archopallial (RA) and intercollicular nuclei, then to the tracheosyringeal motor (hypoglossal) neurons (nXllts) in the hindbrain, and, finally through the tracheosyringeal motor neurons to the syringeals muscles that control the syrinx. Destruction of the HVC nuclei renders a songbird mute Anterior forebrain pathway: -Plays a central role in song recognition and song learning in oscine passerines -unites the song motor-control centers with the auditory centers in the forebrain and midbrain. -may also play a secondary role in actual control of song production. -LMAN controls the learning of songs -anterior fore-brain pathway connects the HVC to area x, which plays a critical role in the crystallization of male song,with feedback loops to the auditory centers of the forebrain (LMAN) and midbrain (DLM) as well as the motor pathway through the Ra nuclei. Field L is the auditory region of the forebrain. It projects to the HVC and the RA nuclie
Mean (or average)
Describes the center of mass or "fulcrum" on which a histogram would balance horizontally
What is an example of an oddity?
Desert Sandgrouse has feathers that absorb water to give water to babies. Barbules are fat and coiled.
Macroinvertebrates
Detected visually without an aid, and include -Insects -crustaceans -mollusks -Important component of food webs because they function as decomposes,consumers, and prey for large organisms -used as indicators of aquatic health and water quality -Limited mobility, so their status reflects conditions in the immediate vicinity of the collection site -Life spans of weeks to months, so their status reflects conditions during the recent past
Why in general we must estimate detection probability for organisms that are challenging to survey without error.
Detection probability informs of of our chances of seeing this animal. With a challenging organism this is important so we can figure out the number we didn't detect that are actually there.
What is meant by direct benefits? Give examples. What is meant by indirect benefits? Give examples
Direct benefits: males offer resource -green frogs-males with densely-vegetated territories where eggs laid -common terns-males bringing lots of food Indirect benefits:males offer only sperm-female must choose the "best" sperm=genetic superiority and ultimately, fitness of the offspring Example: Lek
Noise pollution and elephants
Direct effects: elicits stampede and avoidance
How would you determine if matriphagy benefits the female?
Discuss: In order for selection to favor female allowing matriphagy, how low must survival of offspring in the 1stbrood be in absence of matriphagy - Avg. # of spiderlings in the 1stbrood = 84 - Probability of producing a 2ndbrood if escape from matriphagy = 0.33 - Avg. # of spiderlings in the 2ndbrood = 43 - Survival of offspring to dispersal after eating mother = 0.93Discuss: In order for selection to favor female allowing matriphagy, how low must survival of offspring in the 1stbrood be in absence of matriphagy? Solve For:- Survival of offspring when mother is not eat
Estimate overall population mean
Divide the estimated population total (t-hat) by the total number of sample units (N) OR Compute the mean as a weighted average of stratum-specific estimates
Eusociality
Division of labor. Not seen much in mammals. Example: Naked mole rates. Female is the "Queen" and the dominant one reproducing. She releases pheromones that limit the sexual maturity of other females
Metacognition
Do you know what you know? Make a judgement about the strength of your knowledge and use that to guide behavior
Good genes experiment: mice
Each female is given choice. Males designated as preferred (P) or nonpreferred (NP). Females permitted to mate with either P male or NP male. Offspring production and viability then monitored for both treatment groups Some Results: 1. P females produced more litters. 2. Survival greater for P offspring. 3. P male offspring had larger home ranges 4. P male offspring proved dominant in 12 of 16 trials. 5. P offspring built more complete nests )Evidently, females choose males with 'good genes
West Indian Manatee...Trap?
Ecological Trap EX. - go to power plants and will create heated water. This heat attracts migrating manatees. These areas do not have vegetation to eat, leaving them to forage and end up getting hurt or killed from boats.
Roadsides for Butterflies & Bees...Trap?
Ecological Trap EX. - small roads are good - large roads are traps - the insects try to cross roads and end up dying - conservation consequence
What is an example of group defense?
Example: Native Japanese bees -Defend against hornet -They want hornet inside hive -Scouts mark with pheromone -Signal strategy then swarm hornet -They do not sting intruder. They all vibrate and raise their temperature -Japanese Honey bees can tolerate 117 degrees, the hornet can withstand 115 and roast hornet alive
Parental investment vs parental care
Example: Parents help young acquire nutrients via Parental investment -yolk-filled eggs -body secretions (milk, mucus) -bringing food to young -teaching young to get food -laying eggs at food sources Parental care -bringing food to young -teaching young to get food -laying eggs at food sources
Alternative mating strategies:Frogs
Example: Satellite males in frogs Males hang out in the vicinity of a holder of high-quality territory and mate with females as they move to the territory
Give examples of male-male contests. Explain why contests usually begin with ritualized displays, before sometimes (though not always) escalating to physical combat.
Examples: Hippos, Snakes, Gorillas, elephant seals, Red deer. Some contests are physical well some are ritualized (snake example) . Gorrilla example: Mountain gorillas live in groups, some groups have multiple males. Male dominance is established through aggression. Dominance determines male mating success. Elephant seals example: fighting established dominance status. Dominance status. Dominance determines male mating success. Red deer: stags defend grazing areas where hinds visit. Male mating increases with the size of male's harem Contests being with ritualized displays because of low risk of injury
Scope of inference:
Extent to which inferences apply .
Polygynandry
Females and males >1 mate but exclusive -<1% birds and mammals
Polygynandry
Females and males more than 1 mate but exclusive (<1% birds and mammals)
What is meant by the 'good genes' hypothesis? Cite evidence from flies and mice in support of this hypothesis.
Females choose mates whose genes improve their offspring's fitness. Prediction:Females allowed to choose males with 'good genes' produce more fit offspring than females not allowed to choose Flies evidence-Result:Offspring of females allowed to choose had higher survival than offspring of females not allowed to choose Mice evidence-. P females produced more litters. 2. Survival greater for P offspring. (offspring of 'prefered males) 3. P male offspring had larger home ranges 4. P male offspring proved dominant in 12 of 16 trials. 5. P offspring built more complete nests Evidently, females choose males with 'good genes
Polyandry
Females have > 1 mate -1% of birds, <1% mammals
What do Night Jars do regarding cryptic coloration?
Females have eggs on grown, when they are spotted, they will act as if they are hurt to distract predators from nest.
How are females and males limited in reproduction?
Females limited in offspring. males limited by mates
Good genes hypothesis
Females select males whose genes improve their offspring's fitness.
Polygyny in Wild Turkeys
Females will get in bigger groups with females if terrtiroy is good
(N-n/N)
Finite population correction factor. -Used only when the total number of sample units in a population N is known -If N is unknown, estimate the correction factor from the equation
Territory
Fixed area defended continuously for some period of time. The 'owner' benefits by having access to a resource (or better quality resource) than they would otherwise
What is a territory? What are the costs and benefits of defending a territory?
Fixed area defended continuously for some period of time. The 'owner' benefits by having access to a resource (or better quality resource) than they would otherwise Costs of territory -energy lost -injury -increase with habitat size -High quality always preferred over low -High predation risk due to revealing fighting Benefits of territory -Keep territory -get lots of resources -more insects
How sound travels in the ear
Fluid in inner ear and when sound waves comes through, it brushes the hair, picks up the movement, and helps the sound travel into your ear drum. - the hair cell have different lengths for different wave lengths - people who cannot hear well, are due to damaged hair cells
Draw the curve for the law of diminishing returns and relate this to these 4 behaviors: 1.) time that an individual should spend foraging in a patch, 2.) time that an individual should search for a mate, 3.) size of a territory and 4.) time spent studying for final exams.
For all of these scenarios the result will be very similar. If you spend a longer time foraging and searching for food than what is needed, then the costs will exceed the benefits. And if you spend less time foraging and searching for food then you won't gain enough energy to survive. In this case the costs will also exceed the benefits. So the individuals must search for food for a certain amount of time in order to gain energy and gain a benefit. The benefits of foraging is best between the two areas where the benefits exceed the cost. Also, we expect that the most common amount of time used for foraging is where we see that the difference between the cost and benefits are at its greatest. This is where the benefits exceed the costs and is at its maximum amount, which is somewhere in the middle of the graph. This logic can be applied to the other examples. The cost of territory size increases exponentially because the effort to travel the territory increases, thus depleting energy from walking and spending less time eating. As territory size gets bigger there is not as many benefits. The cost increases exponentially because the area increases by r2. For example if the area increased by 50 meters in all directions, then the animal would have to walk 50 meters in all directions and defend that territory. If the habitat is becoming more poor quality (such as a fire comes through and burns down trees that had seeds) then the animal has to travel greater distances to gain energy in order to receive the benefit; so territory size should increase. If the quality of the habitat is increasing then the place where we maximize the benefit vs. cost moves lower on the graph. Territory size gets progressively less---don't need to travel as far to receive the maximum benefits.
How does a female directly influence their male offspring's reproductive success?
For mammals, this includes the quality milk given to the offspring.
Goal of optimization equation
For patch of given density and travel time Tt, find patch time T0 that maximizes rate of energy gain
How did feathers evolve? What are the 2 approaches?
Functional approach, developmental approach
Ansogamy
Gametes are not the same size. Example: Ostrich egg is huge compared to males sperm, so females will spend more time finding quality mates
What are some small population problems?
Genetic bottlenecks and founder effects
Bottleneck
Genetic drift resulting from the reduction of a population, typically by a natural disaster, such that the surviving population is no longer genetically representative of the original population
Founder effect
Genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not reflective of that of the original population.
Alternative mating tactics
Genetically determined fixed -Environmentally determined 1.Ontogenetic:over the course of development (use 1 tactic when your younger and maybe switch when you're older) 2.Making the Best of a Bad Job: A less tactic but still productive 3.Evolutionarily Stable Strategy :if adopted by a population of players in a given environment, cannot be invaded by any alternative strategy that is initially rare
What factors make exclusive male care more likely to occur?
Giant waterbugs show exclusive paternal care. Males aerate eggs and defend them from predators Males are the carrying sex because eggs are glued to male's back immediately after he mates with female and *paternity is generally assured* second explanation: males that carry some eggs more likely to get a second mate
If a goodness of fit test model yields a P-Value=.51, would conclude that the model is a good fit or a bad fit? Why?
Good Fit because P values above .5 indicate the model fits well.
You wish to estimate abundance of box turtles in an area with two vegetation communities,grassland and oak savanna, both covering the same amount of area. You know from previous work that detection probability of box turtles in grasslands = 0.60 and in oak savannas = 0.40. You survey turtles on 10 plots in each vegetation community that cover 10% of the total area covered by each vegetation community. You count a total of 120 turtles during survey on plots in grasslands and a total of 80 turtles on plots in oak savannas. Estimate abundance of turtles (a) in each vegetation community and (b) across the entire area. Show your work
Grassland c=120 p hat=.60 N hat =120/.60(.1)=2000 Savanna c=.80 p hat=.40 N hat=80/.40(.1)=2000 Overall 2000+2000=4000
Why pheromones are used
Health/fitness, sexual selection of mate and the avoidance of incest, maturation, kin recognition, hierarchy, marking, deception, aggregation, intruder alarm
Reciprocal altruism
Help if you help back later. Risky -More likely if -you will interact with the same individual later many times, in which you can reward or retaliate -you can recognize individuals -If the game is repeated and individuals recognized previous partners, and choose to cooperate or defect each time, Then altruism and defection can be reciprocated:cheaters don't do well and altruism evolves.
