world prehistory exam 1
features
are immovable structures, layers, pits, and posts in the ground. -Features are typically studied in the field since they are fixed in the ground. -They are useful for understanding the distribution and organization of human activities at a site. -Some features result from the accumulation of garbage and debris, rather than being intentionally created (midden). -Burials and human bones are a special category of feature often found at archaeological sites.
sites and settlements
are the sets of artifacts, ecofacts, and features that define places in the landscape where activity and residence were focused. -Investigations range from the analysis of the location of different activities within a single room to the distribution of sites in a region. -Spatial patterning within a site can provide information about the number of houses and people at the settlement and their relationships with one another. -Regional settlement patterns can provide a variety of information on the use of the landscape.
ecofacts
are unmodified natural items, such as animal bones and plant remains. -Ecofacts are usually brought to the site by its occupants. -They are used to reconstruct the environment of the site and the range of resources that people used. -The study of plant remains can provide information about past environments (archaeobotany). -Analysis of animal remains can yield information about what animals were eaten and how meat was obtained (zooarchaeology).
Neandertal Physical Features
recognized by several distinctive features. -short and stocky with powerful physiques. -Their robust appearance may be related to strength and endurance requirements or adaptations to the cold environments where they lived. -relatively low cranium, prominent brow ridges, large faces, and brains larger than modern humans. -The front teeth were heavily worn, suggesting that they were used for grasping or heavy chewing.
feildcrew
the most important part of an archaeological project. -Excavation is labor-intensive (expensive). -The crew is involved with the actual digging process. -Crews can be composed of a variety of individuals. -Fieldwork can require months of labor, but it is not the most time consuming part of the process: analysis and writing is.
archaeology
the study of the human past, combining the themes of time and change.
Analysis and Interpretation
Third step of Research Design •Archaeological material needs to be analyzed after collection.-Analysis can occur concurrently with fieldwork in a field laboratory, or later at a home laboratory.
Homo habilis
first stone tools, Oldowan. Oldowan Olduvai Gorge, Africa 2.4-1.4mya
louis leaky
found the first stone tools in Olduvai Gorge and pioneered the study of early stone tools and animal remains in East Africa.
Climate and the Environment in the Pleistocene
he Pleistocene was characterized by active volcanoes and cooling temperatures. -This epoch had at least nine glacial periods. -One consequence of reduced temperatures was the spreading of glaciers over large portions of the continents. -Global sea levels were reduced by as much as 300-500 feet. While today only 10% of the land surface of the earth is covered by glaciers, ice during glacial periods may have covered 30% of the surface. -In North America, ice masses extended as far south as St. Louis. -The weight of the ice forced land masses to sink. -Global sea levels were reduced by as much as 300-500 feet.
The Paleolithic Period
just as geologists divide up the history of the earth, archaeologists break up the prehistory of human society into smaller, more manageable units. -The scheme focuses on changes to artifacts and material culture. -The Paleolithic is characterized by tools of flaked flint. The Paleolithic is characterized by tools of flaked flint and is subdivided into several periods.- The Basal Paleolithic includes Oldowan tools dating from around 2.5 m.y.a. -The Lower Paleolithic includes the Acheulean assemblages, generally associated with Homo erectus, and extends from 1.8 to about 200,000 years ago. -The Middle Paleolithic is associated with the Neandertals with Mousterian tools and other forms of early Homo sapiens. -The Upper Paleolithic began about 40,000 years ago. Several important technological trends occurred during the Paleolithic. -The controlled use of fire, the of hunting large game, the production of definite living structures, the intentional burialof the dead, and the first art appeared during this period. -Increased specialization of tools also occurred.
culture
the traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, shared among a group of people, that form and guide their behavior, and form their beliefs of what everything means
Oldowan/Olduwan tools
and the bones of very early homininsoccurred at the same point in geological time. -Strong, sharp edges and were made from raw materials from 6 miles away. -Two sites at Olduvai were places for butchering animals. -Most of the living floors were occupied during the wet season.
soil analysis
yield important information. -Chemical analysis can provide information about environmental factors at the site. -Phosphate analysis may reveal traces of human activities from bone, feces, urine, organic materials. -Objects in the soil can also provide important information
Data Collection - fieldwork.
