WOH Final

Italian Renaissance

"rebirth". It was a cultural, artistic, and intellectual movement centered on ideas from Ancient Greece and Rome. It generally spanned from the 14th to 17th centuries. It initially began in Florence, Italy, but spread throughout Europe. The Renaissance embraced Humanist philosophy on humanistic perceptions and analyzed classical texts using reasoning and empirical evidence rather than divine scripture. It was officially opposed by the Catholic Church while individual church leaders patronized and sponsored Renaissance artists for personal/political reasons. The Renaissance was credited with inspiring the Protestant Reformation, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment. It bridged medieval and modern Europe.

William the Conqueror

(1027-1087) William the Conqueror was William I, Duke of Normandy and led the Norman invasion of England. He became the first Norman to be King of England. He defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and introduced many Norman customs into England. He said that King Edward, his cousin, promised him the throne in 1054 to thank him for his help and to solve the succession problems. In the past. Normandy had looked after and helped King Edward and his family.

First Crusade

(1096-1099) in 1096, Knights of the First Crusade arrived in the Holy Land. Technically, they were in service of the Byzantine Empire. In fact, crusaders followed their own interests. Crusaders were short on supplies and lacked clear central leadership. However, Turks proved unable to defeat Christian knights in open battle. In 1099, after a month-long siege Crusaders stormed Jerusalem and subjected it to sack and pillage. An estimated 100,000 civilians were massacred. Afterwards, five "Crusader States" were established in the Holy Land. A feudal system was established and trade flourished, but there was a threat of a Turkish counter-attack.

Genji Monogatari

(1120-1140) is a famous illustrated hand scroll of the Japanese literature classic: The Tale of Genji from the 12th century. The surviving sections represent only a small portion of the original work. It is the earliest text of the work and the earliest surviving work in the Yamato-e tradition of narrative illustrated scrolls, which continues to impact Japanese art. It consisted of two designs: Pictures that were painted on a scroll with text and a number of paintings that accompanied passages that were joined together in a scroll. The first known was produced in the late ninth or tenth century.

Saladin

(1137-1193) Saladin was a Kurdish military leader and statesman. He was a member of Sunni Islam but rose to lead the Shia Fatmid Caliphate of Egypt and proved t be a great leader. In 1182, Saladin unified Egypt and Syria and created the Ayyubid Caliphate. In 1187, he led Muslim resistance against the Second Crusade. He won a decisive military engagement at the Battle of Hattin—one of the most decisive battles for the Muslims—and almost all of the Crusaders were killed. He was also responsible for capturing Jerusalem that had been in the hands of Christians for about 88 years. He was renowned amongst Muslims and Christians as a military leader. He was held to a high degree of personal honor and chivalry. The Second Crusade ended in a disaster for the Christians and the Muslims retook Jerusalem.

Minamoto Yoritomo

(1147-1199) the first shogun of the Kamakura Shogunate of Japan. He ruled from 1192until 1199. He founded the first warrior government (Bakufu) in Kamakura. He instigated the Genpei War which took place from 1180 to 1185. The war was between Minamoto Yoritomo forces and Taira forces—it was a major civil war.

Marco Polo

(1254-1324) Marco Polo is probably the most famous Westerner who travelled on the Silk Road. He excelled all the other travelers in his determination, his writing, and his influence. His journey through Asia lasted 24 years. He reached further than any of his predecessors, beyond Mongolia and all the way to China. He became a confidant of Kublai Khan. Kublai was very hospitable to Marco Polo. One year later, the Great Khan asked Pope Clement IV to send him 100 learned men to teach his people about Christianity and western science. Kublai Khan presented Polo with a golden tablet which acted as a special VIP passport which provided him with everything he needed (horses, lodging, food, and guides) as they journeyed home, finally arriving in April 1269.