Kin-selection
Helping relatives increases your"indirect fitness' -The more of your genes are in a relative, the more interest you have in helping them -The more an altruist helps relatives, the more likely it is that the gene for altruism will become more frequent in the population
Assumption: Equal detection probability:Heterogeneity (h)
Heterogeneity (h)- inherent differences in detection among individuals perhaps due to: - differences in sex or age - social dominance - differential vulnerability to capture, such as fish size when electrofishing The key to understanding heterogeneity is to recognize that we do not know (or have no identified) why detection probability varies among individuals This is why it is often called unmodeled heterogeneity
Anthropogenic
Human caused
Process excess water problem
Humming birds produce pee. - evaporative water loss - kidneys that are able to process large amounts of water - shut kidney down at night and highly active during the day - decrease water absorption rate in intestine .
What is unique about humming bird offspring?
Hummingbirds young are fed insects which is rich in protein. Later in life drink nectar
The term ____________ is best reserved for studies that seek a mechanistic explanation for a phenomenon.
Hypothesis
How can females determine if a male has good genes?
Hypothesis: males indicate their quality in some way, sing, dance, display ornaments
Why would mate choice for 'good genes' lead to exaggeratedmale traits?
Hypothesis:Exaggerated signals prevent a male from cheating, and pretending to be of high genetic quality
Sensory feathers
Hypothesized function given distribution:sense feather positions.
Assumption: equal detection probability
If this assumption is not met, detection probability is varying in some way. Possibilities include: 1) time (t)-detection probability varies among sampling occasions due to external processes, such as weather 2) behavior (b)-detection probability changes in response to initial capture -trap happy: p< c -trap shy: p> c -no behavioral response to capture:p= c 3) heterogeneity (h)-inherent differences in detection probability among individual
Releaser
Impact on behavior is immediate -reaction to pheromones
How many genes encode behavior? Cricket example
In crickets, often the male sings, attempting to attract a female. Males make sounds by drawing a "file" on one forewing across a scraper on the other forewing F1 songs: 1. Songs are a blend of parental songs 2.F1 songs depends on what species contributes which parent. Backcross songs: 1.Songs are blend of parental and F1 song. 2.If backcross repeatedly to parental species, song resembles parental species' song more and more All results together suggest that: 1.Song production is polygenic 2.Song production is sex-linked, meaning some genes for traits are on x chromosome One final result: If hybrid females are offered a choice between a hybrid male song and a parental species song , hybrid females prefer hybrid male song. Proposed: genes involved in both song production and song response. Genes may be used to produce set of instructions to produce the song, and for preference of song. Have to be on both chromosomes.
Do differences in nature reflect genetic differences?
In lab we can see types. In nature sometimes types are seen. -Occurrence of types in nature is polymorphism But usually, variation in nature is continuous. Variation forms a "bell curve", also called a normal distribution. Example: water striders-some can fly and some cant which are genetically based Genetically based variation or variation due to environmental factors must ask where genetic relatives are found in the distrubution.
Proximate Causes
Includes causation and Ontogeny. Imminent cause responsible for a behavior. How?
Inclusive Fitness
Inclusive fitness=direct fitness+indirect fitness
What happens when there is increased costs due to high density on the territory curve?
Increased costs due to high density should also decrease territory size
Standard Deviation vs. Standard Error
Increasing a sampling size stabilizes standard deviation and lowers standard error
Why place for sample units in strata that are more variable?
Increasing sample size: - decreases SE - Increases precision
_____________________ are statistics thought to be related to true abundance and that do not attempt to account for imperfect surveys (where detection probability is less than one).
Index of abundance
Reliability of index of abundance
Index of abundance can be unreliable. For an index to be reliable, detection probability must be constant across space and over time -If it is not constant, the index will not track changes in true abundance reliably
____ are statics thought to be related to true abundance and that do not attempt to account for surveys where detection prob is <1.0
Indexes
Is mate choice involving species recognition an example of direct benefits or indirect benefits? Why? (Think ligers).
Indirect benefits because mating with a member of another species usually results in lower fitness of the offspring. Expect strong selection for individuals to choose mates of the right species
What is individuality?
Individually distinctive behavior traits. -AKA individual behavior differences (IBD), behavioral phenotypes, personality Examples: Boldness, exploration, aggression, activity, sociability, Neophilia, etc
For multipass electrofishing, which of the 8 capture recapture models are relevant?
Individuals may be differentially vulnerable based on size Detection probability may vary across surveys Mh-capture probabilities vary among groups in the population Mt-capture probabilites vary only with time
Who to Copy?
Individuals you 1) spend time with, 2) have experience, 3) you trust, 4) are successful
What are problems with instinct?
Inflexible; ex: code breaking parasites can take advantage of instinct, beetle mimics chemical signals in ants
What are some benefits for living in groups involving foraging?
Information exchange: social learning and recruitment ○ Cooperative hunting -wolfs,yellowtail
What is ancillary/ Auxiliary information
Information that we gather about sample units that we use to improve sampling, but that is not the parameter of interest
What does the riparian terrestoral ecosystems include?
Inludes terrestrial ecosystems that influence the exchange of energy and matter •hydroriparian= perennial •mesoriparian= intermittent or shallow groundwater •xeroriparian= ephemeral
Frequency
Instances per unit time
Modern Zoological Park-1900 AD
Institutions for recreation, education and science that strived for naturalistic enclosures that foster natural behavior
Roads may provide refuge from wolves due to humans
Interested in interior locations where trails are used edge=human road with few wolves Not going to find wolves on edge
Monitoring studies
Intermittent surveys to assess: -trends over time or -compliance with a predetermined standard
What are the adaptations that enable brood parasites to deceive their hosts and what are the counter‐ adaptations of the host to escape such parasitism?
Intraspecific Brood Parasitism Deceive hosts -Lay eggs in nests of their own species nest when hosts are away. Causes host to think parasitic eggs are her own and laid fewer eggs herself. Counteractions -Breeding females guard by removing foreign eggs deposited before they themselves lay eggs. After female starts her clutch, it cannot distinguish the parasitic eggs as a parasitic female will remove of the host's eggs and replaces it with her own. Obligate Brood Parasitism -lay eggs in nests outside their species Deceive hosts: -thick shells are resistant to cracking as females drop their eggs into deep nests. -larger eggs and chicks for faster growth. Shorter incubation periods. -specialized birds that target specific hosts by mimicking eggs of their host -mimic eggs because females are w linked. Egg determines sex and egg coloration is w linked. Females carry genes for egg types on the female W sex chromosome -chicks are aggressive and may shove unhatched eggs of its host out of the nest -imitates host nesting begging call and mouth Counteractions of host -reject eggs even if it means damaging their own eggs -leaving the nest or bury the entire clutch and laying a fresh clutch on top
Major threats to Hawaiian birds
Introduced mosquitoes -Avipoxvirus -Avian malaria Habitat loss and degradation -Fragmentation by humans -Degradation by feral goats and hogs -Climate change Introduced nest predators -Cats and rats -Mongooses: introduced to eat rats, dont eat any but eat birds eggs
Reproductive Monitoring and Assesement
Invasive 1. Laparotomy/laparoscope-abdominal wall incision 2. Blood-sample-hormonal analysis Restraint 1. Vaginal smears 2. Ultrasonography 3. Saliva sample-hormonal Non-invasive 1. Behavioral observation 2. Urine sample-hormonal analysis 3. Fecal sample-hormonal anaylsis
To test for use of a time-compensated sun compass,
Investigators engaged in clock-shifting. -Raised a late-shifted group which 'thinks' it's 6am when it's really noon. -Raised a control group which 'thinks' it's noon and it is (!). Release both groups at noon, real time 6 am ,noon 6 pm. At noon in northern latitudes, sun is in the southern part of the sky. Hence, at noon, a butterfly attempting to fly south should fly in direction of the sun. -Control butterflies headed towards sun, as expected. -Late-shifted butterfly 'thinks' it is 6 am when it is actually noon. -At 6am, sun is in east. So butterfly should fly 90 degrees away from sun.BUT... it is actually noon and sun is really to the south. -So... the butterfly ends up flying WEST
Why do males stay with females after mating?
Irradiate set of males. In drosophila, the mechanism was evaluated using males with genetically-engineered sperm. Drosphila sperm expressed a fluorescing protein (green tails) and normal sperm (blue-grey tails)
Scrub Jays and Planning for the Future
Jays cache food based on availability (Put peanuts with kibble and kibble with peanuts); indicates an understanding of a future environment and planning accordingly
What is Hamilton's rule? Explain how it is related to indirect benefits that helpers obtain.
Kin selection:Indirect benefits -Hamiltons Rule-Like getting 2 offspring. C>rB C = cost r = relatedness B = number of beneficiaries -Closer related, more likely to help offspring
Testing Metacognition
Large reward for correct, no reward for incorrect, and small reward for opting out; animals learn to opt out on difficult trials; retrospective gambling paradigm
Absolute number discrimination
Learning to always choose a certain number. Learning to pick food container with specific number of markings, turn in a maze based on the number of whisker touches, learning to pack a fixed number of times. Rats, pigeons, chimpanzees.
Tradeoff in Drosophila
Learning tradeoff between aggression and learning ability; good learning ability vs. competitiveness
Number assessment and counting of animals-lions
Lions live in female-dominated prides, and defend a territory. Theory: when fighting is costly, assessed your opponent, and run away if chances of winning are low. Prediction:Run when you are outnumbered Experiment:Loundspeark plays invader roars with a territory of females. Two kinds of roars a) 1 lion roaring b) 3 lions roaring Females responses to the roars assessed. Defending lions adjusted their response to the number of intruders and the size of their own group.
Hatchlings maintain a highly directional outward-bound course. HOW?
Loggerhead sea turtles hatching from eggs on beach can use three cues 1. Dunes and associated vegetation from a dark silhouette 2. Beach slopes down in the direction of the water. 3. Ambient light is reflected from the ocean, making that region brighter Using this setup, hatching loggerhead sea turtles use both slope and brightness to move to the water Hatchlings tethered in the arena swam into approaching waves whenever waves were present. • Hatchlings tethered in the arena when the water was still oriented in random directions since waves run parallel to the beach, swimming into the waves moved them towards open ocean
Remarkably, hatchlings maintain an outward bound heading even after the waves disappear. HOW?
Magnetic compass -hatchlings tethered and allowed to swim towards light in east. Light then turned off -Hatchling maintained an easterly orientation, even in total darkness suggests use of some cue present in dark To test: electric coil placed around apparatus. Coil generates magnetic field Field in same direction as earth's: Hatchlings tethered and allowed to swim towards light in the east. Light then turned off. Hatchlings again moved east, even in total darkness. Field reversed in direction:When light was extinguished
Know how the male and female reproductive tracts of birds differ from mammals and be able to identify the main reproductive organs and structures and their functions.
