World history chpt 5 6 7 8

The Monks and Their Missions

A monk was one who sought to live a life cut off from ordinary human society in order to pursue an ideal of total dedication to God. The practice of living the life of a monk is known as monasticism. At first, Christian monasticism was based on the model of the solitary hermit who gives up all civilized society to pursue a spiritual life. These early monks, however, soon found it difficult to live alone. Their feats of holiness attracted followers on a wide scale. As the monastic ideal spread, a new form of monasticism based upon living together in a community became the chief form. The monastic community came to be seen as the ideal Christian society that could provide a moral example to the rest of society. Benedict, who founded a monastic house for which he wrote a set of rules, established the basic form of monastic life in the western Christian church. The Benedictine rule came to be used by other monastic groups and was crucial to the growth of monasticism in the western Christian world. Benedict's rule divided each day into a series of activities with primary emphasis upon prayer and manual labor. Physical work was required of all monks for several hours a day because idleness was "the enemy of the soul." At the heart of community practice was prayer, the proper "Work of God." This included private meditation and reading, and all monks gathered together seven times a day for prayer and chanting of psalms. Life in the monastery was a communal one. Monks ate, worked, slept, and worshiped together. Each Benedictine monastery was strictly ruled by an abbot, or "father" of the monastery, who had complete authority over it. Unquestioning obedience to the will of the abbot was expected of each monk. Each Benedictine monastery held lands that enabled it to be a self-sustaining community. Within the monastery, however, monks were to fulfill a vow of poverty. Monasticism was an important force in the new European civilization. Monks became the new heroes of Christian civilization, and their dedication to God became the highest ideal of Christian life. They were the social workers of their communities: Monks provided schools for the young, hospitality for travelers, and hospitals for the sick. Monasteries also became centers of learning. Monks passed on the legacy of the ancient world to European civilization. By the ninth century, the work required of Benedictine monks was the copying of manuscripts. Many monasteries contained a scriptorium, or writing room, where monks copied not only the works of early Christianity, such as the Bible, but also the works of Latin classical authors. Monks also developed new ways of producing books. Their texts were written on pages made of parchment or sheepskin rather than papyrus. They were then bound in covers decorated with jewels and precious metals. The use of parchment made books very expensive. The making of manuscripts was a crucial factor in the preservation of the ancient legacy. Virtually 90 percent of the ancient Roman works that we have today exist because they were copied by monks. The monks were also important in spreading Christianity to the entire European world. English and Irish monks were particularly enthusiastic missionaries who undertook the conversion of non-Christian peoples, especially in German lands. Women, too, played an important role in the monastic missionary movement. Like monks, women, called nuns, also began to withdraw from the world to dedicate themselves to God. Nuns lived in convents headed by abbesses. Many of the abbesses belonged to royal houses, especially in Anglo-Saxon England. For example, in the kingdom of Northumbria, Abbess Hilda founded the monastery of Whitby in a.d. 657. Nuns of the seventh and eighth centuries were especially active in the spread of Christianity. Nuns in England provided books and money for missionary activities. Groups of nuns established convents in newly converted German lands. A nun named Leoba established the first convent in Germany.

The second Triumvirate

A new struggle for power followed the death of Caesar. Three men—Octavian, Caesar's heir and grandnephew; Antony, Caesar's ally and assistant; and Lepidus, who had been commander of Caesar's cavalry—joined forces to form the Second Triumvirate. Within a few years after Caesar's death, however, only two men divided the Roman world between them. Octavian took the west; Antony, the east. The empire of the Romans, large as it was, was still too small for two masters. Octavian and Antony soon came into conflict. Antony allied himself with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, with whom, like Caesar before him, he fell deeply in love. At the Battle of Actium in Greece in 31 b.c., Octavian's forces smashed the army and the navy of Antony and Cleopatra. Both fled to Egypt, where they committed suicide a year later. Octavian, at the age of 32, stood supreme over the Roman world. The civil wars had ended. So had the republic. The period beginning in 31 b.c. and lasting until a.d. 14 witnessed the foundations of the Roman Empire.

Confucianism

A | A | A Texas Standards | Vocabulary | Reading Strategies LESSON 1 Schools of Thought in Ancient China ESSENTIAL QUESTION How can differing philosophies influence a culture? Between 500 b.c. and 200 b.c., toward the end of the Zhou dynasty, three major schools of thought about the nature of human beings and the universe emerged in China—Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Although Hindus and Buddhists focused on freeing the human soul from the cycle of rebirth, Chinese philosophers were more concerned about the material world and creating a stable society. Confucianism How do we restore order to this society? Confucius was known to the Chinese as the First Teacher. Confucius is the Westernized form of Kongfuzi (KUNG • FOO • DZUH), meaning "Master Kung," as he was called by his followers. Confucius was born in 551 b.c. He hoped to get a job as a political adviser, but he had little success in finding a patron. Upset by the violence and moral decay of his era, Confucius traveled around China in an attempt to spread his ideas and persuade political leaders to follow them. Few listened at the time, but a faithful band of followers revered him as a great teacher, recorded his sayings in the Analects, and spread his message widely. Until the twentieth century, almost every Chinese pupil studied his sayings, making the development of Confucianism, or the system of Confucian ideas, a widespread and influential force in Chinese culture. The historical origins of Confucianism grew out of a chaotic period in China. Warfare and mass executions of men, women, and children were common. China was faced with restoring order. Confucius provided a set of ideas that eventually became widely accepted. veryone should be governed by the Five Constant Relationships: parent and child, husband and wife, older sibling and younger sibling, older friend and younger friend, and ruler and subject. Each person had a duty to the other. Parents should be loving, and children should revere their parents. Husbands should fulfill their duties, and wives should be obedient. The elder sibling should be kind, and the younger sibling respectful. The older friend should be considerate, and the younger friend deferential. Rulers should be benevolent, and subjects loyal. Showing the importance of family, Confucius said: "The duty of children to their parents is the fountains, whence all other virtues spring." The second key element in the Confucian view of the Dao is humanity—compassion and empathy for others. Confucius said, "What you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others." Confucius urged people to "measure the feelings of others by one's own," for "within the four seas all men are brothers." After his death in 479 b.c., his message spread widely throughout China.

Vedas

A | A | A Vocabulary | Reading Strategies LESSON 3 The Mauryas and the Guptas ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS How was early Indian culture influenced by religion and social structure? How did ideas and events during the Mauryan and Gupta Empires affect India's development? Literature The Vedas are India's oldest surviving literature. Their earliest material consists of hymns, songs praising divinities and stories. The Vedas were carefully transmitted orally by highly trained specialists over the centuries and were only written down in modern times. The Mahabharata (muh • HAH • BAH • ruh • tuh), one of India's two great epics, was compiled over many centuries from the fifth or sixth Century b.c. India's other great epic, the Ramayana (rah • MAH • yuh • nuh), dates from at least the fourth century b.c. Both epics are attributed to individual authors, but were edited and re-edited over the centuries. Celebrating heroic, world-saving deeds, these epics preserve information about early Indian culture. The Mahabharata, consisting of about 90,000 two-line stanzas, is the longest poem in any written language. Taking place around 1000 b.c., it describes a war between cousins for control of the kingdom. The poem also includes riddles about the meaning of life. The most famous section of the book, called the Bhagavad Gita ( bah • guh • vad GEE • tuh), is a sermon by the god Krishna on the eve of a major battle. In this sermon, he sets forth one of the key points of Indian society: In taking action, one must not worry about success or failure. One should be aware only of the moral rightness of the act itself. The Ramayana, written at about the same time, is much shorter than the Mahabharata. It is an account of the fictional ruler Rama. As a result of a palace plot, Rama is banished from the kingdom and forced to live in the forest. Later, he fights the demon-king of Ceylon, who had kidnapped his beloved wife Sita. Like the Mahabharata and most works of the ancient world, the Ramayana is strongly imbued with religious and moral lessons that transcend the culture in which they were created. Rama is seen as the ideal hero and son, and a perfect ruler. Sita projects the supreme duty of wifely loyalty to her husband. To this day, both works continue to inspire the people of India. One of ancient India's most famous authors from the Gupta era was Kālidāsa. His poem, The Cloud Messenger, remains one of the most popular Sanskrit poems. In the poem, an exiled male earth spirit shares his grief and longing for his wife.

Chandragupta Mauyra

According to Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the Mauryan court, Candragupta Maurya was afraid of assassination despite having a large army and a secret police. All food was tasted in his presence, and he made a practice of never sleeping two nights in a row in the same bed

Life in the han empire

Although the Han period was prosperous, free peasants began to suffer. Land taxes on land-owning farmers were fairly light, but there were other demands on them, including military service and forced labor of up to one month per year. Then, too, as the population tripled, the average size of the individual farm plot was reduced to about one acre (0.4 ha) per person— barely enough for survival. As time went on, many poor peasants were forced to sell their land and to become tenant farmers, paying up to half of the annual harvest in rent. Once again, aristocrats owned thousands of acres. These powerful nobles could bully free farmers into becoming tenant farmers. The Han did, however, increase the importance of the family in the Chinese system of life. The First Qin Emperor had tried to weaken the family, seeing family loyalty as a threat to a strong monarch. But the efforts of the Qin to weaken the family system ran into heavy opposition, and the Han, reinforced by the ideas of Confucianism, renewed the emphasis on the family. Under the Han, the family system began to take on the character that it would have until the twentieth century. The family was not only the basic economic unit, it was also the basic social unit for education and training in morals.

literature (rome)

Although there were many talented writers, the high point of Latin literature was reached in the Age of Augustus. Indeed, the Augustan Age has been called the golden age of Latin literature. The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Age was Virgil, who wrote his masterpiece, the Aeneid (ih • NEE • uhd), in Rome's honor. In the poem, the character of Aeneas is portrayed as the ideal Roman whose virtues are duty, piety, and faithfulness. Aeneas fulfilled his purpose by establishing the Romans in Italy and initiating their mission to rule the world. The poem was also meant to express that Rome's gift was the art of ruling. Although heavily influenced by Greek literature, Virgil's Aeneid reflected Roman historical values and traditions. Another prominent Augustan poet was Horace, a friend of Virgil's. A sophisticated writer, he pointed out some of the follies and vices of his age. In the Satires, Horace directs attacks against dissatisfaction and greed: "How does it happen, Maecenas, that no-one lives content with the lot that either choice has granted him or that chance has thrown in his way. . . ." The most famous Latin prose work of the golden age was written by the historian Livy, whose masterpiece was The Early History of Rome. In 142 books, of which only 35 survive, Livy traced Roman history to 9 b.c. Livy saw history in terms of moral lessons. His stories transcend Roman culture, revealing the character of its chief figures and demonstrating the virtues that had made Rome great.

Science, tech, maths (india)

Ancient Indians possessed an impressive amount of scientific knowledge, particularly in astronomy. Āryabhata, the most famous mathematician of the Gupta Empire, concluded that Earth revolves around the sun. Indians had also charted the stars and worked out that Earth was a sphere that rotated on its axis. Their most important contribution was in the field of mathematics, including working with algebra. Āryabhata, was one of the first scientists known to have used algebra. Indian mathematicians also introduced the concept of zero and used a symbol (0) for it. Arab scholars would spread Indian ideas in science and mathematics throughout Southwest Asia, Europe, and beyond.Technology in India saw some major developments. Metalworking, in particular, was highly developed. For example, the iron pillar of Qutub Minar in Delhi dates from the 300s a.d. The special method used to make the iron made it highly resistant to rust. Indian steel called "wootz" was adopted by Arab merchants and used in making strong "Damascus swords" in Southwest Asia. After Arabs conquered parts of India in the eighth century a.d., Arab scholars adopted the Indian system. In turn, European traders borrowed it from the Arabs, and it spread through Europe in the 1200s. Today it is called the Indian Arabic numerical system.