An archaeological surveyis a systematic search of the landscape for artifacts and sites. -Surface survey - systematic walking of the site for the purposes of obtaining artifacts or locating features. Other techniques can be used prior to excavation to find out about the site. -Geophysical prospecting can be used to detect disturbances in the subsoil and the presence of prehistoric features. -Ground penetrating radar is becoming a standard in the field. -Magnetometer and electrical resistivity too.
Lake Mungo, Australia
Australia was colonized by Homo sapiens sapiens around 50,000* years ago. -Rafts or boats of some kind were likely used. -The first emigrants somehow crossed a body of water at least 65 miles wide. -At the time of colonization, sea levels were 400 feet lower than today. Some of the oldest sites in Australia lie along the margins of dry lakebeds in the southeastern part of the country, an area known as Lake Mungo •Sites at Lake Mungo contain hearths and shells dating to around 32,000 years ago. -Human bones (42kya) and hearths containing fish and mammal bones were found. -Several burials were found. •Some of the oldest rock art and wall paintings in the world are from Australia.
Portable Art
Beginning 35,000 years ago, bone became a common material for human use, modification, and decoration. •Many examples of Upper Paleolithic art were found. -Perhaps the most spectacular portable objects are the "Venus figurines." -Probably 80% of the prehistoric art known today comes from the last stage of the Upper Paleolithic. -Portable art was more common in larger settlements than small ones.
Fate of the Neanderthals
Between 45,000 and 25,000 years ago, Neanderthals became extinct and were replaced by fully modern humans. -There is a debate as to whether Neanderthals were completely replaced by fully modern humans, or if they inbred and simply disappeared in the mix. -Neanderthals and humans coexisted in the Near East until about 45,000 years ago. -In Europe, modern humans did not appear until after 45,000 years ago. -The replacement of Neanderthals by humans in Europe started about 45,000 and years ago and may have occurred by 25kya. The question of the fate of Neanderthals remains unsolved, with several possibilities having been suggested. -One possibility is that Neanderthals were conquered by humans, although evidence from artifacts does not appear to support that view. -Two recent discoveries of human skeletal material suggest some interbreeding of Neanderthals. (Portugal) -There is genetic evidence to the contrary based upon ancient DNA, which shows little genetic relationship between Neanderthals and humans.
Pleistocene Extinction
By the end of the Pleistocene, about 35 species of land mammals, nearly half the total number, became extinct in North America. -Many of the animals were large carnivores and herbivores that had been around for over two million years. -A similar, though not as complete, pattern of extinction in large mammals occurred in Europe and Asia. -Two explanations for the extinctions have been proposed, -Climate change or overhunting by humans
presentation
Fifth step of Research Design -More detailed analysis includes the preparation of reports and publications which require much more time. -Final results are available to the public and to professional archaeologists.
Conclusions and Reformulation
Fourth step of Research Design
Atapuerca
Located in northern Spain, Atapuerca contains artifacts from the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic. -The area is comprised of limestone hills.-Major excavations began to expose rich deposits in the 1990s. -The two most interesting layers for the Paleolithic are known as Sima de los Huesos and Gran Dolina. Sima de los Huesos is a crevice deep in a cave. -The "pit" lies 175 feet below ground and 1,500 feet from the nearest entrance to the cave. -Excavations have produced the largest set of human remains ever recovered from the Paleolithic. -Parts of at least 32 individuals have been found. -They have been designated as Homo heidelbergensis. -The individuals were intentionally put into the pit (burials). Some of the deposits at Gran Dolina date to 900,000 years ago. -Bones from at least four Homo erectusindividuals have been found. -Indications of cannibalism were found among the Homo erectus remains. -Several hundred stone tools have been found.