Male Reproductive Tract -Testes bigger in breeding season-May be adaption for flight -Entire reproduction tract englarges -Vas Deferenes:the duct that conveys sperm from the testicle to the urethra. -Seminal Vesicle: expanded bases of the two ductus deferentia, which swell and accumulate semen waiting discharge -Cloaca:stores sperm -Urodeum:Is the middle part of the cloaca.t has the ureteric opening -Polyandry has largest testes -Next highest is colonial species that are monogamous -After is solitary monogamy -Leks have smallest testes Female Reproductive Tract -1 Ovary-left and 1 oviduct on left to reduce weight -eggs in ovary are at different developments -Yolk-for nutrition of embryo will be added on ovary and take 5-15 days. 21-36% Lipid and 16-22% protein. Rapid Yolk development phase because "tree rings" in light shows days it took for female to yolk eggs. -egg is released from Ovary and makes its passage through oviduct. May take 24 hours. -Oviduct includes Infundibulum, Magnum, Isthmus, Uterus, and Vagina - Sperm needs to reach infundibulum to fertilize -Ovum reaches Magnum where first layers of albumen will be added- -Albumem is 90% water and 10% protein. Functions as water supply, shock absorbor, insulator, and protects against bacteria. -Then it reaches Isthmus where inner membrane, outer shell membrane, and albumen will be added -Next it will reach uterus.albumen, hard shell of calcium carbonate, and pigments will be added -carotenoids make colors of yolk -Last is the vagina which is the muscle for expelling the egg -If making 2 eggs, it can crack in body. Very dangerous
Acoustic deprivation in white-crowned sparrow
Male and white crowned sparrows sing a complex song. - If a young male is held in acoustic isolation from song of adult males, the males will sing a isolate song. -Conclusion: to sing a species typical song, young males must hear other adult males singing.
Pirates
Males sit out on periphery and use to sneak matings Ex: Bluegills
Map scale
Map scale is the relationship between distance on the map and distance on the ground •Given as a fraction or ratio, the first number is always 1: 1/10,000 or 1:10,000 •1:10,000 indicates that 1 unit of measurement on the map (e.g., inches) represents 10,000 of the same units on the ground •1:63,360indicates that 1 inch on the map represents 63,360 inches (= 1 mile) on the ground •Large is small:•The larger the 2nd number, the smaller the scale of the map •The smaller the 2nd number, the larger the scale Common scale for U.S. maps is 1:24,000 Maps at this scale cover an area measuring 7.5 minutes of latitude by 7.5 minutes of longitude Called "7.5‐minute quadrangle maps"1 inch represents 2,000 feet
How does mate competition differ from mate choice?
Mate competition is intrasexual selection. Members of on sex compete with members of the same sex for access to mates. Mate choice is intersexual selection. Members of one sex choose mates among members of the opposite sex
.Special case of good genes models: Species Recognition
Mating with a member of another species usually results in lower fitness. Expect strong selection for individuals to choose mates of the right specie
Individual or total fitness
Maximizing the number of genes that are passed on to the next generation. Amount of young that can reproduce
________is a statistic that characterizes an estimate; it represents the standard deviation of that estimate's sampling distribution
Mean
Left skewed placements
Mean median, mode
Basal Metabolic Rate
Measured when organism is resting, not digesting, not doing anything special
What is the Mechanism analysis?
Mechanism=Causation -Causation: focus on the mechanistic cause of behavior
_____________ is another name for the second quartile.
Median
What is a bias by hand-picking example?
Mobbing
Right skewed placements
Mode, median, mean
___________ studies are those that typically involve intermittent surveys to assess trends through time.
Monitoring
Eyes place on side of head
Monocular Vision:area seen with either left or right eye. - due to them being prey animals, birds have low level binocular vision (direct frontal vision) -Pigeons can see around but lack binocular vision.Depth perception low. Binocular vision: See with both eyes. Owls have.
Arizona examples of mating systems (Add all when slides are up)
Monogamy -Mexican Wolf -Prairie Vole Polygyny -Elk -Proghorn, Mule Deer, WT deer
Describe the breeding systems discussed in class and give examples.
Monogamy: The predominant avian mating system. Pairs stay together and share parental work. 90 percent of birds use these system Polygamy:mating system including multiple mates. Only 3 percent of birds practice this Types of polygamy: 1) Polygyny: males control or gain access to many females. About 2 percent. Example: Sage Grouse 2) Polyandry:Females control or gain access to multiple males. Males may tend to clutch. Less than 1 percent. Females are 25% larger than males. Example Spotted Sandpipers. Males take care of young and incubate. At first monogamous until female finds another mate. 10 percent cuckoldry due to stored sperm. Primary males have higher paternal obligations. Second choice males get help from females. 3) Polygynandry: Several males and females mating. Example is the Acorn Woodpecker. Very rare.
Who feeds nestling?
Mostly both parents feed nestling -If 2 nests in season, male will take care of young and female will start to build another nest
Parental conflict of chimpanzees
Mothers wean infants between 4 and 6. Chimpanzees become fully independent between the ages of 6-9. Weanee gave a predator alert scream to coerce mother to carry it
Behavior
Movement, social interaction, cognition, and learning
ad libitum
NO SYSTEMATIC constraints on what is recorded or when recording occurs. Observer notes what relevant behavior is observed at the time. -Biased towards conspicuous behaviors and individuals -Only way that rare events may be observed
Define Closure
Name given to the assumption that the target species is present at occupies site for duration of the survey season.
The half width of a 90% confidence interval would be __________ than the half width of a 95% confidence interval for the same estimate.
Narrower - 95% has more info., so it would be wider than 90%
Is the avian excretory system more or less efficient than the mammalian system? Why or why not?
Nitrogenous waste:excreted as uric acid in kidney (get rid of a solid form). Benefits:use less water, less toxic Costs:requires more energy to synthesize
Does encounter history of 00000 contribute to estimating detectability
No
How do reptilian and avian eggs differ and what was the significance of these changes for birds?
No internal development in birds but some reptiles -hard shell-All birds, few reptiles. Hard shells is more durable but less water permeability. More costly to produce lipids for yolk -Water permeability less in birds, more in reptiles
1926 Black Bass Act (Conservation Movement)
No interstate movement
What is unique about the Kakapo?
Nocturnal, flightless, rare and heavy
We have discussed roads on several occasions in this course and outlined a myriad of ways that roads may impact the behavior of wildlife. Examine these influences and then discuss specific ways that such impacts can be mitigated.
Noise can be a big problem from roads. Something we can do with this is design vehicles that have a better muffler. This will make them quieter. A direct impact that roads have on animals is mortality. Slow moving animals such as frogs, snakes, and turtles are a high risk of being killed. Rabbits, deer, armadillos, and squirrels are also at risk. Usually they will exhibit a freeze response when startles. Deer will stop and think "do they see me?" Armadillos and squirrels will freeze then jump up and get into a ball whenever they are startled. But this tactic does not work on the road. Deer will also be near roads to evade predators and forage on the road. A lot of animals will avoid roads due to traffic noise, gap avoidance, and edge avoidance. So let's think of roads as membranes. How are we going to make roads less of a barrier and be more of a permeable membrane? We could make crossing structures to mitigate these issues. We could make underpasses and overpasses. We could make tall structures for flying marsupials. Salamanders just need a tube that has water and some litter. Build underpasses for large and small animals. Put branches in the underpass so that smaller mammals will pass through. Otherwise they would be too scared to go through the underpass.
Instantaneous (snap-shot)
Notes whether a behavior is occurring at the instant of a regular sampling interval -Pros: economical, large sample, less subject reactivity -Cons: unavailability of subjects and observation window -behavioral type EVENT
Proportional to size
Number of sample units selected from each stratum is proportional to the size of each stratum - sample size for stratum i = Ni/the sum of Ni for all strata - appropriate when survey costs are approximately equal in each strata and we have no other information about the population
Proportion to Variation
Number of sample units selected from each stratum is proportional to the standard deviation of each stratum - appropriate when survey costs are approximately equal in each strata and we have estimates of SD for each stratum; these are sometimes available from previous studies or from pilot studies
Uniform
Number of sample units selected is the same from each stratum Example: total sample size = 10 5 in stratum 1 5 in stratum 2
_____ studies explores nature in its unaltered state with the goal of describing patterns or quantifying associations
Observational
Truncation
Observations from extreme distances can be troublesome when fitting a detection function, so 5-10% of the farthest detections is discarded. This point is called the truncation distance
Point Transects
Observer at a fixed location rather than traversing a line. -Often used for surveying birds Transects length, L=0
Disadvantages of point transects
Observer near the center of the plot are more likely to be disturbed by the observer
Behavior Sampling
Observer watches an entire group of subjects and records the occurrence of behavior PATTERNS OF INTERESTS -used for rare behavior -only record behaviors you're looking for
Drosophila behavior mutants
Obtained by "forward genetics" in which mutants are screened in behavioral assays.
Below is a set of encounter histories collected as part of an occupancy study. 01001 00100 00000 11010 00000 10100 10010 01000 e. Assume we selected the model 𝜓(.)p(t) for inference in this study; in one sentence, describe the way that detection probability varied during the study. Report the number of parameters in this model
Occupancy is constant but detection probability varies. 6 parameters
Polymorphism
Occurrence of types in nature. =the individual differences of form among the members of a species
Detection Notation
Often abundance is represented with N, which is what we have used to represent the number of sample units in a population (sampling frame). IMPORTANT! As we consider strategies to estimate abundance, we need to be careful to distinguish THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SAMPLE UNITS from ABUNDANCE -Sometimes, we'll use M to represent the number of sample units and N to represent abundance (=population total)
Butterfly egg lay-mix of learning and instinct
Once on host plant, egg laying is elicited by phytochemical releasers, partly instinctive -but finding host plant is both instinctive and learned Experiment: -Paper model+ host extract=training model -trained female to one of four colored models -Females searched for untreated targets. Best on green. Other experiment showed butterflies were trained to have a preference of blue led and landed on them
How many times did power flight evolved within chordates?