Charlemagne as Roman Emperor

As Charlemagne's power grew, so too did his prestige as the most powerful Christian ruler. One monk even described Charlemagne's empire as the "kingdom of Europe." In a.d. 800, Charlemagne acquired a new title—emperor of the Romans. Charlemagne's coronation as Roman emperor—over 300 years after the Western Roman Empire's collapse—showed the strength of the idea of an enduring Roman Empire. The coronation also symbolized the joining of Roman, Christian, and Germanic elements. A Germanic king had been crowned emperor of the Romans by the pope, the spiritual leader of Western Christendom. Christianity was triumphant in Europe. The Germanic peoples had settled new kingdoms in Europe, all of which adopted the faith of Christianity. This faith would serve as a unifying political factor as it gave kingdoms across the continent common religious rituals, traditions, and standards for behavior. Christianity blended the cultures of the Germanic peoples and ancient Rome into the culture of medieval Europe. This common faith would help the nations of medieval Europe bridge the divides of language, culture, and distance. Here at the beginning of a new era was Charlemagne. He had created an empire that stretched from the North Sea in the north to Italy in the south and from France in western Europe to Vienna in central Europe. By focusing on Europe rather than the Mediterranean world, Charlemagne's empire differed significantly from the empire of Rome. A new civilization had emerged. As one author has argued, Charlemagne could be seen as the "father of Europe."

India

As we have seen, life in ancient India centered on the family, the most basic unit in society. At the same time, the social structure of India came to reflect Aryan ideas of the ideal society. A set of social institutions and divisions emerged that has lasted in India, with some changes, down to the present day.

Roman growth

At the beginning of the republic, Rome was surrounded by enemies. For the next 200 years, the city was engaged in almost continuous warfare. In 338 b.c., Rome crushed the Latin states in Latium. During the next 50 years, the Romans waged a fierce struggle against people from the central Apennines, some of whom had settled south of Rome. Rome was again victorious. The conquest gave the Romans control over a large part of the Italian Peninsula. It also brought them into direct contact with the Greek communities of southern Italy. Soon, the Romans were at war with these Greek cities. By 264 b.c., they had overcome the Greeks and completed their conquest of southern Italy. After defeating the remaining Etruscan states to the north over the next three years, Rome had conquered virtually all of Italy. To rule Italy, the Romans devised the Roman Confederation. Under this system, Rome allowed some peoples—especially Latins—to have full Roman citizenship. Most of the remaining communities were made allies. They remained free to run their own local affairs but were required to provide soldiers for Rome. The Romans made it clear that loyal allies could improve their status and become Roman citizens. The Romans made the conquered peoples feel they had a real stake in Rome's success. After their conquest of Italy, the Romans found themselves face to face with a strong power in the Mediterranean—the state of Carthage. The Phoenicians had founded Carthage around 800 b.c. on the coast of North Africa. By the third century b.c., Carthage had an enormous trading empire in the western Mediterranean, including the coast of northern Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, and western Sicily. With its control of western Mediterranean trade, Carthage was the largest and richest state in the area. The presence of Carthaginians in Sicily, an island close to the Italian coast, made the Romans fearful. In 264 b.c. the two powers began a lengthy struggle for control of the western Mediterranean.

Living Conditions in Rome

At the center of the colossal Roman Empire was Rome. Truly a capital city, Rome had the largest population of any city in the empire—close to 1 million by the time of Augustus. People from all over the empire resided there. For anyone with ambitions, Rome was the place to be. Rome boasted public buildings unequaled anywhere in the empire. Its temples, markets, baths, theaters, governmental buildings, and amphitheaters gave parts of the city an appearance of grandeur and magnificence. On the other hand, Rome was an overcrowded and noisy city. Because of the congestion, cart and wagon traffic was banned from the streets during the day. However, the noise from the traffic at night often made sleep difficult. Walking in Rome at night was also dangerous. Although Augustus had organized a police force, people were assaulted or robbed. They could also be soaked by filth thrown out of the upper-story windows of Rome's massive apartment buildings. A large gulf existed between rich and poor. The rich had comfortable villas, while the poor lived in apartment blocks called insulae, which might be six stories high. Constructed of concrete walls with wooden-beam floors, these buildings were usually poorly built and often collapsed. Fire was a constant threat in the insulae where stoves, torches, candles, and lamps were used for heat and light. Once they started, fires were extremely difficult to put out. The famous fire of a.d. 64, which Nero was falsely accused of starting, destroyed a large part of the city. Although it was the center of a great empire, Rome had serious problems. Beginning with Augustus, the emperors provided food for the city's poor. About 200,000 people received free grain, much of it imported from Egypt. Even so, conditions remained grim for the poor. Large-scale entertainment was provided for the inhabitants of Rome. The poet Juvenal said of the Roman masses, "But nowadays, with no vote . . . , their motto is 'couldn't care less.' Time was when their [vote] elected generals, heads of state, commanders of legions: but now . . . there's only two things that concern them: bread and circuses." Public spectacles were provided by the emperor as part of the great religious festivals celebrated by the state. The festivals included three major types of entertainment. At the Circus Maximus, horse and chariot races attracted hundreds of thousands. Dramatic performances were held in theaters. The most famous of all the public spectacles, however, were the gladiatorial shows.

Reforms by Diocletian and Constantine

At the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth centuries, the Roman Empire gained a new lease on life through the efforts of two emperors, Diocletian and Constantine. These emperors' reforms caused the empire to develop into a new state: the Late Roman Empire, which included a new governmental structure, a rigid economic and social system, and a new state religion—Christianity. Believing that the empire had grown too large for a single ruler, Diocletian, who ruled from a.d. 284 to a.d. 305, divided it into two parts, east and west. Each part was then also halved and ruled by individual rulers. This new system was called the tetrarchy (rule by four). Despite the appearance of four-man rule, Diocletian's military power enabled him to hold ultimate authority. Constantine, who ruled from a.d. 306 to a.d. 337, continued and even expanded the policies of Diocletian, in hopes of slowing the effects of Rome's decline. Constantine's biggest project was the construction of a new capital city in the east, on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium on the shores of the Bosporus. The city, eventually renamed Constantinople (now İstanbul, Turkey), was developed for defensive reasons. Its strategic location provided protection of the eastern frontier. Constantinople, the "New Rome," became the center of the Eastern Roman Empire and one of the great cities of the world. Constantine enriched the city with a forum, large palaces, and a vast amphitheater. Diocletian's and Constantine's political and military reforms enlarged two institutions—the civil service and the army. A hierarchy of officials exercised control at the various levels of government. The army was enlarged to 500,000 men, including German units. Mobile units could be quickly moved to support frontier troops where the borders were threatened. The expansion of the bureaucracy and the army created a demand for more revenues. The population was not growing, however, so the tax base could not pay for them. Roman money, or currency, began to lose value. Both rulers devised new economic and social policies to deal with these financial burdens. Like their political policies, the new economic and social policies were all based on coercion and loss of individual freedom. To fight inflation, Diocletian issued a price edict in a.d. 301 that set wage and price controls for the empire. Despite severe penalties, it failed to work. To ensure the tax base and to keep the empire going despite the labor shortage, the emperors issued edicts forcing workers to remain in their vocations. Hence, jobs, such as bakers and shippers, became hereditary. The fortunes of free farmers also declined. Soon they found themselves bound to the land by landowners, who took advantage of depressed conditions to enlarge their estates. In general, the economic and social policies of Diocletian and Constantine were based on control and coercion. Although temporarily successful, such policies in the long run stifled the very vitality the Late Empire needed to revive its sagging fortunes.

Octavian/Augustus

Augustus maintained a standing army of 28 legions, or about 151,000 men. A legion was a military unit of about 5,000 troops. Only Roman citizens could be legionnaires—members of a legion. Noncitizens, or subject peoples, could serve as auxiliary forces, which numbered around 130,000 under Augustus. Augustus also set up a praetorian guard of roughly 9,000 men who had the important task of guarding the emperor. While claiming to have restored the republic, Augustus began a new system for governing the provinces. Under the Roman Republic, the Senate had appointed the governors of the provinces. During the empire, certain provinces were given to the emperor, who assigned deputies known as legates to govern them. The Senate still chose the governors of the remaining provinces. However, the power of Augustus enabled him to overrule the senatorial governors and establish unity in imperial policy. Augustus also stabilized the frontiers of the Roman Empire. He conquered the central and maritime Alps and then expanded Roman control of the Balkan peninsula up to the Danube River. His attempt to conquer Germany failed, however, when three Roman legions led by the Roman general Varus were massacred by a group of Germanic warriors. These defeats in Germany taught Augustus that Rome's power was not unlimited. This knowledge devastated him. According to legend, for months he would beat his head on a door, shouting, "Varus, give me back my legions!" Augustus was very concerned about the social health of the Roman state. He believed that the civil wars of the first century had weakened the strength of public religion, which he considered a pillar of a strong state. Thus, he rebuilt many ruined temples and built new ones to honor the Roman gods. Augustus also encouraged the development of a new religious cult dedicated to the emperor. Upon his death, Augustus was declared a god by the Senate. The Augustan Age was a lengthy one. Augustus died in a.d. 14 after dominating the Roman world for 45 years. He had created a new order while maintaining traditional values, perhaps fitting for a leader whose favorite phrase was "Make haste slowly." By the time of his death, the Republic was only a memory. Rome would now be ruled by emperors.

Emperors of the Early Empire

Augustus's new political system allowed the emperor to select his successor from his natural or adopted family. The first four emperors after Augustus came from his family. They were Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. During their reigns, these emperors took over more and more of the responsibilities that Augustus had given to the Senate. As the emperors grew more powerful, many became more corrupt. Nero, for example, had people killed if he wanted them out of the way, including his own mother. Without troops, the senators were unable to oppose his excesses, but the Roman legions finally revolted against him. Nero, abandoned by his guards, committed suicide after allegedly uttering these final words: "What an artist the world is losing in me." After Nero's death, a civil war broke out in a.d. 69. It soon became obvious that the Roman Empire had a major flaw. Without a system for selecting a new emperor, emperors could be made and deposed by the Roman legions. At the beginning of the second century, a series of five so-called good emperors came to power. They were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. These emperors continued a period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana—the Roman Peace. The Pax Romana lasted for almost 200 years. The rulers during this period treated the ruling classes with respect, ended arbitrary executions, maintained peace in the empire, and supported domestic policies generally helpful to the empire. Although they were absolute rulers, they were known for their tolerance. By adopting capable men as their sons and successors, the first four "good emperors" reduced the chances of succession problems. Under the emperors of the Pax Romana, the powers of the emperor continued to expand at the expense of the Senate's powers. Officials appointed and directed by the emperor took over the running of the government. These emperors also created new social programs. Trajan, for example, provided state funds to assist poor parents in the raising and educating of their children. The "good emperors" were widely praised for their building programs. Trajan and Hadrian were especially active in building public works—aqueducts, bridges, roads, and harbor facilities— throughout the provinces and in Rome.

Aśoka Maurya

Aśoka, the grandson of Candragupta Maurya, is considered by many to be the greatest ruler in the history of India. After his conversion to Buddhism, Aśoka used Buddhist ideals to guide his rule and to shape Indian civilization. Aśoka's religious beliefs led him to set up hospitals for the welfare of both people and animals. Aśoka sponsored Buddhist missionaries who spread Buddhist traditions and ideas throughout India and eventually to China.

The Macedonian Emperors (Byzantine Empire)

By a.d. 750, the Byzantine Empire consisted only of Asia Minor, some lands in the Balkans, and the coastal areas of Italy. Byzantium recovered and not only endured; it even expanded due to the efforts of a new dynasty of Byzantine emperors known as the Macedonians. This line of emperors, who ruled from a.d. 867 to a.d. 1081, managed to beat off its external enemies and to go on the offensive. The empire was expanded to include Bulgaria in the Balkans, the islands of Crete and Cyprus, and Syria. By a.d. 1025, the Byzantine Empire was the largest it had been since the seventh century. The Macedonian emperors also fostered a burst of economic prosperity by expanding trade relations with western Europe, especially by selling silks and metalworks. Thanks to this prosperity, the city of Constantinople flourished. Foreign visitors continued to be astounded by its size, wealth, and physical surroundings. To them, it was the stuff of legends and fables. The Macedonian dynasty of the tenth and eleventh centuries had restored much of the power of the Byzantine Empire. However, its incompetent successors soon undid most of the gains. Power struggles between ambitious military leaders and aristocratic families led to political and social disorder in the late eleventh century.