Origins of Language
The origin of human speech and language is one of the most fascinating aspects of human adaptation and evolution, yet perhaps the most difficult to explain. -Language did not appear suddenly or without antecedents. •Studies of the physical remains of early humans provide substantial information about language use by early hominids. -The discovery of a Neanderthal hyoid bone, which holds the muscles of the tongue to the throat, suggests that they could use language like us. Other evidence provides insight into the language ability of human ancestors. -The hypoglossal nerve controls the movement of the tongue. -The size of the nerve reached modern proportions about 500,000 years ago. -Other fossil evidence indicates that the necessary mouth and throat anatomy for spoken language was not in place until 150,000 years ago.
Upper Paleolithic
This period is characterized by a variety of innovations that developed over the last 40,000 years of the Pleistocene. -Anatomically modern humans arrived in Europe. -Tools became more sophisticated with the extensive use of stone blades and the widespread manufacture of a variety of objects from bone, antler, ivory, and wood. -New equipment such as the spearthrower or atlatl and the bow and arrow emerged. -The Upper Paleolithic also saw the geographic expansion of people into virtually all of the earth's diverse environments. The archaeological materials of this period are best known from Europe. -The earliest skeletal remains of Homo sapiensfound in western Europe date to 42,000 years ago. -Individuals were originally called Cro-Magnon, but they were indistinguishable from fully modern humans. -Now called modern Homo sapiens. Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe reinforce the idea that humans had become creative creatures by the Upper Paleolithic. -Stone blades were being manufactured along with tools made from bone, wood, ivory, and antlers. -Other tools were being made as well, such as bows and arrows, needles, harpoons, and nets. -Spearthrowers enabled hunters to throw their darts with greater force and accuracy. -Several categories of carved artifacts were being manufactured.
how some of the Oldowan tools were used
Tools were used for cutting meat, slicing soft plant material, and scraping and sawing wood. -Evidence of woodworking suggests that wooden tools were also being made.
Acheulean Handaxe
was the signature tool of Homo erectus. -The tool is an all-purpose piece of equipment that was used for cutting, sawing, digging, bashing, and boring large holes, among other things. -is a more complex tool than it first appears to be. -is symmetrical in outline, reflecting purpose, skill, and foresight in manufacture. -The symmetry and consistency of the relationship between length and width of the handaxes were striking. associated tools are referred to as Acheuleanartifacts, after the original find location at St. Acheul in France. -A hard stone-on-stone method, or hard hammer technique, was used to make more irregular tools. -A soft hammer technique was used to make more regular handaxes. -Acheulean assemblages include both handaxes and a variety of other tools, both heavy-duty pieces and smaller ones. A hard hammer technique - more irregular tools .A soft hammer technique - more regular handaxes. Acheulean assemblages include handaxes and a variety of other tools of other sizes.
40,000 years ago
modern humans spread into Australia and New Guinea.
Cave of Lascaux
The cave of Lascaux in southwestern France was discovered by chance in 1940. -The cave had been sealed for perhaps 15,000 years. -The cave contains the most important collection of Upper Paleolithic art in the world. -Cave painting is a category of Upper Paleolithic art called mural art. -Mural art is primarily found deep inside caves in France and Spain. The cave interiors were not living areas and were only briefly visited by the artists along with other members of society. -The paintings are almost exclusively of animals. -The cave paintings themselves are rendered in outline and often colored in monochrome or polychrome. -Light and some form of scaffolding would have been needed to paint in the caves. -The cave art is typically carefully planned and skillfully executed. The paintings at Lascaux date to around 17,000 years ago. More than 600 paintings and 1,500 engravings are on the walls of the cave. The cave is a narrow chamber over 100 yards long. There are several schools of thought on the meaning of the cave paintings from the Upper Paleolithic. -An emphasis on pregnant animals has been interpreted to represent a concern with fertility. -Some scholars have argued that there was a concern over the hunting of animals for meat. -Some prehistorians have suggested that the cave paintings were "art for art's sake." -Others have suggested that the caves were primitive temples. More than 200 painted caves have been discovered in France. -In the last decades, several major new art sites have been revealed. -The cave of Chauvet , discovered in 1995, is at least five times larger than Lascaux and dates to 36,000 years ago. -Another important cave, Cosquer, was found underwater by divers off the coast of France, near Marseilles.