One hypothesis: a total of 1 origin but 3 changes
Monogamy
One male , one female
Monogamy
One male and one female
Monogamy
One male and one female -<3% Few mammals (Wolves) >90% of birds (behaviorally, 60% genetically) -serial or lifelong
Sexual Dimorphism
One sex is bigger than the other sex
Polygamy
One sex mates with more than 1 mate. *Three different types* -Polygyny -polyandry, -polygynandry
Limnetic zone
Open water, too deep to support rooted vegetation
B.F Skinner (History of behavior)
Operant conditioning Conditioning behavior as a product of past reinforcement histories - behavior more experimental
______ variables represent data with values that are labels with no numerical value but their order is meaningful
Ordinal
_____________ variables are those where data values labels that have no numerical value, but their order is meaningful.
Ordinal Scale
Vomeronasal organ AKA Jacobson's organ
Organ that allows the uptake of information from odor particles in the air - pick up sent and rub it against the organ
How environmental traps formulate
Original environment have an original cue and original repsonse which makes expected results and no trap. In a new environment, the original cue and original cue result in an evolutionary trap and unexpected results
How many genes encode behavior?Orimia flies example
Ormia flies parasitize Telegryllus crickets in Hawaii. Orima uses male chirps to locate them and then ay eggs on cricket. Maggots cause the death of their host. In 2003, a mutation arose in Kauai population that rendered males mute. Called Flatwing, the new form is protected from parasitism, but must use other cues to mate. Mutation increased from to 90% in 30 generations. Natural selection! • Big picture: Song production and song acceptance is polygenic
What are some examples of sensory feathers:Protective?
Ostriches "eyelash" is made of feathers to protect eyes. Brissels for ravens but purpose is not know.
Imperfect Surveys
Our goals for management and research often focus on characterizing populations of plants and animals where it is impossible to ensure that we detect all individuals present on the area that we survey.
Why are a higher proportion of bird species monogamous compared to reptiles and mammals?
Outcome depends on -resource distribution -relative competitive ability of both sexes -population structure Monogamy gives opportunity for male parental care because female detach egg and offspring can use both parents vs mammals where young develops in female body. Reptiles lay their eggs and leave offspring alone. Males can defend territorial space and secure food and supplies for female and young.
What are the unique sensory adaptations of owls and turkey vultures? Explain in detail how structure is related to function for these adaptations.
Owls have binocular vision and better hearing than humans. Avian auditory system for owls -Asymmetry of ears on vertical -Facial discs -High number of auditory neurons - extreme feathers around ear - "naked" feather at front of eat - really dense feathers at the back to funnel sound better - ears offset to get more range of hearing for hunting Vultures have a great sense of smell and can find dead animals easily. Very complex nasal cavity and has a concha with a surface covered in scent receptors. Vultures can be used to find oil leaks.
What are the main 2 divisions in Reproductive Isolation, and what are their subdivisions.
POSTzygotic - Extrinsic Ecological Selection Sexual Selection - Intrinsic Genetic Incompatibilities (what happens within the organism) PREzygotic - Extrinsic Ecological Selection - Sexual Selection
Distinguish between parameter and estimate.
Parameter is true value what we are trying to figure out. An estimate is computed from observations in a sample
____ is the name of the principle that describes choosing a model by balancing complexity with the amount of data explained ____ is a measure used to choose a model based on the principle described in the previous question
Parisomony,AIC
Name of the general principle (not the measure) that describes a model that fits the data well and does not have more than the number of parameters that can be supported given the data.
Parsimony
attitudinal reciprocity
Parties mirror each other's social attitudes:High degree of immediate contingency-"If you're nice, I'll be nice"
To understand negative frequency-dependence in mimicry, we need to look at things from the predator's perspective-pigeon example
Pigeon has worms to eat that look similar but one is poisonous. -Pigeon gains 5kcal when eating worm but can lose -15 kcal when eating poisonous worm -If pigeon has 16 worms to eat, but all of them are poisonous it will be described as 16 x(-15)+0x5=-240, essentially killing the pigeon -if pigeon has 16 worms to eat, but all of them are non-poisonous, then it will be described as 0X(-15)+16(5)=80 -If you have 4 good worms and 12 bad worms, you break even 4(-15)+12(5)=0 -the more costly bad worms (models ) are relative to their good worms (mimics) , the more good worms (mimics) there can be before mimicry breaks down.
Displacement experiment pigeons
Pigeons were able to find there way home easily. Result suggests homing pigeons use piloting
Location
Place, distance to cover or individual
Sex Differences in Learning
Polygynous vs Monogamous voles, home ranges, and spatial memory; Female brood parasites with greater spatial memory than other similar birds
Explain the polygyny threshold model. When are females expected to mate with an already mated male?
Polygyny depends on variation in territory quality -Do better in higher quality territories -Birds that nest colonially in "safe" trees or in marshes with abundant or easy-to-find food tend to be polgynous -Females of this care for young with little or no help from males -Females join harems because they do better than when paired with one male on a territory of poorer quality -Polygynous males control better-quality territories than unmated or monogamous males in the same area -central territories are protected from predators -these territories conceals nests -edges of territories are dangerous, females would rather go with males with better territory
____________ is the entire collection of entities about which we want to make an inference or draw a conclusion.
Population
If siblicide reduced parental fitness, why wouldn't parents prevent it?
Possible reason for hyenas: young are deposited in aardvark burrows. young are safe from predators, but mother cannot get them sharks: sandtiger shark siblings kill siblings in the womb and mother is helpless. Carnivorous habit facilitates siblicide
Is siblicide necessarily contrary to the interests of the parents? Explain.
Possible reasons to not prevent it: Young hyenas are deposited in aardvak burrows and they are safe from predators but mother cannot reach, also sharks babies in womb of mother kill each other and mother is helpless Some parents resolve conflict by making clutches smaller such as parasitic wasps
How did tetrachomacy evolve in birds?
Possibly mammals lost it Tetrachromacy is the ancestral state 1. tetrachromacy (4 cones) - fish - reptiles - birds 2. loss of 2 cones - amphibians - nocturnal lifestyle 3. loss of 2 cones - mammals - most nocturnal 4. regain of 1 cone in primates - Humans - dieral
Using your knowledge of the evolution of vertebrate visual systems, explain why birds are tetrachromatic and primates are trichromatic
Possibly mammals lost it Tetrachromacy is the ancestral state 1. tetrachromacy (4 cones) - fish - reptiles - birds 2. loss of 2 cones - amphibians - nocturnal lifestyle 3. loss of 2 cones - mammals - most nocturnal 4. regain of 1 cone in primates - Humans - dieral
Can level of care behavior be inherited epigenetically?
Possibly. If stress reduces nursing, and lack of nurturing increases stress, then maternal care quality could be inherited epigentically -mechanism is referred to as "soma-to soma" epigenetic inheritance.
Landscape of fear
Potential of being predated influences occupancy and range distribution
write out a probability statment for a site with an encounter history of (1 0 1 0 1):
Pr( h= 10101)= psip(1-p)p(1-p)*p 1= p 0= (1-p)
Reverse genetics:Viral techniques Vole
Prairie Vole:Males are monogamous, Meadow Vole males are polygynous, Vasopressin: Hormone thought to promote pair bonds and social behavior in voles Monogamous prairie vole shows greater levels of V1a vasopressin receptor in the ventral pallidum of brain Viral vector-mediated gene transfer: virus used to vector V1a gene of prairie vole to meadow voles. Brain of engineered meadow vole shows strong expression of V1a vasopressin receptor. Engineered meadow voles show stronger preference for partners than wild type meadow voles.
Information transfer
Prairie dog warnings, social interactions, location of food,
Wolf Reintroduction
Pre-release: Soft release, feed elk Post Release: Haze, pyrotechnics, rubber bullets
Wolf Reintroduction
Pre-release: Soft-release, feed elk Post-release: Haze, pyrotechnics, rubber bullets
Alternative cascade states
Predators->predation and predation risk-> Herbivores-> density mediated foraging and behaviorally mediated foraging->plants->processes and functions->ecosystem services and a reference state Herbivores-density mediated foraging-> plants-> Processed and functions->reduced ecosystem services and alternative state
Ecological parameter of primary interest in occupancy study
Probability of sites occupied
Last male sperm precedence experiment
Procedure:mate female first to male with one kind of sperm, then to male with other kind of sperm Possible outcomes: 1. Displacement of first sperm from storage sites. 2. Stratification in storage sites with first sperm buried deep in storage sites. 3. Incapacitation of sperm Results: Last male precedence due to :#1. displacementof first male's sperm from female storage organs. AND #3. incapacitation of first male's sperm
Navigation
Process of determining and maintaining a course or trajectory from one place to another
Intrauterine chemical cues-siblicide
Pronghorn example: babies have a uterus horn made out of keratin that will kill the other baby that is growing near it to increase chances of it being born - 4 eggs and 2 will be killed off by the horn and then the dead ones will be absorbed
Occupancy
Proportion of sites inhabited by a species(ψ); equivalently, the probability that a site is inhabited
Evil Quartet
Proposed by Jared Diamond - Pollution & contaminants, -habitat destruction/degradation, -over exploitation, -invasive species Threats are the easiest to remove
What are the costs and benefits of endothermy?
Pros -inhabit more range of temperatures by generating its own heat -increase speed and/or strength -increase endurance Cons -costs a lot of energy to maintain endothermic status -close to danger zone
Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC)
Provides a quantitative basis for model selection AIC=-2(logL)+2q logL=log-likelihood of the model. A measure of the amount of the data the model explains q is the number of parameters. A penalty for increasing the number of parameters (model complexity). Adding parameters always increases the amount of data explained by the model, but it may not improve the fit enough to justify the added complexity -Helps us to identify the most parsimonious model for the detection function
Novel open field trials
Put an animal in a field and measure activity
How quickly does a population respond to selection(R)
R=h²S Heritability=h² Selection Pressure=S
Rock-Paper-Scissor:What is the ESS?
Random for that population - In this case, tactics are thrown evenly
How can we ensure that a sample represents the entire population of interest?
Randomization
We assume that the expected distibution of observed distanced between objects of interest and a line transect is uniform. What step is required for us to justify that assumption?
Randomization
How is care distributed in animals? Common? Rare? Only in cognitively sophisticated species?
Rare, in Chordata, hexapoda, crustacea, diplopoda, arachnida
Barrier effect study
Real roads and fake ones -Caribou do not cross roads Some small mammals will avoid by will cross sometimes. -Kangaroo rats favor roads -Cactus mice and pocket mice use roads as barriers
Explain how resource distribution influences the evolution of mating systems. How do the red‐winged blackbird and dunnock examples provide insight into this problem?
Red-winged black bird -Do better in higher quality territories -Birds that nest colonially in "safe" trees or in marshes with abundant or easy-to-find food tend to be polgynous -Polygynous Red-winged black birds control better-quality territories than unmated or monogamous males in the same area -central territories are protected from predators -these territories conceals nests -edges of territories are dangerous, females would rather go with males with better territory Dunnock Outcome of sexual conflict depends on: - resource distribution - relative competitive ability of both sexes - population structure - variation in resource availability and relative competitive abilities - Females always defend exclusive territories; whereas males do not - Males sharing a territory are not related and have a strict dominance hierarchy - Size of female territories reflects resource availability and competitive abilities - Dense hedgerows may have enabled the evolution of such complex mating strategies
Ecological Selection
Refers to natural selection minus sexual selection, i.e. strictly ecological processes that operate on a species' inherited traits without reference to mating or secondary sex characteristics. Natural selection will push the ecological selection towards certain seed types
Why is understanding social systems important for conservation?
