WP&M Exam 2

Bombing Command

-Decided to start bombing German Cities -Birtish bombers could hold heavier payloads than US bomber, but had very few defensive armaments -Bombers started bombing at night, no enemy fighters, but bombers were not accurate -Desperate, the British Airforce turned to Area Bombing which bombed German Civilians directly -Area bombing was simply not effective -In September of 1942 the Royal Air Force has sustained 233% casualty rate -Because of heavy casualties they stopped in Winter of 1942 and restarted in 1943 -Casualties once again mounted -Stopped all operations in 1944

442nd Infantry Regiment

-Executive Order 9066 allowed Military commanders to exclude any and all persons from their areas -120,000 americans were forcibly relocated during the war -90% were Japanese Americans -Many were put in detainment camps But once the manpower crunch got so bad, the army went to these camps and asked for volunteers -Some said yes, and many worked in intelligences The rest went into the 442nd Infantry Regiment (Not in Notes) Formed in 1944, fought primarily in Europe; in particular Italy, southern France, and Germany. (Not in Notes) Composed entirely of 2nd generation Japanese Americans (Not in Notes) Originally made up of 4,000 men, had to be replaced nearly 2 times (Not in Notes) In total, about 14,000 men served, earning 9,486 Purple Hearts

Women's International League for Peace and Freedom

-Founded by Jane Adams who also created the Women's Peace Party -Believed peace, freedom and social justice were all connected -Believed the capitalist system and the government's willingness to support it led only to war -Therefore, peace freedom and social justice was an international effort

Giulio Douhet

-Of the two competing views on how to use airpower, Douhet championed using it for strategic bombing -Italian pilot who agreed with Mitchell that air support could flatten cities, but he believed bombers of the future would use fire bombs and chemical weapons on enemy civilians, causing enough panic and chaos on the homefront to force the enemy to sue for peace -Second difference from Mitchell was that Douhet rejected the assertion that you needed fighter planes. Believed bombers of the future, called Battle Planes, would be equipped with enough machine guns to defend itself against fighter pilots and destroy targets at will, winning wars within hours

Women's Army Corps

-Over 150,000 American women served in the WAC during WWII -Members of the WAC were the first women other than nurses to serve within the ranks of the United States Army -Both the Army and the American public initially had difficulty accepting the concept of women in uniform... However, political and military leaders, faced with fighting a two-front war and supplying both men and material for that war while continuing to send lend-lease material to the Allies, realized that women could supply the additional resources so desperately needed in the military and industrial sectors

Combined Chiefs of Staff

-US and Britain combined their own Joint Chiefs of Staff to coordinate how to invade Europe -Headed by FDR and Churchill -Thinking was to end the war as soon as possible -US Chiefs wanted to go for landing on France, and go straight to Germany "The sooner we start, the sooner we finish" -British Chiefs disagreed, thought they should go for the peripheries, and attack from the soft underbelly of Europe -Made sense for Britain, as it would allow for Indian and other colonial supplies through the Suez Canal -Britain was also hesistant to throw it's army at the Atlantic Sea Wall, as it would be the only army they could send, they were already scraping the bottom of the barrel for manpower -Wanting immediate action, all three powers agreed to attack in 1940 through Algeria and intoItaly -FDR needed to show that they were fighting, as 1942 was an election year, this narrowed the allies options -Invasion of Africa was over by 1941, so they invaded Sicily and went for Italy in 1942 -However, because of these operations, and the landing craft shortage, D-Day was postponed a month

Tuskegee Airmen

-made up of 1,000 black pilots -Citizen-Military relationship -The government/Logistics feared a "double victory," that a defeat of fascism abroad would lead to a defeat of segregation at home if black men took part -Severe manpower shortage necessitated drafting of back soldiers -Segregated like other black divisions -Flew more than 15,000 individual sorties in Europe and North Africa during WWII, earning them more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses -Different than the two black infantry divisions, who were mainly used to free up white soldiers

Brigadier General William "Billy" Mitchell

-of the two competing views on how to use airpower, Mitchell was the biggest defender of using it for air superiority -Envisioned a role for airpower as more than just a division of cavalry as they approached the enemy (Mahanian in his theory) -Argued that since both armies and warships could be destroyed from above, future wars would be won in the air (command of the air). -Argued for a balanced air force with and overlap between guardian and managerial philosophies -Charged with insubordination in 1925 after publicly accusing the Navy of incompetence after the Shenandoah went down. Went from a Brigadier General to an Air Liaison in Texas because of this

Division

-smallest individual unit capable of operating independently -WWI American divisions consisted of two brigades(8,000 men each) and Staff Combat Support(12,000 men)

Midway

A decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II which occurred between the 4th and 7th of June 1942, The United States Navy under Admirals Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chuichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondo near Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet that proved irreparable The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor, sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly, American cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to prepare its own ambush.