Postglacial Environment in Europe
The environment has undergone dramatic changes in vegetation, fauna, and sea level since the end of the Pleistocene. -A shift in the climate at the end of the Pleistocene was largely responsible for such environmental changes. -Europe was much colder during the ice ages 18,000 years ago, but was warmer than present times around 7,000 years ago.
Valley of the Neanderthals
The first Neanderthal was found in 1856 in a limestone cave in the Valley of the Neander River, near Düsseldorf, Germany. -Prior to this discovery, there had been no acceptance of human forms earlier than Homo sapiens. -Gradually, more examples of these individuals came to light. -Neandertals emerged around 430,000 years ago, early than modern humans (Homo sapiens).
Hominin Expansion
Human ancestors moved out of Africa about 2 m.y.a., at the beginning of the Pleistocene. -As hominids moved into Asia and Europe, they encountered cooler climate conditions. -Expansion out of the tropics required new skills and inventions for surviving in different environments. -The first reliable evidence of controlled use of fire, systematic hunting, and the use of wooden spears appeared during this time. -Change in stone tools appeared with the emergence of the handaxe.
The First Europeans
The earliest evidence for humans in Europe is less than 1 million years old, later than their appearance in Asia. -This may be due to the fact that older specimens have not yet been found. -Another possibility is that the climate was too cold for our ancestors to live in, given their technology prior to that time.
300-200,000 years ago
The earliest known H. sapiens is from Southwest Ethiopia
homo sapiens also
-art created -invented many new tools -tailored clothing -started counting -expanded to almost all parts of the world. earliest fully modern humans Homo sapienshave been found in East and South Africa.
Archaeological Research Design
1.Formulation 2.Data Collection-Phases 1, 2, 3 3.Analysis & Interpretation 4.Conclusion & Reformulation 5.Presentation
homo neandertalensis
300,000-45,000ya.
Analysis of Archaeological Materials
A variety of specialists is required to examine and interpret the finds and information derived from fieldwork. -Fieldwork can yield artifacts, ecofacts, features, sites, and settlements. -There are specialists in such areas as archaeobotany, archaeozoology, paleoanthropology, and many others. -There are also specialists in certain classes of materials. Fieldwork yields portable objects altered by human activities, called artifacts. -Artifacts must be cleaned and recorded. -A catalog description of each artifact includes many pieces of information, such as form, technology, and style. -A description could include a drawing or picture. -Classifying the artifacts into specific types can create order.
Vedbaek
An important archaeological site is located near the town of Vedbaek, located near Copenhagen, Denmark. -By 7,000 years ago, there was a shift in social arrangements from small, scattered groups or reindeer hunters, to concentrations of more sedentary societies. -Settlements became more permanent and societies developed along the coastlines. -Groups expanded their resource bases to include marine life. -Following the retreat of the ice, the Vedbaek Valley contained a freshwater system of lakes. A Mesolithic graveyard was discovered at Vedbaek, dating to approximately 4800 B.C. -The graves of at least 22 individuals were uncovered. -Grave goods were included in the burials. -Some of the graves show evidence of violent deaths. Vaenget Nord was probably a small and specialized camp for the Mesolithic inhabitants, whose more permanent homes were along the shoreline of the inlet. -Plant and animal remains indicate the utilization of a variety of environments, presumably during the warmer months of the year. -The site was the focus of activities that involved hunting, the butchering of animals, the manufacture of tools and equipment, and some woodworking.
Interpretation of Archaeological Information: The Cultural System
Archaeologists ask questions about past societies that involve concepts of technology, economy, organization, and ideology. -Technology is the manner in which people convert natural resources into products they need or want. -Economy is a broad topic that involves how people obtain foods, materials, and goods to sustain their lives. -Social and Political Organizationrefers to the roles and relationships in society on a variety of levels. -Ideology refers to the means by which people structure their ideas about the universe, their place in that universe, and their relationships with one another.