Samurai

(12th-16th centuries) Samurai means, "One who serves". They were warriors accepted by Daimyo. They were originally specialists in mounted archery, but would adopt sword and spear techniques and tactics. They were the only individuals authorized to carry two swords (Daisho) and were also empowered to maintain public order. The Samurai were theoretically followers of Bushido (Way of the Warrior) stressing duty, humility, honor, and willingness to sacrifice. They were expected to lay down their life for their master without question. This period has been referred to as Japanese Feudalism. Most, but not all Samurai received a stipend from Daimyo equivalent to one koku (18 liters) of rice. The difference between European Feudalism is that the Samurai is always obligated to serve their master even if their master does not give them wealth. The Samurai still gets the social status. Samurai's only challenged Samurai's that were at the same level as them. Otherwise, it would be insulting. Rarely would Samurai fighting go past the first exchange of a blow. Usually one or both would end up dead.

Petrarch

(1304-1374) a scholar and a poet and specialized in collecting and studying ancient Latin manuscripts. He was most famous for his collection of 366 poems dedicated to the mysterious, "Laura". Petrarch inspired the development of knowledge outside the dictates of the church. Humanist scholars began exploring Greek and Latin writings and began to apply them to contemporary issues, challenging the Church's monopoly on all knowledge. Petrarch was often credited by scholars as the "Father of Humanism". Human became the center of all things, not God.

Ming Dynasty

(1368-1644) the Ming Dynasty replaced the Yuan Dynasty and was the last Dynasty ruled by a native Han. The Dynasty was founded by the peasant-born Buddhist monk Zhu Yuanzhang who lead a successful rebellion against the Yuan Dynasty. He took the title of Jongwu Emperor and named Ming (Brilliant) Dynasty. Ming promoted the private ownership of land and self-sufficiency for peasantry. Rural and urban populations became legally separated and divided. He passed laws that segregated urban and rural populations and prevented the two from intermingling. He favored the farms. The Ming military was expended and modernized while new, ocean-going ships were constructed. These new canons would be used. The capital city was moved to Beijing. The most memorable accomplishment of the Ming Dynasty was their explorations. They wanted to expand the influence of the Chinese beyond the borders of China—using some of the most fabulous ships ever built called, "Treasure Ships".

Humanism

(14th-15th centuries) the late 13th century philosophic movement that sought to separate human identity from religious dogma was known as humanism. Petrarch (1304-1374) was a scholar and a poet and specialized in collecting and studying ancient Latin manuscripts. He was most famous for his collection of 366 poems dedicated to the mysterious, "Laura". Petrarch inspired the development of knowledge outside the dictates of the church. Humanist scholars began exploring Greek and Latin writings and began to apply them to contemporary issues, challenging the Church's monopoly on all knowledge. Petrarch was often credited by scholars as the "Father of Humanism". Human became the center of all things, not God. Humans began to challenge the authority of the church. They started asking questions. Why should the church have a monopoly over everything that is written? Why should the church be the one source of God's wisdom? If God is everywhere, why do we only have to get his ideas from the church? Why is the bible only available in Latin? The only people who could read the bible at this time were the priests and the people in the church.

Oda Nobunaga

(1534-1582) a Samurai who overthrew his lord. He defeated his rivals by equipping Ashigaru with western muskets. On the battlefield, he could now bring 500 or600 with peasant Calvary. He also encouraged manufacture and trade and patronized the tea ceremony and Kabuki Theatre. He subdued over half of Japan before being killed by a traitorous subordinate in 1582. He was the initiator of the unification of Japan under the shogun in the late 16th century. His worked continued and was finalized by his successors, including Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Nobunaga lived a life of continuous military conquest, eventually conquering over a third of Japan before his death in 1582.

Hideyoshi Toyotomi

(1537-1598) peasant-born successor of Nobunaga's. He unified Japan in 1590 but was unable to claim the title of Shogun due to his birth. He defined and enforced social classes. The spread of Christianity was halted and limited to Kyushu. Japan attempted two invasions of Korea in 1591 and 1598 but was defeated by the Korean naval power and the intervention of the Ming Dynasty. Civil conflict resumed in Japan following the death of Hideyoshi in 1598.