Organization of the Early Church

By the fourth century, the Christian Church had developed a system of government. Priests led local Christian communities called parishes. These priests also met the social needs of their parishes, as the church often was the center of village social life. A group of parishes formed a bishopric, or diocese, headed by a bishop. These bishoprics were joined together under the direction of an archbishop. The bishops of four great cities—Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch—held positions of special power in church affairs. The churches in these cities all believed that they had been founded by the original apostles sent out by Jesus. Soon, however, one of them—the bishop of Rome—claimed even more that he was the leader of the western Christian church. According to church tradition, Jesus had given the keys to the kingdom of heaven to Peter, who was considered the chief apostle and the first bishop of Rome. Later bishops of Rome were viewed as Peter's successors. They came to be known as popes (from the Latin word papa, meaning "father") of the Catholic Church, as it is now called. Western Christians came to accept the pope as head of the church in the fourth and fifth centuries, but people did not agree on how much power the pope should have. In the sixth century, a strong pope, Gregory I, known as Gregory the Great, strengthened the power of the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church. This characteristic of Roman Catholicism would have important consequences in its relationship with the Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire. As pope, Gregory I, who reigned from a.d. 590 to a.d. 604, took control of Rome and its surrounding territories (later called the Papal States), thus giving the papacy a source of political power. Gregory also extended papal authority over the Christian church in the west. He was especially active in converting the non-Christian peoples of Germanic Europe to Christianity. His chief instrument was the monastic movement.

Senate (rome)

By the second century b.c., the Senate had become the real governing body of the Roman state. Members of the Senate were drawn mostly from the landed aristocracy. They remained senators for life and held the chief offices of the republic. The Senate directed the wars of the third and second centuries b.c. and took control of both foreign and domestic policy, including financial affairs. The Senate and political offices were increasingly controlled by a small circle of wealthy and powerful families. Of course, these aristocrats formed only a tiny minority of the Roman people. The backbone of the Roman state and army had always been the small farmers. Over a period of time, however, many farmers of small amounts of land were unable to compete with large wealthy landowners and lost their lands. By taking over state-owned land and by buying out small peasant farmers, these landed aristocrats had developed large estates that used slave labor. Thus, the rise of large estates led to a decline in the number of small citizen farmers. As a result, many of these small farmers drifted to the cities, especially Rome, forming a large class of landless poor. Some aristocrats tried to remedy this growing economic and social crisis. Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (GRA • kuhs), came to believe that the basic cause of Rome's problems was the decline of the small farmer. To help the landless poor, they had the council of the plebs pass land-reform bills that called for the government to take back public land held by large landowners and to give it to landless Romans. Many senators, themselves large landowners whose estates included large areas of public land, were furious. A group of senators took the law into their own hands and killed Tiberius in 133 b.c. His brother Gaius later suffered the same fate. The attempts of the Gracchus brothers to bring reforms had opened the door to more instability and more violence. Changes in the Roman army soon brought even worse problems.

Principles of Hinduism

By the sixth century B.C., reincarnation or "rebirth", another widespread and important Hindu notion had appeared. It is the belief that the soul/self is reborn after death. Depending on the dedication and effort of the self, after some number of rebirths it will achieve its final goal of union with Brahman. Central to the rebirth process is karma, action-and-consequence. According to the theory of karma, a person's intentional acts have inevitable consequences and determine the person's future condition in this life and in subsequent lives. One's current situation is not an accident but rather the consequence of previous actions. Dharma - "order, truth, duty, law" - is probably the most important concept in Hindu teachings. It establishes that which is right and proper and supportive of good order. The oldest and possibly most influential statement of the nature of duty and responsibility is in the Bhagavad Gita. Preparing for battle in defense of righteousness, the warrior-hero Arjuna sees some friends, relatives, and former teachers in the opposing army. In despair, he appeals to his comrade, the god Krishna: Arjuna begins here to understand that he must act as a warrior. In short, he must perform his duty to protect righteousness (or Dharma) in the world. Doing his duty may involve killing, even killing friends and relatives fighting for the other side. Dharma makes possible all that is good in the world, so he must uphold Dharma, and protect those who follow Dharma, without regard to the consequences.It is not certain that Siddhārtha Gautama ever intended to create a new religion or doctrine. In some ways, his ideas could be seen as an attempt to reform Hinduism. In his day, Hinduism had become complex and dependent on the Brahmins as keepers of religious secrets. Siddhārtha challenged people to be responsible for their own lives: "Do not accept what you hear by report. ...Be lamps unto yourselves." He also advised, "Do not go by what is handed down, nor on the authority of your traditional teachings. When you know of yourselves: 'These teachings are not good...' then reject them."

Carolingian Renaissance

Charlemagne had a strong desire to promote learning in his kingdom. His efforts led to an intellectual revival sometimes called the Carolingian Renaissance, or rebirth. Monasteries played a central role in this cultural renewal. The efforts of the monks who copied the Bible and the works of classical Latin authors led to the preservation of thousands of Greek and Roman manuscripts. The monasteries in the Carolingian Empire, many of which had been founded by Irish and English missionaries, played a central role in this cultural renewal. As we have seen, monks in the writing rooms copied the Bible and the works of classical Latin authors. Their work was a crucial factor in the preservation of the ancient legacy. About eight thousand manuscripts survive from Carolingian times.

Confucius

Confucius's interest in philosophy was political and ethical, not spiritual. He believed that it was useless to speculate on spiritual questions. It was better to assume that there was an order in the universe. If humans would act in harmony with the universe, their own affairs would prosper. Two central ideas stand out in the Confucian view of the Dao (Way): duty and humanity. The concept of duty meant that people had to subordinate their own interests to the broader needs of the family and the community. Everyone should be governed by the Five Constant Relationships: parent and child, husband and wife, older sibling and younger sibling, older friend and younger friend, and ruler and subject. Each person had a duty to the other. Parents should be loving, and children should revere their parents. Husbands should fulfill their duties, and wives should be obedient. The elder sibling should be kind, and the younger sibling respectful. The older friend should be considerate, and the younger friend deferential. Rulers should be benevolent, and subjects loyal. Showing the importance of family, Confucius said: "The duty of children to their parents is the fountains, whence all other virtues spring." The Confucian concept of duty was often expressed in the form of a "work ethic." If each individual worked hard to fulfill his or her duties, then the affairs of society as a whole would prosper as well. As Confucius stated, "If there is righteousness in the heart, there will be beauty in the character. If there is beauty in the character, there will be harmony in the home. If there is harmony in the home, there will be order in the nation. If there is order in the nation, there will be peace in the world." Confucius taught that humans are basically good. Above all, the ruler must set a good example. If the king followed the path of goodness, then subjects would respect him, and society would prosper. Confucius said, "Let him [the ruler] be filial and kind to all;—then they will be faithful to him. Let him advance the good and teach the incompetent;— then they will eagerly seek to be virtuous." Confucius, however, was not just living in the past. Many of his key ideas looked forward. Perhaps his most influential political idea was that government service should be open to all men of superior talent and not limited to those of noble birth. This concept of rule by merit was not popular with the aristocrats who held political offices based on their noble birth. Although Confucius's ideas did not have much effect in his lifetime, they eventually became the guiding principles for the Chinese Empire and fundamental ideas of Eastern civilization.

The End of the Western Roman Empire

Constantine had reunited the Roman Empire and restored a semblance of order. After his death, however, the empire continued to divide into western and eastern parts as fighting erupted on a regular basis between elements of the Roman army backing the claims of rival emperors. By a.d. 395, the western and eastern parts of the empire became virtually two independent states. In the course of the fifth century, the empire in the east remained intact under the Roman emperor in Constantinople. At the same time, the administrative structure of the empire in the west collapsed and was replaced by an assortment of Germanic kingdoms. The process was a gradual one, beginning with the movement of Germans into the empire. Until the fourth century, the empire had proved capable of absorbing the Germans without harm to its political structure. In the late fourth century, the Huns, a fierce tribe of nomads from the steppes of Asia, moved to displace many Germanic tribes, like the Visigoths. These Visigoths crossed into Roman territory and at first became Roman allies, but soon revolted. At Adrianople in a.d. 378, the Visigoths defeated the Roman army. Increasing numbers of Germans now crossed the frontiers. In a.d. 410 the Visigoths sacked Rome and then moved into Spain and Gaul. The Vandals poured into southern Spain and Africa and ravaged Rome in a.d. 455. By the middle of the fifth century, the western provinces of the Roman Empire had been taken over by Germanic peoples who were in the process of creating independent kingdoms. In a.d. 476 Odoacer, a military leader of German origin, deposed the Roman emperor, the boy Romulus Augustulus. To many historians, the deposition of Romulus signaled the end of the Roman Empire in the west. Of course, this is only a symbolic date because much of direct imperial rule had already been lost in the course of the fifth century. The fall of the Western Roman Empire allowed the establishment of new, mostly rural, Germanic kingdoms. Although eventually unified religiously through the growing Catholic Church, the divided Western kingdoms would lose the unified transportation, educational, and commercial institutions of the Roman Empire. Much like the fall of Han China, Rome endured a series of weak rulers whose abuse of power and decadent lifestyles led to peasant unrest and dissatisfaction within the military. These rulers were unable to stop the influx of outside invaders, and soon both Rome and the capital of Han China were sacked by foreign raiders. Ultimately, neither Rome nor Han China was able to stem the tide of collapse, and both empires deteriorated into divided kingdoms for several centuries. Many theories have been proposed by historians to explain the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. They include the following: Christianity's emphasis on a spiritual kingdom weakened Roman military virtues. Traditional Roman values declined as non-Italians gained prominence in the empire. Lead poisoning through leaden water pipes and cups caused a mental decline in the population. Plague wiped out one-tenth of the population. Rome failed to advance technologically due to slavery. Rome could not create a workable political system. There may be an element of truth in each of these theories, but history is an intricate web of relationships, causes, and effects. No single explanation can sufficiently explain the fall of a great empire. The Roman army in the west was not able to fend off the hordes of people moving into Italy and Gaul, and the Western Roman Empire collapsed. A series of German kingdoms replaced the Western Roman Empire. In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, which would survive for another thousand years, was able to withstand invaders.

Doaism

Daoism was a system of ideas developed around the teachings of Laozi (LOW • DZUH). According to tradition, Laozi, or the Old Master, lived around the same time period as Confucius. Scholars do not know if Laozi actually existed. Nevertheless, the ideas people associate with him. Rivaled Confucianism. The fundamental idea of Daoism, like Confucianism, does not concern itself with the meaning of the universe. Rather, it sets forth proper forms of human behavior. Daoists believe that the way to follow the will of Heaven is not through action but inaction: The best way to act in harmony with the universal order is not to interfere with the natural order.

The Carolingian Empire

During the a.d. 600s and a.d. 700s, the Frankish kings had gradually lost their power to the mayors of the palace, chief officers of the king's household. One of them, Pepin, finally took the logical step of assuming the kingship for himself and his family. Pepin was the son of Charles Martel, the leader who defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours in a.d. 732. Upon Pepin's death in a.d. 768, his son became the new Frankish king. This powerful ruler is known to history as Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. He was a determined and decisive man who was highly intelligent and curious. Charlemagne was a fierce warrior, a strong statesman, and a pious Christian. Although possibly unable to read or write, he was a wise patron—supporter—of learning. During his long rule, from a.d. 768 to a.d. 814, Charlemagne greatly expanded the Frankish kingdom and created what came to be known as the Carolingian (KAR • uh • lin • jee • uhn) Empire. At its height, this empire covered much of western and central Europe. Not until Napoleon Bonaparte's time in the 1800s would an empire its size be seen again in Europe. The administration of the empire depended both on Charlemagne's household staff and on counts (German nobles) who acted as the king's chief local representatives. In order to limit the counts' powers, Charlemagne set up the missi dominici (messengers of the lord king)—two men sent out to local districts to ensure that the counts carried out the king's wishes.