Reintroductions -which individuals to move -how many to move -sex ratios -genetic diversity -population management
First line of evidence of comparative approach in mobbing
Related species, differing risk Example: Herring gull -nest in Open -Predation risk High -Mobbing observed Kittiwake gull -nest on cliffs -predation risk low -no mobbing strong support for adaptation hypothesis
Second line of evidence of comparative approach in mobbing
Related species, similar risk -Herring gull - black-heading gull -laughing bull -all nest in open -predation risk high for all -mobbing observed in all This supports for adaptation hypothesis, but weak because all species may mob because common ancestor did so. Effectively, a single data point.
***Explain the difference between fast versus slow life history strategies. Give an avian example of each explaining how these species partition resources.
Resources Survial -Parental care -maintenace -clutch size -growth Penguin lives longer, 1 or 2 per season. Sparrows fast. Have more offspring
What is the major disadvantage of systematic sampling compared to simple random sampling?
Risk of bias
What is meant by a tradeoff between current and future reproduction and how does it shape a) parental care and b) parent-offspring conflict.
Role of future reproduction: species that benefit more by future reproduction should invest less in care of current offspring *shapes parental care by* investing less care in current offspring such as bringing food to young, teaching young to get food and laying eggs at food sources *shapes parent-offspring conflict by* offspring having more resources. Offspring should attempt to gain more from parent than parent will attempt to give but parents will "punish" greedy offspring
Preventative Care
Routine practices of health surveillance to minimize the need for clinical intervention 1.Fecal examination 2.Treatment for parasites 3.Health screening and observation 4.Vaccinations 5.Quarantine of new arrivals 6.Necropsy of dead animals 7.Pest control program 8.Human interaction
Township lines
Run East‐to‐West, 6 miles apart Townships are divided into sections, which are 1 mile^2(640 acres) There are 36 sections per township
Range lines:
Run North‐to‐South, 6 miles apar
Encounter histories:Mark Recapture: Assumptions
Same to those for the Lincoln-Petersen estimator, extended to multiple sampling occasions 1. all individuals have the same chance of being captured on every sampling occasion (=equal detection probability) We can overcome the constraints of this assumption by incorporating additional information gained from sampling on >2 occasions 2. Marks are not lost, gained or overlooked 3. The population is closed
Capture-Recapture:Species Richness:Survey Multple Locations
Sample areas that are homogeneous, where the concept of a single community seems reasonable •Consider stratifying if area is heterogeneous
Systematic sampling
Sample units chosen at uniform intervals, usually after choosing a random start point -Randomly select one unit from the first k sample units in the population and every kth unit thereafter Example: plan to choose 40 plots from a field of 400 plots, k=400/40 =10 this is 1 in 10 systematic sample
False Negatives
Sample units where the species is truly present but was not observed during surveys
Disruptive Selection
Selecting for both extremes EX. Tall and Short people, no middle
Stabilizing selection
Selecting from the average in the pop. EX. same height overall
Why two gamete sizes?
Selection should favor: 1. gametes effective at fertilizing other gametes. 2. gametes, once fertilized, better at developing to adulthood. No one gamete can be good at both.Selection favors gametes that are one or the other
Littoral zone
Shallow near shore; well-lighted, supports rooted vegetation
What is the size exaggeration hypothesis?
Shorter ---->longer Idea to be larger in competitive nature -sexual dimorphism of trachea length in species where only males defend territory -monorphic
What is the size exaggeration hypothesis for tracheal elongation? What is the evidence for it?
Shorter--->longer Idea to be larger in competitive nature -sexual dimorphism of trachea length is species where only males defend territory -monorphic (need more notes)
Scrub Jays and Episodic Memory
Showed evidence of episodic memory because remembered where they hid worms and ate them earlier because they decay after a while
What are the 6 avian senses?
Sight, sound, smell, touch, detection of migration fields and altitude.
Which model does the fossil evidence support?
Sinosauropteyrx,Beipiaosaurus,Caudipteryx, microraptor gui, archaeopteryx
In an occupancy study, each encounter history represents a different _________________, whereas in a capture-recapture study they represent a different ___________________.
Site, Individual
Foregut Digestion examples
Sloth, kangaroo, colobus monkey, sheep, llama
Describe your favorite amazing flying story that was discussed in class.
Small songbird tracking - first time able to track small songbirds (wood thrushes and purple martins) - too small for satellite transmitters so fit them with a geolocator which records the sunrise and sunset every day. - They travel more than 300 miles/day - made it from Brazil to Penn. in only 13 days (b/4 this we thought it took them a month); takes them 45 days to go south for the winter; differences may be because the earliest returning birds get the best territories Frigatebird - nonstop journey of over 2500 miles round trip to get food for her chick - departed Oct 18th and didn't return until Nov 18th Bar-tailed godwits - 6 to 7 days to cover the route, flying up to 2km high at an average speed of 56 km/h (see slide for details of path) - When the godwits set out from New Zealand they are clinically obese, but they lose about half their body weight in each leg of the migration. - refuel for up to a month before heading out to the last leg of the journey to Alaska - nonstop 11,700km flight on return to New Zealand accomplished in about a week!
Epigenetics of stress response in Norway rats
Some Norway rat mothers nurture young more than other mothers: -Pups of nurturing mothers tolerate stress better than pups of neglectful mothers -stress tolerance a function of glucacorticoid hormones -effects of glucocarticoids -Mobilization of glucose for use in crisis -suppression of immune antiflammatory response Contact between mother and pup increases levels of expression of glucocorticoid receptor gene in pup's hippocampus More glucocorticoids are bound, lowering stress level response Pups are consequently less fearful
Describe the stages of song development in birds that show age‐limited learning.
Songbirds listen to the songs of other individual birds and practice them in stages. 1) the sensory acquisition phase in which hearing song models is paramount -Critical learning period:early period during which information is stored for use in later stages of learning. -memorize song phrases from 10-50 days old for White-crowned sparrows Silent phase. Bird stores syllables that it memorized during the critical learning period without practicing 2) the Sensorimotor phase in which practice is paramount Subsong period: practice period is similar to a baby babbling. Briges gap between perceptual and sensorimotor stages of vocal learning. -Critical period for hatching -150 day juvenile has "subsong"-need to hear song to tweak, lasts a month (white-crowned sparrow) Song crystallization: young bird perfects song and organizing syllables into correct patterns and timing. -at 200 days song is perfect.(white crowned sparrow)
What are some types of postcopulatory competition?
Sperm competition Mate guarding infanticide
Standard error of the mean
Ssmallybar=S/√n S=variation in population (s²) n=amount of information available (n-sample size)
What are the types of natural selection?
Stabilizing selection Directional selection Disruptive selection
_______________ is the statistic that characterizes variation (uncertainty) in an estimate.
Standard Error SE = O^2/n
Coefficient of variation
Standard deviation relative to the mean, often expressed as a percentage CV=s/y X 100 useful for comparing variation between groups measured on difference scales
What happens to SE (Small y bar) in n increases?
Standard error decreases as sample size increases
Identify one measure of precision
Standard error, halfwidth t x se
Predators can influence communites
Starfish example
Reproduction Assessment Steps in squirells
Step 1 Focal animals are housed in separate enclosures with visual access.If non-aggressive interactive behaviors are observed go on to step 2 -Step 2 Focal animals are allowed cross barrier access and observed for signs of either tolerant or solicitive behavior. If solicitive behavior is displayed by the female, proceed to step 3 -Step 3Introduce focal animals to each other.
Non-normal' behavior
Stereotypy-movement pattern repeated with little variation and no apparent function. •Displacement-repeated self-grooming, touching, scratching believed related to anxiety
Using the Stars to Navigate
Steve Emlen set up three groups of indigo bunting chicks in the planetarium. Chick reared: 1. In a room with a diffuse light at night. 2. With a normal star map that rotated around the North Star. 3. With an abnormal star map that rotated around Betelguese (a star in the South!). Conclusions 1. Indigo buntings are using the stable point in sky as a reference when migrating. 2. Buntings appear to learn this point as young birds. 3. Data suggest they are learning more than just the star around which night sky is rotating.
Observational studies
Studies of nature in its unaltered state to describe patterns of quantify associations
Manipulative Experiments
Studies where levels of or more factors (treatments) are purposefully altered or manipulated by the investigator
Explain how the use of torpor is related to the ecology of the malachite sunbird and the common poorwill.
Swifts-malachite humming birds lives in high elevations, Finds niche and shuts down. When sun hits them they wake up -Night Jars-Common Poorwill hibernates in winter and shuts down for weeks. Only bird that hibernates and possibly due to decrease in food.
If we know N
Sybar=√((N-n/N)s²/n)
If we do not know N
Sybar=√((s²/n)
Sampling Plants
Techniques we've studied work well for characterizing plant populations •Basic sampling, p = 1 •Occupancy, p < 1 •Distance sampling, p < 1 Plant populations and communities are central to many areas of ecology, so we'll consider some specific techniques -Density -Frequency -Cover -Biomass -Species Composition
Bullfrog lek
Territories in which males call to attract females. Dominant males choose the best territories to attract females, such as shallow water. Males battle other males for dominance. Males with bigger bodies are preferred.
Extending the number of sampling occasions
The Lincoln-Petersen estimator can be extended to studies with >2 sampling occasions *Approach:* -surveying a population on k consecutive occasions (k greater than or equal to 2) During each sampling occasion: -->record captures of previously marked individuals -->mark new individuals -Create encounter histories for each individua
Stabilizing selection
The average genotype does best
Principle of parismony
The best explanation is that explanation requiring the fewest number of evolutionary events
Explain how cuckoo races are geographically distinct and yet remain a single species.
The cuckoos mimics eggs of different species across everywhere -egg coloration is w-linked
What do we expect for point transects?
The distribution of objects with respect to distance should increase detentions because the area is bigger -Because there is less area near the center of the circular plot, we expect few objects to be close to the observer, even though detection probability is higher there
Evolution of zoos-early days
The first collections of exotic animals were assembled at around 3000 B.C., the time of the earliest urbanized civilizations. These early collections, within the context of their times, were in effect the earliest zoos, even though they were not then referred to as zoos. Zoo-related terminology, as it now exists, didn't not come into use until the modern zoo concept developed during the 18th and 19th centuries. Ancient Greeks, Romans and Egyptians all had collections of exotic animals. The earliest animal collections were often times private collections of royalty, gardens and aviaries.
Define and examine the idea of trophic cascades. What is the importance of a predator in the ecosystems? Explain from the perspective of someone interested in animal behavior what is likely to occur. Finally, discuss whether a predator is necessary in the system or might a clever, well-trained wildlife behavioral ecologist identify ways to mitigate the absence of a predator?