Tokugawa Iyeasu

(1598-1600) was a supporter of Nobunaga and an ally to Hideyoshi. He led an alliance of eastern Daimyo for control of Japan. On October 21, 1600, Tokugawa defeated western Daimyo at the Battle of Sekigawa. Japan was unified and the Sengoku period ended. In 1603, Tokugawa assumes the title of Shogun and ruled Japan from his home city of Edo (Tokyo). He removed his last opposition to rule in 1615. In 1635, Iemitsu, the third Tokugawa Shogun and grandson to Tokugawa Iyeasu, severed nearly all contact with the outside world. Foreigners were prohibited from landing on Japanese soil under pain of execution. Except for the Dutch. The Dutch were willing to trade muskets for silk. The Dutch were also Protestant, not Catholic. They were allowed to land there and establish a trading post on a small island in Nagasaki Harbor. All Japanese were forbidden from leaving any of the islands. If they did, they would be put to death immediately. Japan remained isolated (Sakoku) until 1854. Iemitsu became the undisputed master of Japan. Christians were an enemy to him. Missionaries came with Portuguese and Spanish merchants and converted many Japanese to Catholicism. Catholics were a threat to his authority because Catholic Christians recognized the Pope as their supreme authority, not the Shogun. In 1615, Tokugawa abolished Christian worship on almost all Japanese islands.

Justinian

(482-565) he is said to have restored the Roman Empire to ancient limits and to have reunited East and West. In 532 came the Nika Riots, an outburst of political turmoil that went as far as to elect a rival emperor. He constructed a vast line of walls along the eastern and southeastern frontier of the empire. It was as legislator that Justinian gained his fame. He collected and codified all the principal imperial statutes. His writings were all primarily published during the 6th century CE.

Hagia Sophia

(532) Hagia Sophia is a church in Constantinople (now Istanbul), and was first dedicated in 360 by Emperor Constantius, son of the city's founder, Emperor Constantine. Hagia Sophia served as the cathedra, or bishop's seat of the city. The church was rebuilt in 532 after being destroyed twice before, once being during the Nika Revolt in 532. The central dome was often interpreted by contemporaries as the dome of heaven itself. Today, it is a museum with the original mosaics having been restored by the Turkish government.

Wushu

(5th century BCE) is also known as Kung-Fu. It is a general term given to fighting styles developed in China. The earliest examples include Shoubo (Shang Dynasty) and Jiao Di (Qin Dynasty). It also includes weapons training including the use of the sword, bow, spear, and others. The primary emphasis is placed on physical and spiritual development through exercise, meditation, and mastery of stances. There is an estimated 2,500 forms of martial arts practiced in China alone.

Clovis

(5th century CE) the Franks first appeared as a relatively minor Germanic tribe but eventually established a group of small and contentious tribal kingdoms in north and central Gaul. In 486 CE the Merovingian King Clovis completed a conquest of rivals and became ruler of the unified Frankish Kingdom. Clovis was married to a Roman Catholic woman who had him converted. In 496 CE, Clovis converted to Roman Christianity, gaining support of the Catholic Church and the Romanized population. Clovis established the largest of all the Germanic kingdoms, but divided his realm amongst his four sons after his death in 511 CE. The Franks spend the next three centuries mired in civil revolt.

Norsemen

(8th to 11th centuries) "Norse" was the name given to the natives of Scandinavia. They were primarily farmers and fishermen, but were driven by over-population and climate change due to "raiding". They had a primarily rural, village culture. This culture featured gender near-equality, a legislative assembly called a "Thing", and trial by jury. In the 8th century, the Norse overran Northern England and established the "Danelaw" which lasted until the 11th century. Although regarded as "barbarians", many Norse practiced Christianity and established sophisticated social and political systems as well as a far-reaching trade network. From the 9th to 12th centuries, Norse raids decreased as rulers established permanent governments and styles of rule. However, Norse practices such as assemblies and trial by jury took root in "civilized" Europe. Women were allowed to speak in council, own property, and had the right to divorce men on demand.