Mauyran Empire

Empire in classical times that was founded by Chandragupta Mauyra and reached its peak under Ashoka. The king divided his empire into provinces, ruled by governors whom he appointed. Mauryan rule was also reinforced by a large army and a vast network of spies. A strong central government, large army, and secret police were all important parts of the Mauryan Empire. Aśoka was more than a kind ruler. His kingdom prospered as India's role in regional commerce expanded. India became a major crossroads in a trade network that extended from the rim of the Pacific to Southwest Asia and the Mediterranean Sea. After Aśoka's death in 232 b.c., the Mauryan Empire began to decline. In 183 b.c., the last Mauryan ruler was killed by one of his generals, who thereupon established the Sunga dynasty, which held sway over much of the former Maurya territory for 100 years.

Kushān Empire

Following the decline of the Sungas in the mid-first century b.c., several kingdoms arose in North India. In the first century a.d., in Bactria (now Afghanistan) in the extreme Northwest, the Kushans, nomadic warriors from Central Asia, established a kingdom that overspread and dominated North India for the next two centuries. In the rest of India, other kingdoms fought for control. The Kushāns prospered from the trade that passed through their empire between the Mediterranean countries and the countries bordering the Pacific Ocean. Much of that trade was between the Roman Empire and China. It moved along the Silk Road. The Kushāns practiced both Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as Zoroastrianism from Persia. The Kushāns developed a calendar based on the sun and the moon, and their calendar is the basis of the Indian calendar used today. The Kushān kingdom came to an end in the third century a.d., when invaders from Persia overran it Eventually the Gupta Empire became the most influential political force in northern India. It also established loose control over central India, thus becoming the greatest state in India since the Mauryan Empire. Under a series of efficient monarchs—especially Candra Gupta II, who reigned from a.d. 380 to 415—the Guptas created a golden age of Indian culture, shown in the flowering of Hindu and Buddhist arts. Much of their wealth came from religious trade as pilgrims (people who travel to religious places) from across India and as far away as China came to visit the major religious centers. Not surprisingly, many new Hindu and Buddhist temples and shrines were built during the Gupta era. The good fortunes of the Guptas did not last. Beginning in the late fifth century a.d., invasions by nomadic Huns from the northwest gradually reduced the power of the empire. A military commander briefly revived the empire in the middle of the seventh century, but after his death, the empire collapsed. North India would not be reunited for hundreds of years.

End of Roman Republic

For the next fifty years, from 82 b.c. to 31 b.c., Roman history was characterized by two particularly important features: competition for power by a number of individuals and the civil wars caused by their conflicts. The Roman historian Sallust observed. Three powerful individuals—Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar—came to hold enormous military and political power. The concentration of all Rome's power between just three men would have great consequences for Roman civilization. Crassus was known as the richest man in Rome. Pompey had returned from a successful command in Spain as a military hero. Julius Caesar also had a military command in Spain. In 60 b.c., Caesar joined with Crassus and Pompey to form the First Triumvirate. A triumvirate is a government by three people with equal power.

Science (rome)

Greek thought heavily influenced Roman science. Romans, like Pliny the Elder (a.d. 23 - a.d. 79), compiled the works of Greek thinkers into encyclopedic volumes. These Roman summaries of Greek science and thought became the standard for scientific knowledge in Europe, North Africa, and much of Southwest Asia until the scientific revolution of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Greek thought also inspired Roman medicine. For example, because so many doctors who had studied medicine were Greek, Julius Caesar attempted to lure them to Rome with promises of Roman citizenship during the first century b.c. Galen of Pergamum (a.d. 129 - a.d. 200) is considered to be the greatest physician and medical writer of the ancient period. Starting out as a doctor for gladiators in Pergamum, he later became a court physician for the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Combining Greek medical knowledge with his own experiments, Galen expanded Roman understandings of anatomy and medicine by dissecting animals, as Roman law did not allow the dissection of people. One of Galen's most lasting contributions to science was his development of the Greek theory of humors. Galen believed that four different bodily fluids, called humors, were the key to medicine. He believed these humors should exist in equal measures in the human body and that, when unbalanced, they could harm a person's temperament and health. This theory of humors proved to be enduring. From ancient Rome it spread into the Arab world and medieval Europe and continued to dominate the understanding of the body until the advent of modern medicine in the nineteenth century.

The second Punic War

Hannibal decided that the Carthaginians would bring the war to Rome. Hannibal entered Spain, moved east, and crossed the Alps with an army of about 46,000 men, a large number of horses, and 37 battle elephants. The Alps took a toll on the Carthaginian army; most of the elephants did not survive. The remaining army, however, posed a real threat. In 216 b.c., the Romans decided to meet Hannibal head-on. It was a serious mistake. At Cannae (KA • nee), Hannibal's force devastated a Roman army, killing as many as 40,000 men. Then, some of the southern Italian cities rebelled against Roman rule and went over to Hannibal's side. Rome seemed on the brink of disaster but refused to give up and raised yet another army. Rome gradually recovered. Although Hannibal remained free to roam in Italy, he had neither the men nor the equipment to attack the major cities. The Romans began to reconquer some of the Italian cities that had been taken by Hannibal. They also sent troops to Spain, and by 206 b.c., they had pushed the Carthaginians out of Spain. In a brilliant military initiative, Rome invaded Carthage rather than fight Hannibal in Italy. This strategy forced the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from Italy. At the Battle of Zama in 202 b.c., the Romans, led by Scipio Africanus, crushed Hannibal's forces, ending the war. Carthage lost Spain, which became a Roman province. Rome had become the dominant power in the western Mediterranean. The Romans pursued Hannibal for years, catching up with him in Bithynia, near the Black Sea. To avoid capture, Hannibal took poison after remarking, "Let us relieve the Romans of the fear which has so long afflicted them, since it seems to tax their patience too hard to wait for an old man's death."

A new role for the Roman army

In 107 b.c., a Roman general named Marius became consul and began to recruit his armies in a new way. For a long time, the Roman army had been made of men who were landholders of small farms. Now generals such as Marius recruited volunteers from the urban and rural poor who did not own any property. These volunteers swore an oath of loyalty to the general, not to the Roman state, creating a new type of army no longer subject to the state. To recruit these men, a general would promise them land. This strategy forced generals to become involved in politics to get laws passed that would provide the land they needed for their veterans. Marius left a powerful legacy. He had created a new system of military recruitment that placed great power in the hands of the individual generals. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was the next general to take advantage of the new military system. The Senate had given him command of a war in Asia Minor. When the council of the plebs tried to transfer command to Marius, a civil war broke out. Sulla won and seized Rome itself in 82 b.c., conducting a reign of terror to wipe out all opposition. Then Sulla restored power to the hands of the Senate and eliminated most of the powers of the popular assemblies. Sulla hoped that he had created a firm foundation to restore a traditional Roman republic governed by a powerful Senate. His real legacy was quite different from what he had intended, however. His example of using an army to seize power would prove most attractive to ambitious men.

The beginning of the roman empire

In 27 b.c., Octavian proclaimed the "restoration of the Republic." He knew that only traditional republican forms would satisfy the Senate. At the same time, Octavian was aware that the republic could not be fully restored. Although he gave some power to the Senate, Octavian in fact became the first Roman emperor. In 27 b.c., the Senate awarded Octavian the title of Augustus—"the revered one," a fitting title in view of his power, which previously had been reserved for gods. Augustus proved to be highly popular. No doubt people were glad the civil wars had ended. At the same time, his continuing control of the army was the chief source of Augustus's power. The Senate gave Augustus the title imperator, or commander in chief. The English word emperor comes from imperator.

Judaism is Rome

In the period immediately preceding the Roman conquest of 63 b.c., the Jewish people enjoyed independence. By a.d. 6, however, Judaea (joo • DEE • uh), which embraced the lands of the old Jewish kingdom of Judah, had been made a Roman province placed under the direction of an official called a prefect, later known as a procurator. A wide variety of Jewish groups developed and vied for influence under the Romans. Unrest was widespread in Judaea, but the Jews differed among themselves about Roman rule. The priestly Sadducees (SA • juh • seez) probably favored cooperation with Rome. The scholarly Pharisees (FAR • uh • SEEZ) held that close observance of religious law would protect them from Roman influences. The Essenes lived apart from society, sharing goods in common. Like many other Jews, they waited for God to save Israel from oppression. The Zealots, however, called for the violent overthrow of Roman rule. In fact, a Jewish revolt began in a.d. 66, only to be crushed by the Romans four years later. The Jewish Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, and Roman power once more stood supreme. A few decades before the revolt, a Jewish teacher named Jesus traveled and preached throughout Judaea and neighboring Galilee. These teachings began a new movement within Judaism. After reports spread that Jesus had overcome death, the movement gained additional support throughout Judaea and Galilee and led to the development of a new monotheistic faith. Known as Christianity

Jesus

Jesus believed that his mission was to complete the salvation that God had promised to Israel throughout its history. He stated: "Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them." Jesus, then, adhered to the entire Law and emphasized those elements that called for the transformation of the inner person: "So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets." Citing verses from the Hebrew Bible, Jesus said, "Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength. This is the first commandment. The second is this: Love your neighbor as yourself." Jesus shared these and related ethical concepts with other prominent Jewish teachers. He gave them particularly eloquent and influential expression. The concepts—humility, charity, and love toward others—later helped to shape the value system of Western civilization. Jesus's preaching stirred controversy. Some people saw him as a potential revolutionary who might lead a revolt against Rome. His opponents finally turned him over to Roman authorities. The prefect Pontius Pilate ordered Jesus's crucifixion. After the death of Jesus, his followers proclaimed that he had risen from death and had appeared to them. They believed Jesus to be the Messiah (anointed one), the long-expected deliverer who would save Israel from its foes and inaugurate an age of peace, prosperity, and monotheism.

From Roman to Byzantine Empire

Justinian's accomplishments had been spectacular, but the Eastern Roman Empire was left with serious problems: too much territory to protect far from Constantinople, an empty treasury, a decline in population after a plague, and renewed threats to its frontiers. In the first half of the seventh century, the empire was faced with attacks from the Persians to the east and the Slavs to the north. The empire survived, only to face new threats. The most serious challenge to the Eastern Roman Empire came from the rise of Islam, which unified the Arab tribes and created a powerful new force that swept through the east. The defeat of an eastern Roman army at Yarmuk in a.d. 636 meant the loss of the provinces of Syria and Palestine. Problems also arose, however, along the northern frontier, especially in the Balkans. In a.d. 679 the Bulgars defeated the eastern Roman forces and took the lower Danube valley, creating a strong Bulgarian kingdom. By the beginning of the eighth century, the Eastern Roman Empire was a much smaller state, consisting only of the eastern Balkans and Asia Minor, but these external challenges had produced important internal changes. By the eighth century, this smaller Eastern Roman Empire had become what historians call the Byzantine Empire, a civilization with its own unique character that lasted until 1453. The Byzantine Empire was both a Greek and a Christian state. Increasingly, Latin fell into disuse as Greek became both the common language and the official language of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was also a Christian state. The empire was built on the Christian faith that was shared in a profound way by almost all its citizens. An enormous amount of artistic talent was poured into the construction of churches, church ceremonies, and church decoration to honor this faith. The emperor occupied a crucial position in the Byzantine state. Portrayed as chosen by God, he was crowned in sacred ceremonies, and his subjects were expected to prostrate themselves in his presence. His power was considered absolute. Because the emperor appointed the head of the church (known as the patriarch), he also exercised control over both church and state. The Byzantines believed that God had commanded their state to preserve the true Christian faith. Emperor, church, and state officials were all bound together in service to this ideal. It can be said that spiritual values of Christianity held the Byzantine state together both socially and politically. After the destruction caused by riots in a.d. 532, Emperor Justinian had rebuilt Constantinople and given it the appearance it would keep for almost a thousand years. With a population estimated in the hundreds of thousands, Constantinople was the largest city in medieval Europe. It viewed itself as the center of an empire and a special Christian city. Until the twelfth century, Constantinople was the greatest center of commerce in Europe during the Middle Ages. The city was the chief center for the exchange of products between West and East, which contributed to its rapid growth. Much of Constantinople's appearance in the Early Middle Ages was due to Justinian's program of rebuilding in the sixth century. The city was dominated by an immense palace complex and a huge amphitheater known as the Hippodrome, the site of chariot races that were an important part of Byzantine culture. In a reflection of the spiritual nature of Byzantine culture, hundreds of churches dotted the city, including the magnificent cathedral Hagia Sophia. No residential district was particularly fashionable because palaces, tenements, and slums existed alongside one another. Justinian added many new buildings. His public works projects included roads, bridges, walls, public baths, law courts, schools, churches, and colossal underground reservoirs to hold the city's water supply.