End of the Lower Paleolithic
Around 2 million years ago, our ancestors began to exert influence on their environment, to change the world around them. -The move out of the tropics demanded solutions to new problems. -Fire must have been a major factor in increasing the success of the move into colder habitats. -Hunting became essential for the human way of life in colder climates. The reliance on meat perhaps led to changes in the family structure of Homo erectus. -A sexual division of labor may have developed, with males hunting and females gathering while caring for young. -Almost certainly, some form of proto-family emerged among Homo erectus populations, if not earlier.
homo sapiens
At some point after 300,000 - 200,000 years ago, in Africa.
biological evolution
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace were the first to describe the process of natural selection. -They noted that individuals with variations that allowed them to survive and reproduce did so with greater frequency, thereby increasing the frequency of those variations in subsequent populations. -Natural selection is not the "survival of the fittest", but the continuing survival of those with variation that allow them to adapt to changing environments.
excavation
Creating maps and grids during excavation is essential. -A grid is marked out across the surface of a site prior to excavation. -Datum primary reference point. What makes a good datum? -Today, a total station is used to electronically map sites.
Zhoukoudian
Excavation at Zhoukoudian began after the discovery of an unusual fossil tooth at an apothecary in Beijing. -For millennia, many Chinese believed that fossil bones had medicinal and curative powers. -The tooth discovered at the apothecary came from a place called Dragon Bone Hill, a large limestone ridge near the town of Zhoukoudian. -Davidson Black was convinced that they could discover an early human fossil where the tooth had been found. -Evidence of fire usage and over 20,000 stone tools were found. Bones of large and small species were found at the site.Charred hackberry fruit seeds suggest that plant foods may have formed part of the diet. The most important finds at Zhoukoudian were the remains of early hominids, specifically Homo erectus. -A total of 6 skullcaps, 12 skull fragments, over 100 teeth, 7 thigh bones, and other bones were found.-Unfortunately, the fossils disappeared when an attempt was made to move them to the United States in 1937.
Examination of endocasts and language
Endocasts provide evidence of brain organization. -Lateralization, which is essential for language. -Dates prior to Homo genus -Mouth and throat anatomy for speaking
Modern and Ancient DNA
Evidence from genetic studies also provides some understanding of the point in time at which different animal species separated, such as humans from other apes. -Scientists have developed a "molecular clock" to estimate the number of years since different modern species separated from a common ancestor. -The number of mismatches in the chromosomes of two species correlates closely with the evolutionary distance between the species and the amount of time they have been separate. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA allows a map to be drawn of the spread of humans about 200,000 years ago. -Homo sapiens first appeared in Africa between 170,000 and 130,000 years ago. -Modern humans moved out of Africa around 130,000 years ago. •Mitochondrial DNA is inherited from your mother and you have the identical mtDNA as she does. Another kind of study examines ancient DNA, genetic material in the nucleus of cells extracted from the remains of ancient plants and animals. -The breakdown of ancient DNA molecules makes studies difficult, but not impossible. -Oldest known human aDNA is 430,000 years old from Neandertals in Sima de los Huesos, Spain
Hunters or Scavengers?
Examining the size and type of animals and their bones at various locations sheds evidence on the issue. -Animals at hominin sites and sites of modern foragers are similar, suggesting that Olduvai hominins were hunting. -At hominin sites, complete skeletons from small animals and leg bones of large animals were found. -This suggests that hominin were hunting small animals and scavenging large ones. -Tiny scratch marks made by stone tools are also visible on fossilized animal bones.
Interpretation of Archaeological Information
Explaining human behavior in the past and its changes through time is a major goal of archaeology. -Archaeological theories and ideas are attempts to explain what took place in the past. -What makes archaeology a science is its rigorous testing or evaluation of answers to questions being asked.