Song Dynasty

(920 CE to 1279 CE) the Song Dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu who defeated rival rulers and reunified China. He established the capitol at the city of Kaifeng. Emperor Taizu reformed the Civil Examination System by promoting bureaucrats based on merit rather than birth. The number of examinees rose from 30,000 to 400,000. This promoted social mobility and efficiency. The Song became the first civilization to officially adopt paper currency and promote a market-based economy. Improvements in rice production fueled population growth that reached over 100 million by the 11th century. The Song military grew from 300,000 in 960 CE to 1.25 million in 1041 CE but was placed under civilian control. Despite efforts at reform however, military hierarchy remained corrupt and undermined efficiency. This was an attempt by the government to create a centralized system of authority where all ranks were to report to a central authority. The military was open to all people and promotion was based on ability rather than birth. It was very technologically advanced with gun powder based weapons. The Song military was kept under complete control of the civil government. This was a deviation, because traditionally the military was separate. In 1115 CE, Northern China was overrun by Jurchen people who found the Jin Dynasty. The Song Dynasty

Leif Erickson

(970 CE-1020 CE) Leif Erickson was the son of Eric the Red. He conducted several voyages of exploration of the American coast. In 1000 CE, he was credited with establishing the first European settlement in the New World. However, settlement was soon abandoned due to lack of game and harsh weather.

Muhammed

: Muhammad was the prophet of Islam. When he married Khadija, his status was elevated in Meccan society. After about fifteen or twenty years of marriage, Muhammad used to have visions and hear mysterious voices. He sought solitude in a cave on Mount Hira on the outskirts of Mecca. When Muhammad was about forty years old he was visited by an angel telling him he was a messenger of God and to begin proclaiming God's message. He gathered some followers including his cousin Ali Abu Talib. The rich and powerful merchants saw his religious revolution as a threat to business, which was protected by the Meccan pantheon of gods and goddesses. The ruling elite ganged up on him and started to persecute he and his followers. Today, Muhammad is seen as the perfect believer and take his actions and sayings as a model of ideal conduct.

Ali

Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin and son-in-law of Islamic prophet Muhammad ruling over the Islamic caliphate from 656 to 661. Ali was the first make who accepted Islam.

Urban II

An estimated 40,000 joined the First Crusade. This call for Crusade was brought upon in regards to political influence, special stability, and psychological warfare. Other motives included the desire to unify Western Christianity in common cause, establish supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church, and direct the energies of thousands of landless, belligerent warriors (primogeniture). The First Crusade was preceded by the "People's Crusade" that was led by Peter the Hermit. An estimated 40,000 peasants made their way to Asia Minor before being destroyed and enslaved by the Turks.

Han Dynasty

Arose after 60 years of unrest following the collapse of the Qin Dynasty. It was founded by a peasant-born rebel, Liu Band, later known as Emperor Gaozu. He Dynasty experienced unprecedented economic prosperity and growth of money and the economy. Technological advancements included papermaking, steering rudder, seismometer, and the use of negative numbers in mathematics. Dynastic authority extended into southern China, central Asia, and the Korean peninsula. The Dynasty was seen as the "Golden Age" of Chinese History and the origin of "Han" in Chinese culture and identity. The Han Dynasty made the people.

Charlemagne

Charlemagne reigned from 768 to 814 CE. His real name is Charles (aka Charles the Great). He ruled with his brother, Carloman, fairly decently until Carloman died. There was a brief revival of learning during the reign of Charlemagne in the 8th century CE, but is extinguished after the collapse of the Frankish Empire.

Wu Di

Emperor ______ (140-87 BCE) was known as the "Martial Emperor" and was the most successful military commander of the Han Dynasty. Between 133 and 124 BCE, he confronted and defeated Xiongnu (Huns), and expelled them from Western China. Confucianism became the official religion of China during his reign, but Daoism, Buddhism, and ancestor worship continued to be practiced.