Legalism

Legalism proposed that human beings were evil by nature. Legalists were referred to as the "School of Law" because they rejected the Confucian view that government by "superior men" could solve society's problems. Instead, the fundamental idea of Legalism was to have a system of impersonal laws. The Legalists believed that a strong ruler was required to create an orderly society. The Legalists believed that only harsh laws and stiff punishments would cause the common people to serve the interests of the ruler. To them, people were not capable of being good. Therefore, the ruler did not have to show compassion for the people.

Mathematics (rome)

Like their alphabet, the Romans borrowed their numerical system from the Etruscans, who may have originally created the numerical system based on tally marks. Roman numerals used letters to represent numbers, however, there was not an individual letter for each number. Using a limited number of symbols for specific values (I, V, X, L, C, D, M), addition and subtraction were used in order to express each number. Romans used an abacus, a type of counting frame, in order to carry out complex mathematical problems, as long numbers could become quite cumbersome. Although they are not commonly used today, Roman numerals continue to find use in recording book volumes or the production year of movies.

Roman law

One of Rome's chief gifts to the Mediterranean world of its day and to later generations was its system of law. Rome's first code of laws was the Twelve Tables, which was adopted in 450 b.c. This code established a concept of equality before the law for all citizens that continued even when the Romans developed a more sophisticated system of civil law later. This system applied only to Roman citizens, however. As Rome expanded, legal questions arose that involved both Romans and non-Romans, as well as citizens and noncitizens. The Romans found that although some of their rules of civil law could be used in these cases, special rules were often needed. These rules gave rise to a body of law known as the Law of Nations. The Romans came to identify the Law of Nations with natural law, or universal law based on reason. This enabled them to establish standards of justice that applied to all people. These standards of justice included fundamental ideas of Western civilization still recognized today. A person was regarded as innocent until proved otherwise. People accused of wrongdoing were allowed to defend themselves before a judge. A judge, in turn, was expected to weigh evidence carefully before arriving at a decision. These principles lived on long after the fall of the Roman Empire.

The Kingdom of the Franks

Only one of the German states proved long lasting—the kingdom of the Franks. The Frankish kingdom was established by Clovis, a strong military leader who around a.d. 500 became the first Germanic ruler to convert to Catholic Christianity. At first, Clovis had refused the pleas of his Christian wife to adopt Christianity as his religion. According to Gregory of Tours, a sixth-century historian, Clovis had remarked to his wife, "Your God can do nothing." During a battle with another Germanic tribe, however, Clovis's army faced certain destruction. Clovis was reported to have cried out, "Jesus Christ...if you will give me victory over my enemies... I will believe in you and I will be baptized in your name." After he uttered these words, the enemy began to flee. Clovis soon became a Christian. Clovis found that his conversion to Christianity won him the support of the Roman Catholic Church, as the Christian church in Rome was now known. Not surprisingly, the Catholic Church was eager to gain the friendship of a major ruler in the Germanic states. By a.d. 510, Clovis had established a powerful new Frankish kingdom that stretched from the Pyrenees in the southwest to German lands— modern-day France and western Germany. He defeated the many Germanic tribes surrounding him and unified the Franks as a people. After Clovis's death, his sons followed Frankish custom and divided his newly created kingdom among themselves. The once-united Frankish kingdom came to be divided into three major areas.

Fall of Han Dynasty

Over a period of time, the Han Empire began to fall into decay. As weak rulers amused themselves with the pleasures of court life, the power of the central government began to decline. The great noble families filled the gap, amassing huge landed estates and forcing free farmers to become their tenants. Official corruption and the concentration of land in the hands of the wealthy led to widespread peasant unrest. The population of the empire had been estimated at 60 million in China's first census in the year a.d. 2. Two hundred years later it had declined to less than 20 million. Then, too, nomadic raids continued in the north. At one point, a group of marauders reached the gates of the capital city. By a.d. 170, wars, intrigues at the court, and peasant uprisings brought the virtual collapse of the Han dynasty. In a.d. 190 rebel armies sacked the Han capital. The final blow came in a.d. 220, when a general seized control. He was unable to maintain his power, however. China again plunged into civil war, made worse by invasions of northern tribal peoples. The Han empire had achieved the lasting greatness of a classical civilization. The next great dynasty would not arise for 400 years.

Germanic Society

Over time, Germans and Romans intermarried and began to create a new society. As they did, some of the social customs of the Germanic people came to play an important role. The crucial social bond among the Germanic peoples was the family, especially the extended family of husbands, wives, children, brothers, sisters, cousins, and grandparents. The German family structure was quite simple. Males were dominant and made all the important decisions. A woman obeyed her father until she married and then fell under the legal domination of her husband. This extended family worked the land together and passed it down to future generations. The family also provided protection, which was much needed in the violent atmosphere of the time. The German concept of family affected the way Germanic law treated the problem of crime and punishment. In the Roman system, as in the United States legal system, a crime such as murder was considered an offense against society or the state. Thus, a court would hear evidence and arrive at a decision. Germanic law, on the other hand, was personal. An injury by one person against another could mean a blood feud, and the feud could lead to savage acts of revenge. To avoid bloodshed, a new system developed, based on a fine called wergild (WUHR • gihld). Wergild was the amount paid by a wrongdoer to the family of the person he or she had injured or killed. Wergild, which means "money for a man," was the value of a person in money. The value varied according to social status. An offense against a member of the nobility, for example, cost considerably more than an offense against an ordinary person or a slave. Germanic laws were now established by custom, not at the whim of a king or codified like Roman law. One means of determining guilt in Germanic law was the ordeal. The ordeal was based on the idea of divine intervention. All ordeals involved a physical trial of some sort, such as holding a red-hot iron. It was believed that divine forces would not allow an innocent person to be harmed. If the accused person was unharmed after a physical trial, or ordeal, he or she was presumed innocent.

The Qin Dynasty

Powerful states fought one another and ignored the authority of the Zhou kings. One state—that of Qin—gradually defeated its chief rivals. In 221 b.c., the Qin ruler declared the creation of a new dynasty. The ruler of the Qin dynasty was Qin Shihuangdi. At the age of 13. In 221 b.c., he defeated the last of his rivals and founded a new dynasty, with himself as emperor. The famous Chinese historian Sima Qian described Qin Shihuangdi as having "the chest of a bird of prey, the voice of a jackal, and the heart of a tiger." a. He created a single monetary system and ordered the building of a system of roads throughout the entire empire. He reduced the powers of the landed aristocrats by dividing their estates among the peasants, who were now taxed directly by the state. In doing so, he eliminated possible rivals and gained tax revenues for the central government. Qin Shihuangdi was equally aggressive in foreign affairs. His armies advanced to the south, extending the border of China to the edge of the Yuan (YOO • AHN) River, or Red River, in modern-day Vietnam. To supply his armies, he had a canal dug from the Chang Jiang in central China to what is now the modern city of Guangzhou (GWAHNG • JOH). Surprisingly, the emperor left behind a remarkable artistic legacy too, another sign of a classical civilization. In 1974 farmers digging a well about 35 miles (56 km) east of Xi'an discovered an underground pit near the burial mound of the First Qin Emperor. The pit contained a vast army made out of terra-cotta, or hardened clay. Chinese archaeologists believe that it was a re-creation of Qin Shihuangdi's imperial guard, meant to be with the emperor on his journey to the next world. The elaborate nature of this art clearly reflected the strong central power of the empire. Archaeologists estimate that there are more than 6,000 figures in the first pit alone, along with horses, wooden chariots, and 7,000 bronze weapons. The figures are slightly larger than life-size. They were molded, fired, and painted in brilliant colors and then dressed in uniforms. To achieve individuality in the faces of the soldiers, 10 different head shapes were used, which were finished by hand. The project must have been enormously expensive, and demonstrates the centralized nature of government in Qin China. It has been estimated that one-third of the national income may have been spent on preparations for the ruler's afterlife.The Qin emperor's major foreign concern was in the north. In the area south of the Gobi, there resided a nomadic people known to the Chinese as the Xiongnu (SHYUNG • NOO), who had mastered the art of riding on horseback The emperor died in 210 b.c., and his dynasty was overthrown four years later. The fall of the Qin dynasty was followed by a period of civil war, but it did not last long. A new dynasty soon arose, the Han.

Christianity Spreads Through the Empire

Prominent apostles, or leaders, arose in early Christianity. The recognized leader was Simon Peter, a Jewish fisherman who had become a follower of Jesus during Jesus's lifetime. Another major apostle was Paul, a highly educated Jewish Roman citizen who joined the movement later. Paul took the message of Jesus to Gentiles— non-Jews—as well as to Jews. At the center of Paul's message was the belief that Jesus was the Savior, the Son of God who had come to Earth to save humanity. Paul taught that Jesus's death made up for the sins of all humans. By accepting Jesus as Christ (from Christos, the Greek term for Messiah) and Savior, people could be saved from sin and reconciled to God. These central ideas of early Christianity were passed on orally through preaching. Paul and other followers of Jesus also wrote letters, or epistles, outlining and developing Christian beliefs. Also, some of Jesus's disciples, or followers, may have preserved some of the sayings of Jesus in writing. Later, between a.d. 40 and a.d. 100, these accounts became the basis of the written Gospels—the "good news" concerning Jesus. These writings give a record of Jesus's life and teachings, and they form the core of the New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible. This same Christian Bible has become the most published book in the world and has endured into the present day, conveying universal themes to a variety of cultures around the globe. By a.d. 100, the early missionaries had established Christian churches in most of the major cities of the eastern empire and in some places in the western part of the empire. Most early Christians came from the Jews and the Greek-speaking populations of the east. In the second and third centuries, however, Christianity had spread among an increasing number of Latin-speaking people.

(rome) Successful Strategies

Romans believed that their early ancestors were successful because of their sense of duty, courage, and discipline. The Roman historian Livy, writing in the first century b.c., provided a number of stories to teach Romans the virtues that had made Rome great. His account of Cincinnatus (SIHN • suh • NA • tuhs), a simple farmer who was chosen as a dictator, or temporary ruler, to save Rome from attack, is one such example. After Cincinnatus led the army to victory, he resigned as dictator and returned to his farm. Looking back today, how can we explain Rome's success in gaining control of the entire Italian Peninsula? First, the Romans were good diplomats. They were shrewd in extending Roman citizenship and allowing states to run their own internal affairs. Although diplomatic, they could be firm, and even cruel when necessary, crushing rebellions without mercy. Second, the Romans excelled in military matters. They were not only accomplished soldiers but also persistent ones. The loss of an army or a fleet did not cause them to quit but instead spurred them on to build new armies and new fleets. In addition, they were brilliant strategists. As they conquered, the Romans built colonies—fortified towns—throughout Italy. By building roads to these towns and thus connecting them, the Romans could move troops quickly throughout their conquered territory. Finally, in law and politics, as in conquest, the Romans were practical. They did not try to build an ideal government but instead created political institutions in response to problems, as the problems arose.