Double-Victory -

A fear that came about when the military had to resort to a non-white draft pool due to the manpower shortage The idea that helping in the victory over Fascism abroad would lead to a victory for Civil Rights at home for African Americans

The Zimmerman Telegram

A secret diplomatic telegram, sent in January 1917 by the German Foreign Office, proposing a military alliance of Germany and Mexico prior to the US entering World War I Jan 1917, German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, sends a telegram to ambassador in Mexico. According to telegram, US entry seemed imminent, and he offered military alliance, and said Mexicans could feel free to keep Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico after the war. Telegram wondered whether Japan, who had declared war on Germany in 1914, could somehow be persuaded to join the second Mexican-American war. Mexico rejected offer, they needed substantial military assistance which means they would need control of the Atlantic and Germany didn't have that. Great Britain deciphered the telegram after they got a copy of it, and released the telegram to American newspapers. This fell flat, because they had a reputation for spreading propaganda - US thought GB made it up, but when asked, Zimmermann said yes, he had sent it. Zimm believed that America could not mobilize in time to make a difference, and that the US wasn't at all prepared - and in this respect, he was almost right. As a result of telegram, the perception that US should do everything it can to stay out of war ebbs. Congress agrees to declare war on Germany April 1917, and on Austria-Hungary in Dec 1917

Two-Ocean Navy Act of 1940 -

After France fell, the US passed this act, fearing it might have to fight a two-ocean war on its own The Congress allotted $4 billion (over four times the navy budget for fiscal 1940) for construction, including a planned 11 battleships; 10 aircraft carriers; 27 cruisers; 115 destroyers; 43 submarines; and 15,000 aircraft. While new construction was necessary, it did not solve all the Navy's problems Larger warships would take years before they were ready US lacked new bases and facilities in the western pacific The Navy required more fleet oilers and supply ships This act therefore resembled the Naval Act of 1916, which called for an expansion of the navy, but lacked funding for supply ships and overseas bases & did not fully prepare the navy for war

Landing Craft -

Allies would have to fight their way ashore in order to gain any foothold However, there is a shortage of landing craft, which delays major operations, including Overlord (D-Day) US shipyards were preoccupied with the Battle of the Atlantic, which meant prioritizing merchant vessels, escort carriers, and other battleships and cruisers Total of 61,000 landing craft built during the war, majority built after January 1943 Types: Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel (LCVP) HIggins boat Flat bottomed with a ramp Could hold 40 troops or 3 ton vehicle Could fit about 4 tons of cargo onto a higgins boat 20,000 built during the war Landing Vehicle, Tracked (Alligator, AMTRAC) (LVT) Smaller than a Higgins boat: half the capacity Advantage: Had treads which allowed travel in shallow water 20,000 built during the war Landing Ship Tank (LST) Could carry 20 tanks Could travel in open water Used to invade Morocco in allied invasion of Africa Approximately 1,000 built during the war

Committee on Public Information

An independent government agency enacted from April 1917-June 1919 with the purpose of influencing the public opinion in favor of the war through the use of propagandaEstablished April 1917; otherwise known as the "Creel Committee" Exhorted Americans to: Ration Buy war bonds Basically a propaganda arm set up by the Wilson Admin. Made propaganda films and posters

90-Division Gamble -

Army dispatched 90 divisions overseas The fewer divisions you have, fewer places where you could be in contact with enemy on the front line, but too many divisions and you are duplicating unnecessary roles. Had to find some kind of balance This would turn out to be too few divisions in the end, leaving US forces spread thin

Strategic Bombing

Army navigators felt that strategic bombing was the act of attacking industry, resources, transportation networks, and residential areas using airplanes. Early theories suggest airplanes could one day win war on its own - no Army needed. As late as 1929, the range of the planes were limited though. On eve of ww2 the B-17 Flying Fortress was the iconic US bomber Air Corps supposed to provide for all of Army's aviation needs - but they bet on strategic bombing to win it all on its own, felt they were impervious to attack from enemy fighter planes. On eve of war, strategic bomber gave air corps a mission and purpose, but it was more fantasy than fact