Jenghis Khan

Genghis Khan he was born in 1160 CE and was the son of a tribal chieftain killed by Tarter tribe. He had a harsh childhood, for a brief period of it he was held captive. He built allegiances with local tribes. He established a reputation for himself for cruel terror and military prowess. His lessons in cruelty were lessons. He was deliberately cruel but he wasn't sadistic. He understood that ruthlessness is a form of communication. If you joined him, or submitted to his authority, you were left alone. He respected local customs, religions, and practices as long as you acknowledged his overruling authority. He became cruel when you turned your back on him. He took advantage of abilities of his opponents. He would incorporate them into his systems if he liked them. He all but exterminated Tartar and Taichi'ut tribes. He defeated his friend and rival, Jamuka. He ignored traditional tribal and clan loyalties in favor of permanent military organizations. In 1206 CE, Temujin was elected Universal Ruler (Genghis Khan) of all Mongols. In 1223 his expansion reached Persia, Ukraine, and Crimea. Four years later in 1227 CE, he died of natural causes. His son Ogedei was named his successor. Genghis Khan wanted to establish a kingdom that would last past his lifetime.

Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus was a loose federation of East Slavic tribes in Europe from the late 9th to mid-13th century, under the reign of the Rurik dynasty. The modern peoples of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia mostly claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural inheritance. At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, it stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south. Kievan Rus' begins with the rule of Prince Oleg who ruled from 882 to 912 CE. Vladimir the Great (980-1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism, and by decree, that of all the inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. The state began declining in the late-11th century and during the 12th century, disintegrating into various rival powers. It was further weakened by economic factors such as the collapse of Rus' commercial ties to Byzantium due to the decline of Constantinople. The state finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s.

Knights Templar

Knights Templar was a group of knights that were charged with defending the Holy Land and protecting travelling pilgrims. Members gained a fearsome reputation for battlefield ferocity as well as for establishing hospitals and rest centers for pilgrims. Meanwhile, orders (like the Templar), became wealthy and powerful in Europe. Members were expected to turn over all wealth and property to take a vow of poverty. Everything you needed was given to you by the Order. These military orders became fantastically wealthy in a very short time in the Holy Land and throughout Europe. Military orders also established a backing system in the Holy Land. These banks were used by the pilgrims to deposit assets in their home countries and withdraw funds in the Holy Land. In 1305, the Templar order was destroyed by French King Philip IV and Pope Clement V after being charged with many offenses that ranged from heresy to homosexuality, fraud and financial corruption. Many knights were tortured and burned as heretics. They also posed a threat by expressing interest in forming their own state in southeastern France.

Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan was the first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, reigning from 1260 to 1294 and was also the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China. In order to get this position, Kublai Khan had to defeat his brother, Ariq Böke in a succession war that lasted until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity of the empire. Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia. In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty, which ruled over present-day Mongolia, China, and Korea. He then assumed the role of Emperor of China.

Zhang He

Persian-born Muslim admiral of the Ming Dynasty. He was selected by Yongle Emperor to expand South Asia and the Indian Ocean.

Caliphate

a caliphate is an Islamic state led by a supreme religious as well as political leader known as a caliph. The term caliphate is often applied to successions of Muslim empires that have existed in the Middle East and Southwest Asia. The caliphate represents the political unity of the entire community of Muslim faithful ruled by a single caliph. The caliph must rule according to constitutional and religious law as representatives of the people and of Islam.

Neo-Confucianism

is the Song-inspired attempt to create secular religion combining elements of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. It was largely unsuccessful but inspired centuries of Eastern philosophical debate.

Bafuku

is the name of the warrior government that was under the rule of Minamoto Yoritomo. Another term for Bakufu is "Shogunate", a shogun's office or government. It refers the headquarters or administration of a general on a battlefield and implied that such an administration was meant to be temporary. Shogun was a military rank and the historical title of the feudal administrator who served as the Emperor's military deputy and actual ruler of Japan from the twelfth until the nineteenth century.