The Roman Empire Expands

Rome expanded further during the period of the Early Empire. Although Trajan extended Roman rule into Dacia (Romania), Mesopotamia, and the Sinai Peninsula, his successors realized that the empire was too large to be easily governed. Hadrian withdrew Roman forces from much of Mesopotamia. To protect the frontier, he strengthened the fortifications along a line connecting the Rhine and Danube Rivers. He also built a 74-mile- (118-km-) long wall—Hadrian's Wall—across northern Britain to keep out the Picts and the Scots. By the end of the second century, it became apparent that it would be more and more difficult to defend the empire. Roman forces were located in permanent bases behind the frontiers. When one frontier was attacked, however, troops were drawn from other frontiers, leaving the latter frontiers open to attack. At its height in the second century, the Roman Empire, like the Han empire in China at the same time, was one of the greatest states the world had ever seen. The Roman Empire covered about three and a half million square miles (9.1 million square km) and had a population that has been estimated at more than 50 million people. The emperors and the imperial government provided a degree of unity throughout the empire. At the same time, the Romans gave much leeway to local customs. The privileges of Roman citizenship were granted to many people in the provinces. In a.d. 212, the emperor Caracalla gave Roman citizenship to every free person in the empire. The administration of the Roman Empire depended greatly on cities and towns. A provincial governor's staff was not large, so local officials acted as Roman agents, performing many government duties, especially taxation. Most cities were not large by modern standards. Provincial cities resembled each other with their temples, markets, and public buildings. These cities were important in the spread of Roman culture, Roman law, and the Latin language. Latin was the language of the western part of the empire, whereas Greek was used in the East as a result of Alexander the Great's earlier conquests. Roman culture spread and freely mixed with Greek culture. The result has been called Greco-Roman civilization.

The first punic war

Rome's first war with Carthage began in 264 b.c. It is called the First Punic War, after the Latin word for Phoenician: punicus. The war started when the Romans sent an army to Sicily. The Carthaginians, who thought of Sicily as part of their empire, considered this an act of war. Both sides determined to conquer Sicily. The Romans—a land power—realized that they could not win the war without a navy and built a large fleet. After a long struggle, a Roman fleet defeated the Carthaginian navy off the coast of Sicily, and the war came to an end. In 241 b.c., Carthage gave up all rights to Sicily and paid a fine to the Romans. Sicily became the first Roman province. Carthage vowed revenge, however, and added new lands in Spain to make up for the loss of Sicily. The Romans encouraged one of Carthage's Spanish allies to revolt against Carthage. In response, Hannibal, the greatest of the Carthaginian generals, struck back, beginning the Second Punic War, which lasted from 218 b.c. to 201 b.c. Hannibal had been raised to fight the Romans. When he was only nine years old, his father, a Carthaginian general, took him to a temple in Carthage and made him swear that he would always hate the Romans.

Buddha

Siddhārtha Gautama came from a small kingdom in the foothills of the Himalaya (in what is today part of southern Nepal). Born around 563 b.c., he was the son of a ruling princely family. The young and very handsome Siddhārtha was raised in the lap of luxury and lived a sheltered life. Like others of his class, he was also trained to be a warrior. At the age of 16, he married a neighboring princess and began to raise a family. Siddhārtha appeared to have everything: wealth, a good appearance, a model wife, a child, and a throne that he would someday inherit. In his late twenties, however, Siddhārtha became aware of the pain of illness, the sorrow of death, and the effects of old age on ordinary people. He exclaimed, "Would that sickness, age, and death might be for ever bound!" He decided to spend his life seeking the cure for human suffering. He gave up his royal clothes, shaved his head, abandoned his family, and set off to find the true meaning of life. At first, he tried to follow the example of the ascetics, people who practiced self-denial to achieve an understanding of ultimate reality. The abuse of his physical body did not lead him to a greater understanding of life, however. It led only to a close brush with death from not eating. He abandoned asceticism and turned instead to an intense period of meditation. As in Hinduism, this was understood to be one way to find union with the Absolute. One evening, while sitting in meditation under a tree, Siddhārtha reached enlightenment as to the meaning of life. He spent the rest of his life preaching what he had discovered. Buddhism begins with his teachings. In the Buddha's lifetime, many people went to him with questions. To inquiries concerning who he was, he responded that he was neither god nor angel. Rather, he would say, "I am awake." Importantly, he did not claim to be a being different from his questioners but simply a man who (unlike them) had awakened to the truth. Traditions state that the Buddha died at age 80 in Kushinagar, which is located in present-day India's Uttar Pradesh state. After his death, his followers traveled throughout India, spreading his message. Temples sprang up throughout the countryside

Slavery and Slave Revolts (rome)

Slavery was common throughout the ancient world, but no people had more slaves or relied so much on slave labor as the Romans did. After the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean, large numbers of foreign peoples who had been captured in wars were brought back to Italy as slaves. Greek slaves were in much demand as tutors, musicians, doctors, and artists. Roman businessmen would employ them as shop assistants or craftspeople. Slaves of all nationalities were used as household workers such as cooks, valets, waiters, cleaners, and gardeners. Slaves built roads and public buildings and farmed the large estates of the wealthy. The conditions under which these slaves lived were often pitiful. One Roman writer argued that it was cheaper to work slaves to death and then to replace them than it was to treat them well. Some slaves revolted against their owners and even murdered them, causing some Romans to live in great fear of their slaves. The murder of a master by a slave might mean the execution of all the other household slaves. The most famous slave revolt in Italy occurred in 73 b.c. Led by the gladiator Spartacus, the revolt broke out in southern Italy and involved 70,000 slaves. Spartacus managed to defeat several Roman armies before being trapped and killed in 71 b.c. The Romans crucified— put to death by nailing to a cross—6,000 of Spartacus's followers.

Schisms

The Byzantine Empire had also been troubled by the growing split between the Catholic Church of the West and its own Eastern Orthodox Church. Trouble began in 730 when the Byzantine emperor Leo III outlawed the use of icons as idolatry. Resistance ensued, especially from monks, such as John of Damascus, who wrote defenses of the use of holy images, an art form that reflects the spiritual focus of Byzantine culture. The Eastern Orthodox Church was unwilling to accept the pope's claim that he was the sole head of the church. In 1054 Pope Leo IX and the Patriarch Michael Cerularius, head of the Byzantine church, formally excommunicated each other—each took away the other's right of church membership. This began a schism, or separation, between the two great branches of Christianity that has not been completely healed. Because of this break between the Eastern and Western Churches, Eastern Orthodoxy developed distinctive characteristics as it continued under the leadership of its patriarchs within the Byzantine Empire. Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, the Patriarch of Constantinople, although holding a special honor and authority within the Church, does not wield the same authority and power as the Pope in Rome does for Catholics. With a strong devotion to its iconography, Eastern Orthodoxy also developed a distinctive artistic and architectural character different from the West. Today, Eastern Orthodox Christians represent the second largest Christian denomination after Roman Catholicism, with the majority living in Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Middle East. The Byzantine Empire faced threats from abroad as well. The greatest challenge came from the advance of the Seljuk Turks who had moved into Asia Minor—the heartland of the empire and its main source of food and manpower. In 1071 a Turkish army defeated Byzantine forces at Manzikert. As a result, Emperor Alexus I turned to Europe for military aid to fight the Turks. This problem would lead to Byzantine involvement in the Crusades and help bring about the downfall of the Byzantine Empire.

Early Roman Empire economy/society

The Early Empire was a period of much prosperity, with internal peace leading to high levels of trade. Merchants from all over the empire came to the chief Italian ports of Puteoli (pyu • TEE • uh • LY) on the Bay of Naples and Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. Trade went beyond the Roman frontiers as well and even included silk goods from China. Large quantities of grain were imported to feed the people of Rome. Luxury items poured in to satisfy the desires of the wealthy. Despite the active trade and commerce, however, farming remained the chief occupation of most people and the underlying basis of Roman prosperity. Large landed estates, called latifundia (LA • tuh • FUHN • dee • uh), dominated farming in southern and central Italy. These estates mostly used slaves to raise sheep and cattle on a large scale. Small peasant farms continued to exist in northern Italy. An enormous gulf separated rich and poor in Roman society. The upper classes lived lives of great leisure and luxury in their villas and on their vast estates. Small farmers often became dependent on the huge estates of their wealthy neighbors. In the cities, many poor citizens worked in shops and markets. Thousands of unemployed depended on the emperor's handouts of grain to survive. After they conquered Greece, the Romans began to adopt many aspects of Greek culture. By adapting Greek styles, the Romans spread Greco-Roman civilization throughout their empire.

Germaic-kingdoms

The Germanic peoples had begun to move into the lands of the Roman Empire by the third century. The Visigoths occupied Spain and Italy until the Ostrogoths, another Germanic tribe, took control of Italy in the fifth century. By a.d. 500, the Western Roman Empire had been replaced by a number of states ruled by German kings. The merging of Romans and Germans took different forms in the various Germanic kingdoms. Both the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy and the kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain retained the Roman structure of government. However, a group of Germanic warriors came to dominate the considerably larger native populations and eventually excluded Romans from holding power. Roman influence was even weaker in Britain. When the Roman armies abandoned Britain at the beginning of the fifth century, the Angles and Saxons, Germanic tribes from Denmark and northern Germany, moved in and settled there. Eventually, these peoples became the Anglo-Saxons.

Politics of the Qin Dynasty

The Qin dynasty dramatically changed the political face of classical China. Legalism was adopted as the official ideology of the regime. Those who opposed the policies of the new regime were punished or even executed. The ideas of Legalism led to a number of important political and administrative changes. Some of them were major political influences and survived the Qin dynasty. These ideas and institutions served as models for future dynasties.Below the central government were two levels of administration: provinces and counties. Unlike under the Zhou, these officials did not inherit their positions but were appointed and dismissed by the emperor. The censors, who reported directly to the emperor, kept a close watch over the officials. Those found guilty of wrongdoing were executed. By ruthlessly gathering control over the empire into his own hands, Qin Shihuangdi hoped to establish a rule that "would be enjoyed by his sons and grandsons for 10,000 generations." In fact, he was to be his dynasty's only ruler. The First Qin Emperor had angered many Chinese. Landed aristocrats and Confucian intellectuals, as well as the common people, groaned under the censorship of speech, harsh taxes, and forced labor projects instituted by the ruler. Sima Qian said of Qin Shihuangdi:

Xinognu

The Qin emperor's major foreign concern was in the north. In the area south of the Gobi, there resided a nomadic people known to the Chinese as the Xiongnu (SHYUNG • NOO), who had mastered the art of riding on horseback. Mounted on their horses, they ranged far and wide in search of pastures. The Xiongnu were organized loosely into tribes and moved with the seasons from one pasture to another with their flocks of cattle, sheep, or goats. The Xiongnu had mastered the art of fighting on horseback. The historian Sima Qian remarked: The little boys start out by learning to ride sheep and shoot birds and rats with a bow and arrow, and when they get a little older they shoot foxes and hares, which are used for food. Thus all the young men are able to use a bow and act as armed cavalry in time of war.