Admiral William F. Halsey

At the start of the War in the Pacific, Halsey commanded the task force centered on the carrier USS Enterprise in a series of raids against Japanese-held targets. Halsey was made commander, South Pacific Area and led the Allied forces over the course of the Battle for Guadalcanal (1942-43) and the fighting up the Solomon chain (1942-45). In 1943 he was made commander of the Third Fleet, the post he held through the rest of the war. He took part in the Battle for Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle of the Second World War and, by some criteria, the largest naval battle in history. He was promoted to fleet admiral in December 1945 and retired from active service in March 1947.

Operation Torch -

British-United States invasion of French North Africa during the North African Campaign of the Second World War Began 8 November 1942 First major operation that US troops undertook in the European / North African theatre of World War II. While US commanders favored Operation Sledgehammer, landing in Occupied Europe as soon as possible, British commanders believed that such a course was likely to end in disaster. U.S. President Roosevelt suspected that landings in north-west Africa would rule out an invasion of Europe in 1943, but agreed to support British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.

Manhattan Project -

By 1939, physicists had induced nuclear fission, which made the development of nuclear weapons possible Started in response to fears that German scientists had been working on a weapon using nuclear technology since the 1930s—and that Adolf Hitler was prepared to use it. FDR appropriated some funds to work on this technology Army took over in 1942, and the project was at first headquartered in the Manhattan Industrial District Even after relocating HQ to Los Alamos, NM, the project's location was still called the "Manhattan Industrial District," as a matter of subterfuge, and therefore the project kept the name "Manhattan Project" Directed by Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer US spent $2 billion on the project 90% went to construction and acquiring materials Used natural uranium and synthesized plutonium to construct 2 bombs Both bombs were made, but were crude and over engineered Each bomb weighed five tons The Uranium Bomb was simple, one small bullet of Uranium would hit a bigger chunk of uranium and would explode, no testing necessary The Plutonium Bomb was more complicated No one was sure if it would work Some scientists weren't sure if the reaction would ever stop, and would destroy the world Only one plane could carry the bomb, the B-29 August 6th 1945 The Uranium bomb was dropped on Hiroshima August 9th 1945 The Plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki August 15th 1945 Japan surrenders 140-240,000 people died directly from the explosion, and roughly half died within 24 hours This Bomb was the last step in Japan's surrender Japan was already militarily beaten

Anzio

City behind Gustav Line Took place from January 22nd to June 5th Amphibious surprise invasion by the Allies to unstick themselves with the hopes of outflanking German forces and taking Rome Due to Major General John P. Lucas's indecision and lack of confidence in the plan, allied forces became encircled Aided by French Forces, and under the new command of Major General Lucian K. Truscott, the allied forces broke free However, under orders from Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, the allied forces did not cut off a large portion of German troops, but rather went straight for Rome and occupied it, allowing for German troops to make a slow retreat and regroup

Operation Overlord -

Codename for the Battle of Normandy, the Allied operation that launched the successful invasion of German-occupied Western Europe during World War II. The operation was launched on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings (Operation Neptune, commonly known as D-Day). A 1,200-plane airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault involving more than 5,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June, and more than two million Allied troops were in France by the end of August. The coast of Normandy was chosen as the site of the invasion, with the Americans assigned to land at sectors codenamed Utah and Omaha, the British at Sword and Gold, and the Canadians at Juno. To meet the conditions expected on the Normandy beachhead, special technology was developed, including two artificial ports called Mulberry harbours and an array of specialised tanks nicknamed Hobart's Funnies. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted a substantial military deception, Operation Bodyguard, using both electronic and visual misinformation. This misled the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of developing fortifications all along the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an invasion.

The Peace Ship

Common name for the "Oscar II" which Henry Ford sent to Europe with peace activists on board. After fights between the activists, the press calling the mission a "Ship of Fools," and an influenze outbreak Henry Ford abandoned the mission 4 days after landing ashore in Norway Nov 1915, Henry Ford announced he was chartering a ship to Europe with some of the greatest peace advocates to administer peace. Unfortunately, when it left Hoboken Dec 1915, it didn't know what its final destination was or how to end the war. Ford came to the conclusion that it was an expensive and empty gesture. First stop was in Oslo, Norway, and went it reached the dock, Ford booked a passage to return to US.