The trophic cascade is an ecological concept which has stimulated research in many areas of ecology. A top down cascade is a cascade where a top predator is removed and affects everything below the food chain. A bottom up cascade is when a primary producer is removed and there is a reduction of population size through the community. If we were to remove a predator such as a starfish we might think that a different predator would come and dominate. But this does not happen, nothing is controlling the lower species. Without starfish barnacles will do well and take over and take over the open spaces. As a result biodiversity decreases, there is no longer open surfaces for other species. At zion national park there are many old trees and not any young trees. This is due to the absence of cougars in the area. Cougars are deterred by human presence. The deer figured this out and will be hanging around the park and will eat any small trees that do come up. Also, the absence of cougars cause rivers and streams to widen and become shallow. Causing the water to be warmer and increase erosion. Also, with the reintroduction of wolves this can cause deer to spread out more within the environment. But this is not always the case in all systems. Sometimes, no matter the predation risk there will be a lot of browsing going on and eating small trees. There could be many other factors influencing where and how much shrubbery deer will eat. Also, elk don't all respond the same way. There is data that shows that females that have calves are more vigilant and are weary of wolves. Females that don't have calves are not as attentive and responsive. And males go wherever they want to eat because they are big.
The rock-paper-scissors game in side-blotched lizards
There are 3 male morphs in side-blotched lizards. Differences are genetically-based -Orange are ultra dominant, blue guard mates, and yellow mimic females and sneak matings
Why are the three types of male side-blotched lizards said to be involved in a game of rock-paper-scissors.
There are 3 male morphs in side-blotched lizards. Differences are genetically-based -Orange are ultra dominant, blue guard mates, and yellow mimic females and sneak matings. No one strategy will ultimately beat the other two strategies -If one color has a low number of individuals then the females prefer that color type
Three categories of assessment of animal welfare
Three categories of assessment: 1. Biological functions - variables thatindicate normal physiological function High survival, growth, repro; low stress hormones 2. Affective states - variables that indicatelevels of pain or distressLow stereotypy, aversion/avoidance; high play 3. Natural living - variables that indicate natural behaviorsHigh performance of natural behavior, exploration
Get a compass bearing from a map
To determine the direction of bearing from one point to another, you need both a compass and a map 1. Draw a line from your current location through your target destination and through the map border 2. Center compass where line intersects map border 3. Align compass axis N‐S or E‐W with map border, then read bearing 4. Compensate for declination
What did director Stanley Kubrick envision as key to the transition from non-human primate behavior to primate behavior? Was he right?
Tool use initiated by insight. We see this in chimpanzees though.
Leaf Area Index LAI
Total area of all leaves from all plants relative to the ground in a given area •Different than aerial cover because it includes all layers of vegetation rather than only the top layer •Expressed as a percentage, and can exceed 100% in areas with lush vegetation
Robert Trivers
Trivers proposed the theories of reciprocal altruism (1971), parental investment (1972), facultative sex ratio determination (1973), and parent-offspring conflict (1974). He has also contributed by explaining self-deception as an adaptive evolutionary strategy (first described in 1976) and discussing intragenomic conflict.
How do temperate and tropical birds differ in their annual cycles?
Tropical species have larger breeding seasons -"Breed year round" -short period molt -eliminate migration
Do tropical species live longer? How do tropical territories work?
Tropical species live longer. Offspring will stay in parents territories until there is vacancy
tousling
Turns punish greed chicks by shaking them sometimes to death
What are two approaches to estimate abundance of closed populations
Two approaches to estimate abundance of closed populations: 1. capture, mark, then return individuals to the population = *capture- recapture methods* 2. capture and remove individuals from the population = *removal methods*
Estimating species richness
Two common strategies when surveys are imperfect and detection probability <1. 1. Species‐accumulation (rarefaction) curves 2. Capture‐recapture sampling
Occupancy sites with no detections represent
Two possible "states" that we cannot distinguish 1) Site is truly unoccupied 2) Site is occupied, the the species was never detected If surveys imperfect p<1, classifying sites with no detections as unoccupied will underestimate true occupancy because some proportion of sites are likely to be occupied even though the species was never detected
Home Range methods
Two ways to estimate size of home range methods *Minimum Convex* -Polygons (MCP) -over estimates of home ranges -Advantage: large areas to find potential ranges for conservation projects *Kernel methods* -based on the likelihood of finding animals -underestimates of home range -Advantage: easier to site id, more defined areas
What are the 5 main components of the Syrix?
Tympaniform membranes -Labia -Interclavicualr air sac -muscles that contract membranes .-Supporting cartilage
Territory types
Type A: mating,nesting, and feeding territory. Song Birds Type B:mating and nesting territory. Blackbirds Type C:nesting territory. Area right around the bird. Colonial birds. Type D: paring or mating territory. Display space. Widspread Type E: roosting territory. Sleeping space. Chimney swift. Type F:winter territory. Foraging. Kingfisher.
Heterogeneous
Units are different from each other. Having visibly distinguishable parts.
Third line of evidence of comparative approach in mobbing
Unrelated species, similar risk. -Herring gull-Nests on ground -bank swallow-nests in river banks -ground squirrel-lives in open plains -Predation risk high for all -Mobbing observed in all. This is a strong test of adaptation hypothesis
Reverse genetics: Knockout technique
Use "gene targeting" to knock out a specific gene, or even just a transcript of a gene. Observe effect of knockout on animals behavior.
Comparing mean to a hypothesized value
Use a t-test to compare the mean estimated from a sample (y-bar) to a hypothesized value of the population mean (mew sub 0 = 10)
Spatial sampling
Use information from the sample to make an inference to a larger population N hat = N hat '/ a N hat= estimated abundance for the entire area N hat prime=estimated abundance for the sampled area only a=proportion of total area sampled (0 to 1) a=m/M
Statistical Inference
Use probability to justify statements or conclusions about a population based on information in a sample
What are removal methods of fisheries?
Used commonly for exploited populations, especially fisheries Two classes of removal methods: 1. sampling effort held constant during each occasion= *constant effort removal methods* 2. sampling effort allowed to vary among occasions= *catch per unit effort or CPUE*
When is Auxiliary data used?
Used during the design phase or estimation phase of a study: -Design phase: considered before surveys• -Analysis phase: measured during survey
Identify one measure of the inherent heterogeneity around sample units in a population.
Variance of standard variation
Pecton
Vascular dark material in eye.(amount of folds and location depends on taxa) Nourishes eyes. no blood vessels in retina all in PECTEN. - Acute vision, more vision, more efficient. - Know funtion at the most basic level. - Hypothesis: reduce glare, navigational function, dark mirror (see things close to sun), and regulate eye temp. and hydrostatic pressure. Other reasons for pectons possibly: -Reduce glare -Navigation function -Dark mirror for viewing objects close to sun -regulate eye temperature and hydrostatic pressure -We have blood vessiles in Rectina, birds don't and its in pecton.
Solitary
Vast majority of mammals. Solitary except for mating and rearing young.
Concurrent exchange
Veins in a bird's artery within the legs, run along each other. The SHUNT opens in the foot and bypasses a lot of the cold, this allows them to transfer heat throughout the foot. SHUNT is "closed" to limit the spread of blood since it will take more energy.
Channel depth
Vertical height of the water column from the water surface to the channel botton -measured as the average of depths taken at three locations, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4 across the width
What are three cues / mechanisms that birds use to navigate? For each cue, describe a study that demonstrated its importance in avian navigation.
Visibility of setting sun On sunny days, pigeons wearing magnets and control pigeons with brass bars both went to the correct location. When there was an overcast, the pigeons wearing the magnets were disoriented. The control group showed they used earth magnetic information. Visibility of stars Indigo Bunting migrate at night showed restlessness when confined to funnel cage placed under planetarium sky. Inky foot prints recorded the orientation direction. When the planetarium shifted so the north became the south, the birds reversed their orientation. When the stars were turned "off" they did not orient. Magnetic cues By attaching Helmholtz coils to the heads of homing pigeons, it generated artificial magnetic fields by allowing an electric current to flow through the coils. The reversal of the electric current, which reversed the magnetic field, caused the pigeons to reverse their orientation direction on overcast days.
World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA)
Vision:•A world where all zoos and aquariums maximisetheir conservation impact. •WAZA's desire to achieve the potential of zoos & aquariums globally to make a real difference for animals,species, habitat conservation and sustainability. Mission: •WAZA is the voice of a global community of high standard, conservation-based zoos and aquariums and a catalyst for their joint conservation action. •WAZA's role as a global communication platform for zoos and aquariums committed to conservation and to excellence in zoo and aquarium management.
Habituation
Waning of response to stimulus upon repeated presentation of stimulus; ex: withdrawl response of sea anemone eventually wanes; non-associative learning
Selecting a model
We use models to represent and unknown truth, so the most appropriate model will depend on the data available -Small data sets cannot support complicated models Goals of model selection: find a model that fits the data well and does not have more than the number of parameters that can be supported given the data (= a parsimonious model) Avoid: -Overfitting( too many parameters) -Underfitting(too few parameters)
Prisoner's Dilema
What happens when you and a buddy are taken by the police? They usually they separate them and hoping them to get one buddy to confess. If they have enough information and both decide to stay silent they might get something from the police (fine, sentenced). One buddy could also remain silent forever while the other buddy confesses. Both can confess as well and both can go to jail for some period of time. The least "nasty" outcome, both remain silent. -Simple Rule: Don't say anything (most efficient) -The same rules apply to animals and how they decide on certain topics. (whether they're going to move to find new mates, etc. )
Define and examine the different types of mating systems observed in wildlife species and detail what vertebrate taxa in which they are most common.
Within wildlife species there are six different types of mating systems that can be observed this includes monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, polygyny, polygynandry, and promiscuity. *Monogamy* is when there is one male and one female present that mate with each other and there are two types, serial or lifelong. Serial is when a mate has different partners in different breeding seasons while lifelong is when they have a single mate for life. This is seen in a <3% mammals, including wolves, prairie voles, monkeys, and white footed deer mice, but is mainly seen in >90% of birds, but this is behaviorally, as monogamous couples have 60% chance of experiencing extra pair copulations *Polygamy* involves three different types, polygyny, polyandry, and polygynandry. Polygamy is when one sex mates with more than one mate. When a female is seen to have more than one mate this is called *polyandry* and can be seen in 1% of birds and <1% of mammals. Examples of polyandry are lilly trotters, sandpipers, Goelde's Marmoset and Haris Hawks. *Polygyny* is when males have more than one mate and is seen in 2% of birds and 35% in mammals. Examples of mammals include elk (38%), pronghorn, white tailed deer, coyote, red fox, and wild turkey. There is three types which include resource defense, mate defense, and male dominance. *Polygynandry* is when females and males have more than one mate, but are exclusive and this is seen in 1% of birds and less than 1% of mammals (acorn woodpecker, bonobos, foxes). Lastly, is promiscuity which is when both sexes have more than one mate and can be seen in 6% of birds and 60% in mammals.
Do the sexes differ with respect to mate competition and mate choice?
YES -males compete more intensely for mates than do females and females are choosier about their mates than are males
Do genes encode behavior?
Yes! In Drosophila, males "sing" to females. CAC mutants sing poorly and shout.
Does genetic variation play a role in evolution by natural selection?
Yes. Evolution can only occur if there is genetic variation in a trait
Can a gene have more than 1 effect? Drosophila example
Yes. Example: The period mutant in Drosophila Per affects: -Time of day that pupa becomes adult -Daily activity rhythm -Male courtship rhythm
Is soma-to-germline" inheritance possible?