Roman politics

The Romans had been ruled by kings under the Etruscans. As a result, they distrusted kingship and devised a very different system of government. Early Rome was divided into two groups or orders—the patricians and the plebeians (plih • BEE • uhns). The patricians were wealthy landowners who became Rome's ruling class. Less wealthy landowners, craftspeople, merchants, and small farmers were all part of a larger group called plebeians. Men in both orders were citizens who paid taxes, owed military service, and could vote. Only patricians, however, could be elected to governmental offices. The chief executive officers of the Roman Republic were the consuls and praetors (PREE • tuhrz). Two consuls, chosen every year, ran the government and led the Roman army into battle. The praetor was in charge of civil law—laws that applied to Roman citizens. As Rome's territory expanded, another praetor was added to judge cases in which one or both people were noncitizens. The Romans also had a number of officials who had special duties, such as supervising the treasury. The Roman Senate came to hold an especially important position in the Roman Republic. It was a select group of about 300 patricians who served for life. At first, the Senate's only role was to advise government officials. By the third century b.c., however, the Senate's advice had the force of law. Though Rome was never a traditional democracy, the development of the Roman Senate from an advisory council to a governing body served as an example of a form of democratic-republican government. Many modern republics today call their legislative body a senate, demonstrating the lasting impression made by this Roman institution on future republican governments. The Roman Republic had several people's assemblies in addition to the Senate, providing both rich and poor citizens with opportunities to support their governments through civic participation. By far the most important of these was the centuriate assembly. The centuriate assembly elected the chief officials, such as consuls and praetors, and passed laws. Because it was organized by classes based on wealth, the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. The council of the plebs was the assembly for plebeians only, and it came into being as a result of the struggle between the social orders in Rome.

Roman Empire Persecution of Christians

The basic values of Christianity differed markedly from those of the Greco-Roman world. In spite of that, the Romans at first paid little attention to the Christians, whom they regarded as simply another sect of Judaism. However, the Roman attitude toward Christianity began to change. The Romans tolerated the religions of other peoples unless these religions threatened public order or public morals. Many Romans came to view Christians as harmful to the Roman state because Christians refused to worship the state gods and emperors. The Romans saw the Christians' refusal to do so as an act of treason, punishable by death. The Christians, however, believed there was only one God. To them, the worship of state gods and the emperors meant worshiping false gods and endangering their own salvation. Jews, who also refrained from such worship, had been allowed to follow "the laws of their fathers," but this exemption was not extended to the new religion. The Roman government began persecuting (harassing to cause suffering) Christians during the reign of Nero (a.d. 54-a.d. 68). The emperor blamed the Christians for the fire that destroyed much of Rome in a.d. 64 and subjected them to cruel deaths. In contrast, in the second century, persecution of Christians diminished, allowing this new monotheistic faith to develop. By a.d. 180, Christians still represented a small minority, but one of considerable strength.

Ceasar takes over Rome

The combined wealth and power of these three men was enormous and enabled them to dominate the political scene and to achieve their basic aims. Pompey received a command in Spain, Crassus was given a command in Syria, and Caesar was granted a special military command in Gaul, which is modern-day France. When Crassus was killed in battle in 53 b.c., however, only two powerful men were left. During his time in Gaul, Caesar had gained both fame and military experience. As a military leader, Caesar had always been willing to face great personal danger. Moreover, he now had an army of seasoned veterans who were loyal to him. Fearing Caesar's popularity, leading senators decided that rule by Pompey alone would be least harmful to their cause. They voted for Caesar to lay down his command and return as a private citizen to Rome. Such a step was intolerable to Caesar, as it would leave him totally vulnerable to his enemies. Caesar chose to keep his army and moved into Italy by illegally crossing the Rubicon, the river that formed the southern boundary of his province. The phrase related to this action, "crossing the Rubicon," means to take a decisive action that cannot be taken back. According to his ancient biographer, Caesar said to his troops, "Even now we could turn back; but once we cross that tiny bridge, then everything will depend on armed force." Caesar marched on Rome, starting a civil war between his forces and those of Pompey and his allies. The defeat of Pompey's forces left Caesar in complete control of the Roman government. Caesar was officially made dictator, or absolute ruler, in 47 b.c. This position was usually temporary, used only in emergencies, but Caesar was made dictator for life in 44 b.c. Realizing the need for reforms, Caesar gave land to the poor and increased the Senate to 900 members. By filling the Senate with his supporters and increasing the number of senators, he weakened the Senate's power. Caesar granted citizenship to a number of people in the provinces who had helped him. He also reformed the calendar by introducing the Egyptian solar year of 365 days. (With later changes in 1582, it became the basis of our own calendar.) Caesar planned much more in the way of building projects and military campaigns to the east but was not able to carry them out. In 44 b.c., a group of leading senators who resented his growing power assassinated him, believing that the old republican system would now return. In truth, however, they had set the stage for another civil war that delivered the death blow to the republic.

The Han Dynasty

The founder of the Han (HAHN) dynasty, Liu Pang (LYOO BAHNG), was of peasant origin but became known by his title of Han Gaozu—Exalted Emperor of Han. Under his strong rule and that of his successors, the new dynasty quickly established its control over the empire and began the Han era of classical Chinese civilization. The first Han emperor abandoned the use of cruel and unusual punishments that had been part of the Legalistic approach to law enforcement in the Qin dynasty. However, Han Gaozu and his successors found it convenient to keep some of the practices of the First Qin Emperor, including the division of the central government into three ministries—the military, civil service, and censorate. The Han rulers also kept the system of local government that divided the empire into provinces and counties. , when the Han rulers took over, they looked to Confucianism for guidance. The Han rulers continued the Qin system of choosing government officials on the basis of merit rather than birth. Introduced the civil service examination and established a school to train government official candidates. tudents were expected to learn the teachings of Confucius, as well as Chinese history and law. By creating a group of well-trained officials well versed in Confucian thought, the system ensured the influence of Confucianism on government for a long time. In addition to providing a strong central government, the Han emperors also continued to expand the Chinese Empire. Although the economic problems in the countryside helped lead to the eventual downfall of the dynasty, in general the Han era was one of great prosperity. Invented paper.

Rome

The location of Rome was especially favorable to its early settlers. Located about 18 miles (29 km) inland on the Tiber River, Rome had a route to the sea. However, it was far enough inland to be relatively safe from pirates. It could be easily defended because of its position, built on seven hills. In addition, it was situated where the Tiber River could be easily crossed. Thus, it became a natural crossing point for north-south traffic in western Italy. Geography played a major role in the early development and expansion of Roman civilization. The Greeks had much influence on the people of Rome. They cultivated olives and grapes, passed on their alphabet, and provided the Romans with artistic and cultural models through their sculpture, architecture, and literature. The Greeks came to Italy in large numbers during the age of Greek colonization (750 b.c.-550 b.c.). The early development of Rome, however, was influenced most by the Etruscans, who were located north of Rome in Etruria. After 650 b.c., they expanded into north-central Italy and came to control Rome and most of Latium. The Etruscans found Rome a village but launched a building program that turned it into a city. The Romans borrowed ideas from the Etruscans, such as Etruscan dress—the toga and short cloak. The Roman army also borrowed its organization from the Etruscans.Roman tradition maintains that early Rome (753 b.c.-509 b.c.) was under the control of seven kings and that two of the last three kings were Etruscan. Historians know for certain that Rome did fall under Etruscan influence during this time. In 509 b.c., the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a republic. In a republic, the leader is not a monarch, and some citizens have the right to vote. This was the beginning of a new era in Rome's history. Fifty years later, the Romans fought their third and final battle with Carthage, the Third Punic War. For years, a number of prominent Romans, especially the conservative politician Cato, had called for the complete destruction of Carthage. Cato ended every speech he made to Senate with the words, "Furthermore, I think Carthage must be destroyed." In 146 b.c., it was indeed destroyed. For 10 days, Roman soldiers burned and demolished the city. The inhabitants—50,000 men, women, and children—were sold into slavery. The territory of Carthage became a Roman province called Africa. During its struggle with Carthage, Rome also battled the Hellenistic states in the eastern Mediterranean. The Fourth Macedonian War ended in 148 b.c., and Macedonia was made a Roman province. Two years later, Greece was placed under the control of the Roman governor of Macedonia. In 129 b.c., Pergamum became Rome's first province in Asia. Rome was now master of the entire Mediterranean Sea. The Romans were the first people in antiquity to use concrete on a massive scale. Using concrete along with the new architectural forms made it possible for the Romans to construct huge buildings undreamed of by the Greeks. At the heart of the Roman social structure stood the family, headed by the paterfamilias—the dominant male. The household also included the wife, sons with their wives and children, unmarried daughters, and slaves.

Buddhism

The new religion appeared in northern India and soon became a rival of Hinduism. The founder of Buddhism was Siddhārtha Gautama, known as the Buddha. The Buddha denied the abiding substantiality of the world we experience. That is, contrary to what we think, there are no abiding things. Without exception, all the objects of our ordinary experience are the result of causes. Therefore they are impermanent. The pain and sorrow that afflict us are due to our attachment to "things" in the world. If we renounce our desire for things, we will be freed from them and from the illusion that they exist substantially and are thus worth desiring and possessing. To give up the desire utterly is to attain bodhi, awakening or enlightenment. And enlightenment is the extinction (nirvana) of the fires of greed and desire. Siddhārtha first shared this wisdom in a lecture he delivered in Sarnath, outside India's holy city of Varanasi. He began by advising his listeners to avoid extremes by following a Middle Way. The heart of this teaching is the Four Noble Truths: All is suffering. Suffering has a cause, which is desire. Suffering can be overcome. The way to end desire is to follow the Eightfold Path: Right view knowing the Four Noble Truths. Right intention resolving to attain Enlightenment. Right speech speaking truthfully and with kindness. Right action leading a moral life. Right livelihood working in a responsible, harmless way. Right effort ceaseless, unwavering striving to Enlightenment. Right mindfulness controlling our thought. Right concentration meditating to see the world as it is. The Buddha accepted the notion of rebirth, but radicalized it. As everything is caused and impermanent, that which the ignorant see as permanent and substantial is in fact ceaselessly different from moment to moment. You and I are not abiding persons but processes of cause and effect. Again, it is when we are ignorant of this dynamic reality and treat the impermanent as though it were permanent that we desire and suffer. The Buddha did not so much reject the caste system as declare it irrelevant. No one was privileged or had an advantage in seeking Enlightenment (and, of course, no one is substantially or essentially different from anyone else). In one regard, the Buddha did not step beyond the prejudices and restrictions of his own time and place: Initially he refused to admit women into the renunciant order, the monastic community of individuals who gave up life in the world in order exclusively to pursue the path to Enlightenment. But when he did allow the monastic ordination of women (five years after establishing the ordination of monks), he declared that women are as capable of attaining Enlightenment as men.