Twentieth Air Force

Consisted entirely of B-29 Bombers Carried out Operation Matterhorn, which was based out of Air bases in India and China Supplies had to be brought over the Himalayas, costing large amounts of time and money Due to Japan's location right under the Jetstream, and Japanese blackouts, almost no bombs landed even close to their intended targets The bombers were also only just in range of Japan, and the B-29's engines were built with magnesium and frequently caught fire Due to its ineffectiveness, the Operation was phased out, and the Twentieth Air Force was merged with the Twenty First Air Force for bombing operations based out of the Marianas chain of islands

Battle Plane -

Douhet considered the battle plane to be the bomber of future b/c it would have so many machine guns that it could defend itself against fighter attack on its own Could destroy its targets at will and win the war within hours.

Yeoman

Enlisted members of the Navy who's primary job was administrative/clerical work. Many women took over these positions during WWI to free up men for combat; faced criticism because "not a women's job","soon they'll cut their hair and start wearing pants" attitude.

War Industries Board

Established July 28th, 1917 by the Council of National Defense. The purpose of the WIB was to coordinate the purchase of war supplies between the army (War Department) and the Navy Department, encouraging the use of mass production techniques and the elimination of waste by standardizing products Needed for rapid mobilization at the start of US entry into WW1 Several powers: Coordinate all purchases by War and Navy Departments Convert factories to priority uses: war industries- weapons, vehicles, etc Coordinate activities of various civilian agencies Unfortunately, it couldn't produce the most valuable thing: TIME Americans forced to use British and French equipment, tanks, artillery, etc

Iwo Jima -

February 19 - march 26 1945 Designated Operation Detachment Purpose of the invasion was to get the three airfields and would be a staging area for future attacks Japanese had underground tunnel/bunker networks built Japanese deaths were three times more than American deaths Considered the most fierce fighting in the pacific theater 25k casualties

Yalta Conference -

February 1945 All 3 Major leaders → Stalin, FDR, Churchill Town in Crimea (Ukraine) Last face-to-face meeting they would have (FDR dies in april, Churchill voted out) FDR wants soviet assistance in the Pacific war Stalin wanted recognition of Soviet influence between Germany and Soviet Union He is in the best position to get what he wants 3 agreed they have to surrender unconditionally Germany + Berlin would cut into 4 occupational zones → US, SU, BR, FR FDR + Churchill say FR should get some The less Papa Stalin gets, the better

Neutrality Acts - 1930's

First Act in 1935 - prevented arms shipments to countries involved in war. Also said americans traveling on warring ships at their own risk. 6 month term Second in 1936 - renewed the first act for another year and forbade loans to belligerents. Some American companies such as Ford got around this Third in 1937 - barred US citizens from traveling or trading with belligerents. The acts increasingly restrict the means of american industry to sell weapons, strategic gains, and resources to other countries The adoption of lend-lease rejected these policies and allowed the US to trade

General of the Armies John J. Pershing

Fought in North American Wars vs Geronimo and Spanish American war in Philippians. Led the American Expeditionary Forces in WWI, promoted straight from Captian to Brigader General by Roosevelt with approval from congress. Rejected British and French Amalgamation Proposal out of pride, belief in the value of the American soldier, and fear that it would take longer to get American troops in Britsh/French divisions out of combat than if they were under American command. Believed the problem was that British and French divisions were too small, wanted larger ones. Was originally sent with one division, the First Division, which grew to 4 by 1917 and another 52 divisions were sent by the end of the war. Pershings idea was to put the divisions into two columns, with two regiments each, both would charge in and the second line of regiments would push through. July 1918- Pershing launches a seperate American offensive with 20 divisions during allied counter offensive; first attack was St. Mihiel where the germans were already falling back, leading to an easy victory. Second attack was the Meuse-Argonne Offensive which involved 1.2million US Soldiers. Resulted in 120,000 casualties and exposed flaws in the US organization, logistics, and Army Doctrine even though the battle was won.