Heian Japan

lasted between 794 and 1185 CE. The period began after Emperor Kammu moved his court from Nara to Heian-kyo (Kyoto). The period was marked by heavy influence of Taoism and Buddhism from China as well as the Golden Age of Japanese culture and literature. The country was nominally ruled by the Imperial Court, but real power was exercised by the Fujiwara (later Taira) class. The period was also marked by the rise of the Japanese warrior class, or Samurai.

Fourth Crusade

lasted from 1202 to1204. Its original intent was to seize Egypt in preparation to an advance of Jerusalem. However, crusaders were diverted by Venetians to attack the Byzantine Empire. In 1204, Christian crusaders sacked and conquered Constantinople, placing the Byzantine Empire under their control. The pope angrily excommunicated the crusaders, but the city remained under Latin control until 1261. The Byzantines returned by the Empire was left fatally weak and spent the next three centuries weakened. One by one the Crusader states fell to the Muslims. So much effort for so little result.

Battle of Hastings

occurred on October 14, 1066. The Saxon army took up a strong position overlooking the ridge, forcing Normans to attack uphill. Repeated Norman infantry and Calvary attacks failed to penetrate the Saxon shield wall. The army temporarily faltered with a rumor that William had been killed. William ordered archers to fire at the rear of the Saxon army while repeating attacks on the weakened front. King Harold was hit by an arrow in the eye and died. The majority of the Saxon nobility fell beside him. England came under Norman control. William became known as "The Conqueror"

Domesday Book

the Domesday Book was a manuscript that recorded the great survey of much of England and parts of Wales. It was completed in 1086. The survey was done for William I of England (aka William the Conqueror). One of the main purposes of the survey was to determine who held what and what taxes had to be liable under Edward the Confessor. The judgment of the Domesday assessors was final. Whatever the book said about who held the material wealth or what it was worth was the law, and there was no appeal. It was written in Latin.

Islam

the Golden Age of Islam lasted during the 8th and 13th centuries. Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, and Damascus became the centers of education and science. Muslim, Christian, and Jewish scholars preserved, studied, and expanded upon ancient Greek, Latin, and Indian texts. During the 8th century, the Arabs adopted the Chinese paper-making process. The accomplishments of this time include a development of trigonometry, astronomy, and medicine. This time period is also credited with the development of the modern decimal system. Our counting system is directly from the Arabs and the Indians were the first to come up with the number zero. The 10th century CE sees Arab scholars translate and publish the Persian Book of Thousand and One Nights. This century also introduced philosophical and sci-fi genres. Islamic architecture accomplishments included grand mosques at Samara and Cordoba as well as the Alhambra fortress at Granada. The end of the Islamic Golden Age is ended by Turkish and Crusader invasions, but influenced the revival of learning in Europe and Asia. The Golden Age was influenced by the Hellenistic Period and would eventually inspire the renaissance.

Golden Horde

the Golden Horde is one of the better known of the Mongol empires. This empire was a product of the division of power that followed the death of Genghis Khan in 1227. The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkified khanate established in the 13th century which comprised the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire.

Imperial Examination System

the ________ System began formally by Sui in 605 CE, but was no fully established until during the Tang Dynasty. It was intended as a means of selecting talented government officials. Theoretically, it was open to all Chinese regardless of wealth or position. Exams were held at local, provincial, national, and imperial levels. The last exam would be conducted in the presence of the Emperor himself. Candidates were tested on military skills, math, literacy, and Confucian philosophy. This program would continue until 1905.

Three Kingdoms

the __________ Period lasted from 184 to 280 CE. It involved a period of civil war following the collapse of the Han Dynasty. This period featured a struggle between Cao Cao (Wei), Liu Bei (Shu), and Sub Quan (Wu). In 208, Liu and Sun briefly allied to defeat the larger Cao army at the Battle of Red Cliffs. This was the largest naval battle in Chinese history. In 263, Wei overran the Shu kingdom, but was then conquered by former subordinate Sima Yi, the founder of the Jin Dynasty. The year 280 saw the period end with Wu's submission to Jin authority. This was an extremely bloody period in Chinese history, but was later romanticized in literature and opera.