Roman Empire Adopts Christianity

The occasional persecution of Christians by the Romans in the first and second centuries had not stopped the growth of Christianity. It had, in fact, served to strengthen Christianity in the second and third centuries by causing it to become more organized. Influenced by the Roman institutions under which they lived, missionaries used the Roman language and organizational structures to spread their message. Fear of persecution meant that only the most committed would follow the faith. Crucial to this change was the emerging role of the bishops, who began to assume more control over church communities. The Christian church was creating a new structure in which the clergy, or church leaders, had distinct functions separate from the laity, or the regular church members Christianity grew quickly in the first century. It took root in the second century, and by the third century, it had spread widely. Why was Christianity able to attract and maintain so many followers? First, the Christian message had much to offer the Roman world. The Roman state-based religion was impersonal and existed for the good of Rome. Christianity was personal and offered salvation and eternal life to individuals. Christianity gave life a meaning and purpose beyond the simple material things of everyday reality. Second, Christianity seemed familiar. It was viewed by some as similar to other mystery religions, offering immortality as the result of the sacrificial death of a savior-god. At the same time, it offered more than the other mystery religions did. Jesus had been a human figure to whom it was easy to relate. Moreover, Christianity did not require painful or expensive initiation rites as other mystery religions did. Initiation was by baptism—a purification by water—by which one entered into the Christian community. Finally, Christianity fulfilled the human need to belong. Christians formed communities bound to one another. In these communities, people could express their love by helping one another and offering assistance to the poor and the sick. Christianity satisfied the need to belong in a way that the huge Roman Empire could never provide, and developed a unifying social element that would endure into medieval Europe. Christianity proved attractive to all classes, but especially to the poor and powerless. Eternal life is promised to all—rich, poor, aristocrats, slaves, men, and women. As Paul stated in his letters to the Colossians and the Galatians, "And [you] have put on the new self. . . . Here there is no Greek or Jew . . . barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all." Although Christianity did not call for revolution, it stressed a sense of spiritual equality for all people—a revolutionary idea at the time. The Christian Church became more organized in the third century. Some emperors began new persecutions, but their schemes failed. The last great persecution was by Diocletian (dy • uh • klee • shuhn) at the beginning of the fourth century. Even he had to admit, however, what had become obvious in the course of the third century: Christianity and its followers were too strong to be blotted out by force. In the fourth century, Christianity prospered and found a powerful supporter in Emperor Constantine. According to the traditional story, before a crucial battle in a.d. 312, Constantine saw a vision of the Christian cross with the words, "In this sign you shall conquer." Having won the battle, Constantine was convinced of the power of the Christian God. Although he was not baptized until the end of his life, in a.d. 313 Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which proclaimed official tolerance of Christianity. Then, under Theodosius the Great, who ruled from a.d. 378 to a.d. 395, the Romans adopted Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire

monasticism

The practice of living the life of a monk

The struggle of orders

There was often conflict between the patricians and plebeians in the early Roman Republic. The children of patricians and plebeians were forbidden to marry each other. Plebeians resented this situation, especially considering they served in the Roman army that protected the Republic. Plebeians thought that they deserved both political and social equality with the patricians. The conflict between the patricians and plebeians, also known as the struggle of the orders, dragged on for hundreds of years. Ultimately, the plebeians were successful in changing their government. The council of the plebs, which was a popular assembly for plebeians only, was created in 471 b.c. New officials, known as tribunes of the plebs, were given the power to protect the plebeians. In the fourth century b.c., plebeians were permitted to marry patricians and to become consuls. Finally, in 287 b.c., the council of the plebs received the right to pass laws for all Romans. By 287 b.c., all male Roman citizens were now supposedly equal under the law. In reality, however, a few wealthy patrician and plebeian families formed a new senatorial ruling class that came to dominate the political offices. The Roman Republic had not become a democracy.

architechture (Gupta)

Three main kinds of art from this time deserve attention: carved stone pillars, Buddhist stupas (reliquary mounds), and rock-cut caves. Unfortunately, the number of these that survive and can be readily identified is not large. Aśoka had many large pillars erected throughout his domain at the frontier borders and at emerging Buddhist pilgrimage sites. As tall as 50 feed and weighing as much as 50 tons (45.4 t), the pillars followed traditions established centuries earlier by the Persians. Many bore inscriptions containing Aśoka's edicts and Buddhist teachings and were topped by carvings of lions or bulls. Only a handful of these pillars survive more or less undamaged. Stupas were stylized burial mounds intended to house a relic, some remnant of the Buddha's body like a lock of hair, a bone fragment, or a tooth. Quite early, stupas became pilgrimage destinations for Buddhists. It is said that Aśoka ordered the building of the great stupa at Sanchi, and he also directed the construction of others as well. But at Sanchi and elsewhere, the growing reputation of stupas assured that they would regularly be renovated and enlarged. Doubtless many stupas that survive today are built around an early Aśokan stupa at their core. Most of the architecture of Aśoka's time was built of brick and wood, perishable materials that, for the most part, have not survived. Aśoka's patronage of Buddhist rock-cut cave shrines was limited in scope; but examples are the simple, largely unadorned caves in the Barabar Hills near Bodhgaya in India's Bihar State.

Family Life and Women's Roles (rome)

Unlike the Greeks, the Romans raised their children at home. All Roman upper-class children—boys and girls—were expected to learn to read. Teachers were often Greek slaves because upper-class Romans had to learn Greek to prosper in the empire. Roman boys learned reading and writing, moral principles and family values, law, and physical training to prepare them to be soldiers. At age 16, childhood ended for Roman males. At a special ceremony, a young Roman exchanged his purple-edged toga for a plain white toga, which was the toga of manhood. Some parents in upper-class families provided education for their daughters by hiring private tutors or sending the girls to primary schools. However, at the age when boys were entering secondary schools, girls were entering into marriage. Like the Greeks, Roman males believed that the weakness of females made it necessary for women to have male guardians. The paterfamilias had that responsibility. When he died, his sons or nearest male relatives assumed the role of guardian. Fathers also arranged the marriages of their daughters. For females, the legal minimum age for marriage was 12, although 14 was a more common age. For males, the legal minimum age was 14, although most men married later. Traditionally, Roman marriages were meant to be for life, but divorce was introduced in the third century b.c. and became fairly easy to obtain. Either husband or wife could ask for a divorce. By the a.d. 100s, changes were occurring in the Roman family. The paterfamilias no longer had absolute authority over his children. He could not sell his children into slavery or have them put to death. The husband's absolute authority over his wife also disappeared. Women were no longer required to have guardians. Upper-class Roman women in the Early Empire had considerable freedom and independence. They had the right to own, inherit, and sell property. Unlike Greek wives, Roman wives were not segregated from males in the home. Outside their homes, upper-class women could attend races, the theater, and the amphitheater; however, they had to sit in separate female sections. When they went out, women of rank were still accompanied by maids and companions. Women could not participate in politics but influenced politics through their husbands.

The Four Varnas

Vedic Aryans viewed a proper, ordered society as made up of four groups, which they called varnas. Here, varna ("color") meant "class" or "classification"; it did not refer to skin color. First among these varnas are the priests (Brahmins), second are the warrior-administrators (Kshatriyas) third are the "folk" (Vaisya) the artisans, farmers, herdsman, et al, who are the majority The fourth class or varna are the Sudras , whose duty is to serve the other three classes.

Eastern Roman Empire and Justinian

When he became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, Justinian (a.d. 527-a.d. 565) was determined to reestablish the Roman Empire in the entire Mediterranean world. By a.d. 552, Justinian appeared to have achieved his goals. He had restored the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean. But these conquests were fleeting; in a matter of years after Justinian's death, the western section of the Mediterranean had been lost again, never to be recovered by the empire. Justinian's most important contribution was his codification of Roman law, issued between a.d. 529 and a.d. 534, entitled The Body of Civil Law. This codification of Roman law became the basis of imperial law in the Eastern Roman Empire. More importantly, because it was written in Latin (the last product of eastern Roman culture to be written in Latin, which was soon replaced by Greek) it was also used in the West. After its rediscovery in the West, the Body of Civil Law became the foundation for the revival and study of Roman law in medieval universities. As a result, the political and legal ideas contained in Justinian's Code of Law have left their impact on some parts of the world. The political idea of the emperor as the source of authority and all law made an impact on the kings of European states in the Middle Ages. Legally, the code has been used as a resource, especially in civil law. Indeed, the Body of Civil Law became the basis for much of the legal system in parts of Europe, Japan, and in the state of Louisiana

Great Wall of China

When the Xiongnu challenged Chinese communities near the northern frontier, a number of states constructed walls to keep out the nomads. Warriors on horseback, however, had definite advantages over the infantry troops of the Chinese. Qin Shihuangdi's answer to the problem was to strengthen the existing system of walls and to link them together. Today we know Qin Shihuangdi's project as the Great Wall of China, and it serves as an architectural reflection of the Qin dynasty's defensive needs.However, the wall that we know from films and photographs was not built until 1,500 years later. Some of the walls built by Shihuangdi do remain, but most of them were built of loose stone, sand, or piled rubble and disappeared long ago. This is not to say, of course, that the wall was not a massive project. It required the efforts of thousands of laborers. Many of them died while working there

The Caste system

a set of rigid social categories that determined not only a person's occupation and economic potential, but also his or her position in society. It determined what jobs people could have, whom they could marry, and with whom they could socialize. Associated with this system are beliefs about purity. Higher castes were considered more pure than lower castes, which were thought to be polluting to the higher-ranking castes. At the lowest level and so impure that they are entirely outside the caste system, were the so-called "Untouchables," who now more commonly refer to themselves as dalit, "the oppressed." They have traditionally performed the most polluting tasks such as collecting trash and disposing of the dead. Other Indians consider any contact with an Untouchable to be degrading, potentially leading to lower status.

Religion in the Roman World

brought them into a right relationship with the gods. This guaranteed peace and prosperity. Indeed, the Romans believed that their success in creating an empire meant that they had earned the favor of the gods. As the politician Cicero claimed in the first century b.c., "We have overcome all the nations of the world, because we have realized that the world is directed and governed by the gods." At the same time, the Romans were tolerant of other religions. They allowed the worship of native gods and goddesses throughout their provinces. They even adopted some of the local gods. Under Julius Caesar and Augustus, Jews, believers in a monotheistic religion, were permitted to practice Judaism, seeing it as an ancient religion that supported social stability. Later, the Roman-Jewish wars led to the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and prohibitions on practicing Judaism. After many years of persecuting Christianity, the Roman Empire adopted Christianity as its official religion. Augustus brought back traditional festivals and ceremonies to revive the Roman state religion, which had declined during the turmoil of the late Roman Republic. The official state religion focused on the worship of a number of gods and goddesses, including Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars. In addition, beginning with Augustus, emperors were often officially made gods by the Roman Senate, thus bolstering support for the emperors.

Hinduism

hat can be known of their religious thought is found in the Vedas,collections of hymns, speculation, and ritual instruction passed down orally for centuries by learned priests and not written down until modern times. The oldest forms of Hindu teachings declared that ultimate reality is a single force that the wise called Brahman (a word that originally meant the power of a ritual to accomplish the objectives of the performer) From this premise, many concluded that the true reality of a person - the real "self" or "soul" - cannot be different from Brahman. The equation declaring that the real person or atman and the universal reality are one and the same is celebrated in late Vedic texts as a major religious discovery. From "knowing" this truth to experiencing it was said to require disciplined effort or yoga. Meaning "yoking", yoga named both the taming and training of faculties required to realize the ultimate goal and the goal itself as a living realization of the union of individual and the Absolute. there are several yogas by which one may attain that realization. a yoga of knowledge, a yoga of ritual practice, and a yoga of loyal devotion of bhakti Cultivating the last-named yoga, the practicitioner experiences the absolute as accessible, personal, lovable. This bhakti-yoga affirmed that the religious devotee followed a path as dignified and productive as the performance of austerities or the mastery of learned teachings. And bhakti-yoga also became one mechanism by which devotees of various gods and goddesses that were originally quite outside the Vedic and Hindu cultural and historical universe were embraced as genuine participants in an increasingly complex set of Hindu traditions. Learned Hindus understood and accommodated diversity of religious teachings and practice and also comprehended those distinct traditions as being a part of a larger Hindu reality.

Decline of Rome

n the course of the third century, the Roman Empire came near collapse. Following a series of civil wars, a military government under the Severan rulers restored order. Septimius Severus told his sons "enrich the soldiers, and ignore everyone else," setting the tone for the new dynasty. After the Severan rulers, there was more disorder. For almost 50 years, from a.d. 235 to a.d. 284, the Roman throne was occupied by whomever had the military strength to seize it. During this period, there were 22 emperors, most of whom died violently. At the same time, the empire was troubled by a series of invasions, no doubt encouraged by the internal turmoil. In the east, the Sassanid (suh • SAH • nuhd) Persians made inroads into Roman territory. Germanic tribes poured into the Balkans, Gaul, and Spain. Invasions, civil wars, and plague almost caused an economic collapse in the third century. A labor shortage created by plague—an epidemic disease—affected both military recruiting and the economy. There was a decline in trade and small industry. Farm production declined as crops were ravaged by invaders or the defending Roman army. Armies were needed more than ever, but financial strains made it difficult to enlist and pay more soldiers. By the mid-third century, the state had to hire Germans to fight. These soldiers did not understand Roman traditions and had little loyalty to either the empire or the emperors.