dating methods
In the first half of the 20th century, there was almost no way to determine the age of the remains of early humans and their artifacts. -A few relative dating techniques were available, but establishing an absolute age was generally impossible. -Relative methods relied upon stratigraphic relationships to sequence older and younger materials or relied upon association. There are many methods for determining absolute dates available today. -The most common techniques rely upon the properties of radioactive decay in certain elements. -Radiocarbon dating is perhaps the best known technique and can date archaeological materials that are up to 40,000 years old. Radiopotassium dating, or potassium-argon dating, is very important for determining the age of the earliest human remains. -Dating from Olduvai Gorge, which used this technique, revealed dates that were a million years older than previously believed. -Newly formed volcanic rock or ash deposits can be dated. -Potassium-argon dating has a half-life of 1.3 billion years.•The latest advances in radiopotassium dating has led to a technique called argon-argon dating. -Argon-argon dating found the date of the Vesuvius volcano eruption to be AD 73.
the first tools
Intentionally modified stone tools appeared first in Africa between 3 and 2 m.y.a. -Their appearance is probably associated with the increasing importance of meat in the human diet. -Stone tools provide useful cutting edges for a species that lacks both sharp teeth and claws for slicing meat, shredding plants, or digging. -The earliest dated stone tools were found in central Ethiopia and date to 2.6 m.y.a. -Cores or pebble tools for hammering and flakes and scrapersfor cutting.
Dolni Vestonice
Near the town of DolniVestonice, in the south-central part of the Czech Republic, enormous bones of extinct woolly mammoths were uncovered. -Many artifacts date to about 25,000 years ago.-Mammoths were the primary game in the eastern parts of Europe. -At one site, the remains of 800-900 mammoths have been uncovered. -Mammoths were formidable prey for late Pleistocene hunters in Europe, being fifty percent larger than modern African elephants. Dolni Vestonice contains dwelling structures, mammoth bones, and many intriguing artifacts. -The bones of at least 100 mammoths were piled up in an area of 40 by 140 feet. -Stone tools and butchered bones suggest this was where animals were butchered. Stones, earth, wooden posts, and mammoth bones were used in the construction of structures at the site. -One structure was a large oval measuring 30 by 50 feet. -Several roofed huts were found in the area with mammoth bones being used for a roof. Various artifacts were found at Dolni Vestonice. -Fired clay figurines from 15,000 years ago are the earliest in the world. -Ornaments, necklaces, and headbands were made from bone, ivory, and shell. -Carved ivory heads were found.
phase 1
STPs or Test pits are often made to provide a preliminary examination of a site. Sometimes test pits are placed in a systematic fashion and sometimes they are random. -The size and number of pits depends upon the information being sought. Vertical excavations take the form of pits or trenches placed across a site. -The stratigraphy, or layers, reveal how the site was formed and how materials accumulated. -Evaluation of a stratigraphic sequence involves distinguishing between natural and human activities. -Assessment of the layers allows for the interpretation of the history of the deposits. Excavation is the technique used to uncover buried remains from the past. -Buried materials are usually more abundant and better preserved than those found on the surface. -Excavation is often essential to obtain more information about the past. -Excavations are conducted to answer specific questions framed by the archaeologist. the Excavation Director (Principal Investigator - PI) oversees the operations of an excavation. -Many skills are required to direct excavation, including knowledge for planning, raising money, supervising the crew, and recording information. -Learn these in the field as technicians, then crew leaders, then assistants.
Neanderthals
Several cultural innovations characterize Neanderthal populations. -Mousterian artifacts -large game hunters -Intentional burial of the dead occurred. -Cannibalism appears to have occurred among Neanderthals.
formulation
Several steps are often taken prior to beginning site discovery fieldwork. -Written material to learn about the time and place of interest, and what is presently known. -Visiting local historical societies or museums can provide further information. -The use of maps and geology is important for identifying the location of sites.•Funding, grants, permissions, equipment purchases, crew.Discovery can occur in many different ways, however, most sites are discovered by chance. -Digging and construction often uncover prehistoric objects. -Amateur archaeologists often know about local history and frequently find sites while walking fields. -Besides chance discoveries, fieldwork can be used to locate sites.
shovel test pits
Small test pits reveal soli layers, artifacts, and maybe even features.