Investiture

the act by which a sovereign, in the Middle Ages, granted titles, possessions, and temporal rights to bishops, abbots, another spiritual leaders. The ritual of investiture consisted in the delivery of the spiritual emblems, ring and crosier, and sometimes the keys of the church. The privilege of secular princes and lords date from the time of Charlemagne. Pope Gregory VII, upon becoming Pope, enacted stringent measures against investiture, even excommunicating those who continued it.

Golden Age of Islam

the first Muslim Civil War occurred between 656 and 661. It was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate. It arose as a result of the previous Caliph Uthman. It began as a series of revolts against Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth of the Sunni Rightly Guided Caliphs. It was caused by the controversial assassination of his predecessor, Uthman Ibn Affan. It lasted for the entirety of Ali's reign, and its end is marked by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate and the subsequent recorded peace treaty between him and Hassan ibn Ali.

Ashigaru

the first professionally-trained peasant infantry. They were employed by the samurai class of feudal Japan

Byzantine Empire

the origins of the great civilization can be traced to 330 AD. When the Roman emperor Constantine I dedicated a "new Rome" on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium. Though the western half of the Roman Empire crumbled and fell in 476, the eastern half survived for 1,000 more years, spawning a rich tradition of art, literature, and learning and serving as a military buffer between the states of Europe and the threat of invasion from Asia. The Byzantine Empire finally fell in 1453, after an Ottoman stormed Constantinople during the reign of Constantine XI.

Feudal System

the social system that developed in Europe in the 8th century. It was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe. It was a system for structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service of labor. It was by no means a formal political system in Europe, rather it was a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility revolving around the three concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs.

Yongle Emperor

the third emperor of the Ling Dynasty in China and reigned from 1402 to 1424. He moved the capital to Beijing, reopened the Grand Canal, and between 1406 and1420, he directed the construction of the Forbidden City. He was also responsible for the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing. Yongle also greatly expanded the Imperial Examination System. He died while personally campaigning against the Mongols.

Battle of Hattin

took pace in 1187 during the Second Crusade. The Battle was won by Saladin, a Kurdish military leader and statesman. This battle was one of the most decisive battles for the Muslims—almost all of the Crusaders were killed. Guy of Lusignan was the commander of the Crusaders. He decided to go against orders to continue to search for water and rather elected to halt the advance for the night. He and the Crusaders were surrounded by the enemy. The next morning, Guy's army awoke to blinding smoke. This fire came from fires set by Saladin's men to screen their actions and increase the Crusader's misery. His men were weak and thirsty, but Guy broke camp and ordered an advance towards the springs of Hattin. The Crusaders had more men but they were thirsty, weak, and fatigued so numbers didn't do much good. The majority of Guys force was destroyed once they were forced into the Horns of Hattin. Without infantry support, Guy's knights were trapped and unhorsed by Muslim archers and were forced to fight on foot. After three charges against the Muslim lines failed, the survivors were forced to surrender. This battle is significant because it resuled in the destruction of the majority of the Crusader army. The defeat at Hattin and the loss of Jerusalem led to the Third Crusade.

Great Schism

took place from 1378 to 1415 during which there were two papacies in the Roman Catholic Church, one in Rome, Italy and one in Avignon, France. In 1305, the French-born Pope Clement V moved the Papacy from Rome to Avignon, France. The Catholic Church ruled from France. In 1378, the Italian-born Pop Urban VI moved the Papacy to Rome, but French Cardinals remained in Avignon and elected their own Pope. The Catholic Church split into French and Italian branches until reconciliation in 1415.

Treasure Ships

were roughly 416 feet in length with a displacement of 10,000 tons. They were the largest wooden ships ever built. Their design included watertight compartments, a center rudder, and nine telescopic masts. Expeditions numbered a fleet of 250 ships (including 62 treasure ships) and 30,000 sailors, soldiers, diplomats, and merchants. Seven voyages reached into Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the East African coast. In 1435, the new Emperor Zhengtong recalled and destroyed the exploration fleet and began a new policy of self-isolation from the outside world. China remained closed until 1841.