Yes. Rats exposed to vinclozolin shows high levels of anxiety. -Anxiety persits through F3 generation even in absence of vinclozolin -Evidence indicates that vinclozolin alters the gene (Changes methylation pattern of sperm)
Genomic imprinting
a phenomenon in which expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent
Adaptive Radiation
a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges, or opens new environmental niches.
Speciation in birds typically includes 3 stages:
a) colonization of a new environment, b) population subdivision and geographic isolation, c) divergence due to sexual selection, ecological selection, and accumulation of genetic incompatibilities (i.e. allopatric speciation). Speciation can happen in sympatry but this scenario is apparently rare.
Floodplain
area adjacent to the channel that is submerged occasionally, used where riparian vegetation most developed; can include multiple terraces
Food aversion learning
avoid taste associated with an illness
Complex navigation
beacon orientation + estimation of relative position
sequence of behaviors to complete a task
behavior flow
Pseudocopulation
behaviors similar to copulation that serve a reproductive function for one or both participants but do not involve actual sexual union between the individuals.
What are birds average temperature?
between 103-104 F
What is the potential risk involved in using systematic sampling?
bias
______ is error introduced in sampling that causes estimates to differ systematically (on average) from the true value of a parameter.
bias
Sun compass
birds and butterflies use -
sex chromosomes for birds/reptiles and mammals
birds/reptiles males hetero genetic and zw chromosomes, xy for mammals
Lower jaw articuloles on quadrate for birds/reptiles and mammals
birds/reptiles yes, mammals no
Scales for birds/reptiles and mammals
birds/reptiles yes, mammals no
Optimal foraging theory
body of theory used to predict animal behavior under assumption that behavior evolves under natural selection to maximize fitness. -Optimality theory does not seek to prove that natural selection shapes behavior, but rather assumes that it does.
Inbreeding
breeding in which the parents share a common ancestor
Why do birds eat chili peppers that mammals avoid? What are the benefits to the plant of birds eating their fruit?
chili plants have high capsaicin to deterre mammals and attract birds for dispersal - chili seeds get less damaged when dispersed by birds - seeds grow better from being dispersed by birds after they were eaten - birds also eat insects that harm the chili plant, so it grows better.
What process underlies the bright birds and parasites model that is absent in other good genes models?
coevolution between host and parasite leads to brighter and brighter and brighter males
aspect
compass direction that a slope faces
What are some physiological responses for keeping warm?
concurrent exchange,shunt, heat conservation, shivering, torpor
Data type is
continuous and discrete
dbh of pinyon pines is?
continuous and ratio
Identify key environmental features by
contrast features common to areas where a species is *present* compared to where it is *absent* Approach used -bio-geography -Habitat Selection
Polygenic
controlled by many genes
Clues from human behavior: The north star has been used in marine navigation. Why? a. It's the brightest star in the sky. b. It's a different color than the rest. c. It lies directly over the north pole. d. Its position doesn't change through the night like other stars
d. its position doesn't change through the night like other stars
In capture-recapture studies, the assumption of population closure has two componets
demographic closure, and geographic closure
___ is the parameter of primary interest in a distance sampling study
density
Mb:
det. probability differs between first and subsequent captures *estimate p, c*
Mh:
det. probability varies among unidentified "groups" of individuals in the population estimate pa, pb, π
Mt:
det. probability varies with sampling occasion *estimate p1, p2, .... , pt*
ΔT
difference between body and ambient temperature (organisms temperature vs environment)
Physiology
differences in hormones, brain structure and gonads
Natural Selection
differential reproduction of individuals that differ ≥ 1 genetic trait
What are some arguments against therapod hypothesis?
digit homology, dino fuzz, temporal paradox
_____ variables can take only certain values within a range
discrete
navigation in desert ant experiment
displacement experiment. transport of light proof flask for ca. 1 km and release. Where does the ant go? result suggests that the desert ant use dead reckoning
Dispersion
distribution of individuals in time and space
States
duration and frequency beginning and end sequence of behavior continuous
What are examples of access to breeding sites?
e.g., female bullfrogs enter territories of calling males, mate and lay eggs;females prefer certain territories and thus certain territory-holders.why?because leech predation on young lower in favored territories -assessment made partly on basis of male's call
Direct benefits:nuptial gifts:defense for female's young examples
e.g., males transfer toxic to female which is incorporated into eggs .•Female blister beetles eat cantharidin secretion offered by male. •Females do not mate with males lacking secretion. •Cantharidin ends up in female's eggs and defends eggs from predators
Genotype x environment
effect on genotype depends on environment
The science of managing natural resources
emphasis on characterizing patterns of assessing trends -strong studies needed to assess effectivness of management actions can and should be viewed as experiments
Sample Variance s^2
estimate of population variance σ²
Piloting
estimation of relative position by using local features in relation to a map. -Plotting can allow an animal to steer around unobserved obstacles and towards unobserved goals.
dead reckoning
estimation of relative position is accomplished by keeping track of turns and distance walked between turns -also called path intergration
Cryptic Coloration
evolved so that they visually resemble their surroundings, using some sort of natural camouflage that may match the color and texture of the surroundings
Change in the environment example:Colonization
ex: Hawaiian honeycreeper -generalists-nectarivores-seed and fruit eaters-forages amounleous-bark pickers. Could be related to common house finch. Idea no other birds in Hawaii had ecological opportunity
Deprivation experiments
experiment in which animal is deprived of particular environment cues for particular periods of time.
Problem 1 with deprivation experiments
experiments frequently deprive animal of more than the factor intended. Example: Acoustic isolation experiments deprive a songbird of more than song and deprive visual and tactile input from other birds.
Probability density function, f(x)
f(x)=probability of detecting an object at distance x For line transects, f(x) looks like g(x), but its scaled so that the area under the curve=1
vandenbergh effect
females housed with males attain puberty sooner than females housed without males. Also females housed with other females attain puberty later than females housed alone
Lee-Boot effect
females houses together tend to synchronize estraus and will have prolonged anestrus if no male pheromones are present
Given the difference in what limits fitness
females should be choosier about who they mate with, and males should compete more for mates than do females
Flehmen Response
flipping the nose up; stallions will do this when they smell estrus mare urine
Focal Sampling
focuses on a SINGLE individual or unit for a particular time period recording all instances of its behavior.
What do diving birds need in terms of diving?
get rid of residual air. Air sacs are also used for song
entropy
gradual decline into disorder
What are examples of direct benefits?
green frogs-males with densely-vegetated territories where eggs laid common terns-males bringing lots of food
Females Coati live in a
group
mono-phyletic
group that includes all descendants of the most common ancestor
R = h^2 S
h^2 = heritability (narrow) S= selection pressure (how strong a selection is)
Broad-sense heritability
h^2=Vg/Vp
________________________ is the term used to describe inherent differences in detection probability among groups of individuals in a population.
heterogeneity
_____________________________ data vary with the characteristic of interest and therefore provide a good basis for stratifying the population.
heterogenous
indirect reciprocity
humans show -reciprocity in which the return for a donor's act comes from someone other than the recipient "ill scratch your back, if others will scratch mine in return" -involves observers of acts of altruism and cooperation and system of image scoring that builds reputations
ultimate nuptial gift
in redback spiders, male somersaults into female's jaw and is eat Research findings: 1 Males that engage in suicide copulate for a longer time (and leave more offspring). 2. Males that do not engage in suicide are unlikely to find another female. . Both factors favor suicidal behavior in male
What factors influence the evolution of male suicide, as it has seen in the Australian redback spider?
in redback spiders, male somersaults into female's jaw and is eaten Research findings: 1 Males that engage in suicide copulate for a longer time (and leave more offspring). 2. Males that do not engage in suicide are unlikely to find another female. . Both factors favor suicidal behavior in male
Direct benefits:nuptial gifts:food for female examples
in roadrunners, males offer lizards or other snacks to females e.g., in hangingflies, males offer females a gift of insect prey. bigger prey may result in longer copulation and more sperm transfered
Example of indirect reciprocity-altruistic punishment
in which we punish those that hurt others even though punishment costs us something. -may protect cooperation agaisnt free riders
Sexual differences: include
include differences in morphology behavior and physiology
chemoreception
includes olfaction and gustation.
What is anisogamy? What is one explanation for its evolution? What implications does anisogamy have for the pattern of mate competition, mate choice and parental care in animals?
involves gametes that differ in size & structure Evolution :Selection should favor: 1. gametes effective at fertilizing other gametes. 2. gametes, once fertilized, better at developing to adulthood. *No one gamete can be good at both.Selection favors gametes that are one or the other* 1. Males make many, many sperm, each of low investment. 2. Females make a small number of eggs, each of high investment Consequence 1. Male fitness will be limited by number of mates. 2. Female fitness will be limited by quality of mate Implications Given the difference in what limits fitness: females should be choosier about who they mate with, and males should compete more for mates than do females Because females invest so much in the gamete, they should invest more in offspring care. Pattern: Females generally do invest more in parental care
Point-centered quarter
k=# points surveyed ( indexed by j) n=# distances measured for each point (indexed by i) rij=radical distance from the jth random point to the ith nearest object If objects distributed randomly, density is ( look at pic)
nth order stream
located downstream of the confluence of two (n-1)th order streams
low heritability = ?
low selection -> low response
Major histocompatibility complex
major histocompatability complex allows individuals to determine relatedness
Direct benefits:accesss to food examples
male Anthidium bees defend patches of flowers, & mate in exchange for access to pollen and nectar. Females mate preferentially with males controlling richer patch
Precopulatroy:contest
males compete for a. direct access to mates b. monopoly over access to resources needed by females resulting in a. selection for strength or larger body size b.selection for weapons Contests are sometimes physical or ritualized display
precopulatory: mate guarding
males guard immature females until they molt and receptive
Polygyny
males have more than 1 mate (2% of birds, 35% mammals) Resource defense-resources are defended Mate defense -mates are defended even if mobile Male dominance-lek breeding species
Polygyny
males have>1 mate -2% of birds, 35% of mammals
Female mimics
males look like females, get close in territory, and mate with guarded females
indirect benefits
males offer only sperm
direct benefits
males offer resource 1.Access to breeding site 2.access to food 3. nuptial gifts
Sneakers
males use size to evict territorials and gain fertilizations
Resource Defense Polygyny
males will defend a territory that holds resources for him and the females that live with him Ex: red-winged black bird
Mate defense Polygyny
males will follow and defend mates - ex: Elk -can lead to some cost in energy and "weapons" (antlers broken in fight)
Metabolic rate is related to
mammal size
weaning conflict
mammalian young try to suckle longer than mother permits them to suckle punishment parents discourage greedy young hurting or threatening them. Example: tousling in coots and moorhens
________ are studies where the investigator alters purposefully the levels of one or more factors called treatments
manipulative experiments
Change in the environment example: covevolution
mass extinction. Top predator after KT extinction were birds. Terror birds=Phorusrhaicids.