Symbols and Notation
Some of the decorated objects from the Upper Paleolithic share motifs that often occur together, suggesting that specific concepts were being depicted. -A bone knife from a French site has various markings that convey images of spring and fall. -Some artifacts have markings which suggest some sort of tally was being kept. -Another bone object from France has markings that appear to record the phases of the moon.
artifacts
When found, they are stored and information about them is recorded.
selecting sites for excavation
involves several factors. -Sites threatened by modern construction are often good candidates for excavation. -Sites are also chosen because they are well-preserved or contain information that will aid the understanding of a particular region or time. -The choice of a site is often based upon the results of a survey. -Must satisfy your research design.
phase 3
is Horizontal, or area, excavations often follow vertical excavations and expose large areas of ground. -Area excavations are intended to recover information on site arrangement and structures. -Actual prehistoric living floors may be exposed. -As layers are removed, information about each one is analyzed and recorded. -Made up of connecting EUs
Obtaining information from the fossil record
is difficult for several reasons .-Fossil remains of our earliest ancestors are very fragmentary and poorly preserved. Why? -All of the early fossil finds represent only a few parts of a few hundred individuals. -Determining the age of fossils is difficult.-New fossils that modify current ideas are found almost every year.
phase 2
is opening larger area than Phase I testing. Dig squares called excavation units EUs.
homo heidelbergensis
evolved from Homo erectus around 600,000 years ago in Europe. Achuelean, cannibalism, fire, housing. Atapuerca, Europe. 700 - 200kya
olduvai gorge
located in northern Tanzania 2 mya the area was a large bowl-shaped basin which trapped rainfall, forming lakes and wetlands.
homo erectus
evolved from Homo habilis about 1.9 m.y.a.-first human form to leave Africa. The earliest Homo erectus fossil comes from Kenya and dates to 1.8 m.y.a. -Homo erectus individuals were robust, with large bones and teeth, larger bodies, and significantly larger brains than their Homo habilis ancestors. -Homo erectus had brains that were about 1,000 cc (You = 1,350 cc) -They had low, sloping foreheads, prominent brow ridges, and protruding faces. -Homo erectus individuals were almost fully modern in terms of movement and locomotion. Several Homo erectus have been dated to just after 2.0 m.y.a. -These early dates suggest that Homo erectus may have spread very quickly across Asia following their initial appearance in Africa. -The earliest dates for humans in Europe are younger than 1 m.y.a. -Homo erectus was eventually replaced by Homo sapiens about 100,000 years ago. Achuelean, fire, wood, elder care. Zhoukoudian, Africa, Asia, Europe. 1.9mya - 143kya
45,000-25,000 years ago
fully modern humans replaced Neanderthals in western Asia and then in Europe.
25,000* years ago
humans entered the Americas.
geological time
broken down into a series of eras, representing major episodes, each lasting 10s-100s million years -Precambrian era -Paleozoic era - first vertebrates -Mesozoic era, or the Age of the Dinosaurs, began. -The Cenozoic, the current era, began about 65 m.y.a., after the extinction of the dinosaurs, Age of Mammals.
Pleistocene cultural changes Neandertals & Moderns
burial of the dead -cannibalism -nurturing of the weak and elderly
change
can occur through both biological and cultural processes. -Most of the evolution of life on earth is characterized by biological evolution. -Culture is a means of human adaptation based upon experience, learning, and the use of tools.
boring
can reveal the sequence of layers and sediment samples at the site.
early stone tools
created by striking one stone against another in a process called percussion flaking. -The flakes were used for cutting and for making other tools and the cores were used as well. -The right kinds of raw materials needed to be used to create the best tools. -The pebble tools found are called Oldowan tools. -Studies have shown that between 1.9 and 1.4 m.y.a. the tools were made by right-handed individuals, indicating changes in brain organization.
cenozoic era
divided into a series of seven epochs, the last four of which are relevant to humans. -Miocene epoch was from 24 to 5.5 million years ago, first humanlike ancestor appears at end of epoch. -Pliocene (5.5-2 mya), a variety of hominid fossils, humanlike creatures, appeared. Homo genus first emerges 2.5mya. -Pleistocenebegan around 2 m.y.a. had climactic changes. -Holocene, the most recent epoch, began around 11,000 years ago with origins of agriculture.