Coolidge effect:
mating upon arrival of new mate
You are interested in studying a population of cotton rats in an area that is 2 ha in size and you decide to use capture-recapture methods. You capture and mark 29 individuals on the first survey occasion and 19 on the second occasion, 5 of which you had marked on the first survey occasion. The appropriate estimator is: N hat=(n1+1)(n2+1)/(m2+1) - 1 b. Calculate a 95% confidence interval for abundance with t = 2.0 and var(N)=81.0
n1=29 n2=19 m2=5 ((29+1)(19+1))/(5+1) - 1=99 99 + or - (2) sqt(81)=117,81
What factors favor biparental care? In birds? In some carnivores like wild dogs?
occurs when offspring are highly unlikey to survive without both parents caring Examples Birds-incubation, feeding Carnivores-prevention of infanticide
Limits
of a biotic community determined by climate, especially temperature and precipitation
Polygyny Threshold Model
one sex should be more "choosy" than the other sex - will decide if it wants to be monogamous or polygamous and weighs the pros and cons -Territory quality or quality of breeding season
You are interested in studying a population of cotton rats in an area that is 2 ha in size and you decide to use capture-recapture methods. You capture and mark 29 individuals on the first survey occasion and 19 on the second occasion, 5 of which you had marked on the first survey occasion. d. Estimate detection probability.
p hat = m2/n1 n1=29 n2=19 m2=5 5/29
Fill in the blanks with >, <, or =: -If animals are "trap happy" p ____ c
p<c
trap happy:
p<c
One assumption of line-transect distance sampling is that the probability of detection on the line equals Another is that objects are detected at their initial
p=1, location
no behavioral response to capture:
p=c
trap shy:
p> c
Intensity
pace, energetics
panda principle
panda's have an extra "finger" because they evolved from carnivorous species that used finger to run now it is used to eat bamboo ---natural selection cannot get rid of body parts that are not needed anymore just like that
Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection
phenotypes favored only when rare. ex: left-handed fighting ability
Detection probability
probability of detecting an entity that is present during a survey -detected=observed=seen, heard, captured, etc denoted as beta or p -probability, range from 0-1 C=pN C=count (really expected count, or average count if surveys were repeated many times) p=detection probability N=true abundance
Trophic Cascades
progression of indirect effects caused by predators across successively low trophic levels A link between: -Predator and behavior -Prey behavior -Community and ecosystem level consequences
Information
provide information on status, health or ID -Not to get reaction
IUCN:International Union for Conservation of Nature
provides a Global Context -redlist
Below is a set of encounter histories collected as part of an occupancy study. 01001 00100 00000 11010 00000 10100 10010 01000 d. The parameter 𝜓 can be interpreted in two ways that are equivalent. What are they?
psi-1 or psi(p-1)
____ are extensions of the median that dissect distributions into some number of equal portions
quantiles
______ is the strategy we use to help ensure that every potential set of sample units has the same probability of being selected
randomization
What was the currency of fitness in the optimal diet choice model?
rate of energy gain
Fitness currency
rate of energy gain*
Measurements on the _______ scale have a true zero point
ratio
Measurement is
ratio, interval, nominal, ordinal
Mechanism:
reduced competition leads to increased ecological opportunity. Change in the environment Colonization Mass extinction Pre-adaptation to changing environment Change in intrinsic characteristics Key innovation
inbreeding depression
reduction of fitness due to inbreeding a.) reduced survival (offspring or adult survival) b.) reduced reproduction (sperm/egg or offspring viability)
Datum
reference surface against which measurements are made ex: Sea-level is a datum used to measure height of topographic features -earths surface is not a perfect sphere, so we create spheroids as approximation to reference locations
Marooning to buy time
release small numbers of species with poor dispersal ability in isolated habitat (typically islands) -Islands off New Zealand -Saddleback, Kakapo (flightless parrot), Takahe (rail) -Guam Rail moved to Rota
evolutionary perspective
relies upon a comparative approach to account for social behavior in ALL animal species, including human
What human trait did E.O. Wilson suggest was an evolved adaptation? Why would it be adaptive? (Feel free to speculate).
religious belief-"we evolved genetically to accept one truth and discovered another" - traits are biological adaptation - Social cohesion - grief is a consequence of an adaptive bond.... Ways in which you may cope with death, etc. -proposes the God gene but there is no God gene -religion is due to adaptation
_____ is the name for once complete set of experimental treatments
replicate
Respiratory system
require more oxygen. Exchange CO2 for O2. For birds it is different.
One-origin hypothesis
requires 1 gain but 3 losses=4 total evolutionary events
three-origin hypothesis
requires 3 gains and 0 losses=3 evolutionary events
Can a gene have more than 1 effect? Obsessive grooming in mice example
results from knocking out the SASAP3 gene -SASAP3 gene product strongly expressed in cortical striatum tissue -Lentiviruses carrying SASAP3 restore normal grooming when micro-injected into striatum. SASAP3 knockout affects multiple traits. Knockouts: -are less likely to move into the open. -Take longer to enter a brightly-lit area -SASAP3 gene has pleiotropic effects on behavior.
When we have lower benefit curve, it shifts to the?
right
Barrier effect
road is avoided or otherwise restricts movment due to road width, traffic noise, surface, microclimate, salt or other condition
Group
shared use of space. Little social behavior. Benefits could include food sources, relatives, predator pressures
Star trail map
showing that the north star is the only star that does not move through the night.
Z-value
similar to t-value we used previously but depends only on alpha. Assumes a large n -solve for n in the half-width
Most birds have __ muscles and oscines have ____
simple, complex
___ is the name of a sample unit in an occupancy study
site
Air sacs can change in?
size
Invasibility
some behavioral traits are better at invading new areas -bold, active, aggressive, fast-growing individuals more likely to succeed in new environments -behavioral traits of native individuals determine the degree of impact from invasives
What are some historical factors?
speciation, extinction, continental drift, glaciation,dispersal
Role of future reprodction
species that benefit more by future reproduction should invest less in care of current offspring Factors affecting this tradeoff: -resource availability -lifespan
gain function
specifies how currency of fitness changes over decision variable T0
Velocity
speed of water (meters/sec) •Flow characteristic of primary importance to aquatic organisms •Varies: •Across channel (side to side) •From surface to substrate •Upstream to downstream (gradient) •Measured with a current meter
Postcopulatory: Sperm competition
sperm of second male may displace or incapacitate sperm of the first male -common whenever females mate with more than one male
In Red deer
stags defend grazing areas where hinds visit
zugenruhe
state of restlessness
Optimality
theory does not seek to prove that natural selection shapes behavior, but rather assumes that it does
What disproves the vicariance biography hypothesis?
timing of breakups doesn't match phylogenetic pattern. More recent origin of ostriches in India.
Public Land survey system
used to classify land in much of the Us, especially the west. Lines and markings in margins of USGS maps are red/orange Key elements -township lines -base lines -range lines -principal meridian
Distance sampling
used to estimate density based on counts of objects along transects plus auxiliary data, the oberserved distances between objects and the observer on the transect line -developed for variable-width line transects -*efficient when objects of interest are uncommon; all observations can be used vs plot-based strategies where observation off the plot are ignored*
Viral vector-mediated gene transfer:
virus used to vector V1a gene of prairie vole to meadow voles
Oscine songbirds have a complex___
voicebox
When we can't assume detectability on the line is 1
we need to figure out what we're not seeing. Complete a second survey. Do a separate study to find what g is. Figure out some kind of adjuster: Ex: consider time of day objects are surveyed
Male-Male fighting selects for:
weaponry
Hyoid Apparatus/Bone
what allow woodpeckers to extend their long tongues out so far. The hyoid horns are comprised of bone and cartilage, sheathed in muscle. When the muscle contracts, the tongue is extended and hyoid horns are tight against the skull. When horns are relaxed, tongue is retracted and there is a great deal of slack.
Decision variable
what needs to be changed to get the biggest return
What happens when you do not estimate p1 and p2?
without estimating p1 and p2, we cannot know that if detection probability changed; we can only assume that it has stayed constant (p), which is risky. Solution: Use survey methods that enable us to estimate detection probability
Population mean µ of an estimate
y bar ± t √(N-n/N)s²/n=tx√(varybar=t X sybar where t is the constant with n-1 degrees of freedom
Indirect fitness
your own offspring ("fitness) plus your genes reproduces in relatives.
Thermoneutral zone
zone where birds don't need to invest energy. For example energy used for shivering or cooling
What are three Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)?
• DDT - Insecticides • PCBs - Coolant & lubricant • BPA - Bisphenol A in Plastic bottles
What does the function analysis address?
• Effect behavior on fitness • Role of tradeoffs • Reproduction of genetic relatives
What is the function analysis?
• Focus on the survival value of behavior
What are benefits of instinct?
• Instincts are beneficial when mistakes are not an option • Example: hesitating instinctively at the edge of a cliff or startle response to predatory silhouette of baby birds
What are some benefits for living in groups involving mates?
• Living in groups helps to find a mate • Higher rate of encounter • More choice -Better opportunities for comparison. For example Sage Grouse lek
An analysis of evolution might address?
• Natural selection • Ancestry • Fossil record
Learning
• Repeatable change in behavior with experience
How index of abundance is counted
•Counts of animals seen, heard, trapped, or harvested -Call and spotlight counts, numbers of small mammals captured, numbers of singing birds •Signs of animal presence -Tracks, pellet counts •Counts of structures made by animals -Beaver lodges, squirrel middens, bird nests
Visual Plant Cover
•Often done with quadrats •Systems developed by Daubenmire, Brain‐Blanquet, others •Advantage: quick! •Disadvantage: high potential for bias
Point intercept plant estimator
•Place a number of points in an area and determine the number that "hit" or "intercept" vegetation •Cover (%) = no. hits/no. points x 100 •Points can be established with frames, transects, or steps
How do we gauge precision of those parameter estimates?
•Use the same data to compute standard error of the estimate, which is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution, which reflects: •Variation among sample units •Amount of information we collected, n •Can now create a confidence interval around the estimate
ψ(site covariates)p(site orsurvey covariates)
•allows probability of occupancyto vary with site features, such as elevation or vegetation cover •allows detection probabilityto vary with siteor survey features, such as temperature, week of the year, or observer
Caribou Example N=286;n=15 1,50,21,98,2,36,4,29,7,15,86,10,21,5,4 What is the standard error of the estimated total?
√(var t hat)= √4,748,879=2,179
What is an example of a development question to why do dogs bark?
○ Do dogs learn to bark?
Associative learning
○ Paring of neutral stimulus with nonneutral stimulus, such that a response to neutral stimulus is subsequently elicited ○ Example: dog and bell experiment ○ Allows to predict future events. Such as time and energy, or reduce of predation or parasitism
Habituation
○ Warning of response to a stimulus upon repeated presentation of the stimulus. ○ Example: withdrawal response to sea anemone or hydra to disturbance ○ Kind of non-associative learning, allows animal to read responses to meaningless stimuli
What is an example of a mechanism question to why do dogs bark?
○ What cues cause dogs to bark?