Admiral Raymond Spruance

He commanded U.S. naval forces during two of the most significant naval battles that took place in the Pacific Theatre: the Battle of Midway and the Battle of the Philippine Sea. At Midway, Spruance scored the first major victory for the United States over Japan; most historians consider Midway the turning point of the Pacific War. On 19 June 1943 Spruance was promoted to vice admiral, becoming Nimitz's deputy, and on 5 August he became Commander, Central Pacific Force (renamed as the Fifth Fleet in September 1943), with orders to implement his own plans

Lend-Lease -

In 1918, US troops went into battle with British and French rifles, artillery, and tanks. In WWII this is reversed b/c of lend-lease. Proposed in late 1940 and passed in March 1941, the Lend-Lease Act was principal means for providing U.S. military aid to foreign nations during World War 2, allowing the US to serve its interests without going into battle or violating neutrality. US would "lend" war materiel to Allies and receive no monetary repayment - instead, the US required consideration from participating countries - which mostly took the form of them helping create and maintain economic order postwar Allies were dependent on US industrial production. 44 different countries accepted lend-lease aid from US during WWII. Total value was some 50 billion dollars, with Britain accepting about 31 billion in transport and naval aircraft and merchant ships and oil and steel; USSR accepting about 11 billion; (Not Discussed in Class) France accepting 3.2 billion, China accepting 1.6 billion, and other allies accepting 2.6 billion total.

Operation Downfall -

In summer 1945, the US came up with preliminary plan to take Japan called Operation Downfall. Had 2 parts Operation Olympic was to be launched against the southernmost island of Kyushu on Nov 1, 1945 Operation Coronet was to be launched against the Japanese mainland of Honshu near Tokyo. Coronet would require wholesale redeployment of men from Europe, so planners didn't believe it could take place before Mar 1946. It was plausible that the war would stretch on till even 1948. Kyushu invasion was projected to cost the US between 22,00 and 44,000 killed or wounded in first 30 days, and nearly a quarter of a million casualties in total from both operations, with Japanese suffering casualties in the millions.

Casablanca Conference -

January 14 to 24, 1943 Convened to plan the Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War II. Attended by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill Also attending and representing the Free French forces were Generals Charles de Gaulle and Henri Giraud, though they played minor roles and were not part of the military planning. Premier Joseph Stalin had declined to attend, citing the ongoing Battle of Stalingrad as requiring his presence in the Soviet Union. The conference agenda addressed the specifics of tactical procedure, allocation of resources, and the broader issues of diplomatic policy. The debate and negotiations produced what was known as the Casablanca Declaration, and perhaps its most historically provocative statement of purpose, "unconditional surrender". The doctrine of "unconditional surrender" came to represent the unified voice of implacable Allied will—the determination that the Axis powers would be fought to their ultimate defeat.

Sicily

July 9, 1943 - August 17, 1943 Codenamed Operation Husky, where the Allies took the island of Sicily from the Axis powers (Italy and Nazi Germany) Large amphibious and airbone operation, followed by a six-week land campaign With the advice of the CCS, there was favor of an Allied assault on the island of Sicily followed by an invasion of mainland Italy British argument Pull German reserves down to Italy Due to the relatively poor north-south lines of communication, they could not be easily extracted to defend against a later invasion of northwest Europe Delay the cross-Channel landing, giving time for the german army to grind itself down on the Eastern Front, allowing for an easier invasion Strategy A campaign into Italy might divert German divisions from the Eastern Front and provide air bases for Allied bomber strikes against Germany and targets in Eastern Europe Italy's collapse would wound the German cause politically and weaken it militarily The Sicilian campaign revealed both improvements and deficiencies in the Allies' ability to beat the Axis armed forces in battle Enjoying tactical surprise because the Germans again misjudged the invasion objective, the American 7th Army and British 8th Army established beachheads ashore, but German-Italian armored counter attacks on the American beaches came within a few kilometers of success Result- Patton's sweeping ground-amphibious envelopment of Messina through Palermo and Montgomery's plodding advance up Siciliy's eastern coast toward the same objective Despite the victory, it did not bode well for combined operations

Espionage And Sedition Acts of 1917+1918 -

June of 1917 Defined espionage very loosely Defined so loosely that simply giving an opinion could be a violation Sedition act-outlawed the use of disloyal, profane, scurrilous, derogatory, abusive language toward the US Govt, flag, or the armed forces. The Govt imprisoned pacifist, socialist, Militant Unions Anyone who thought the US should not go to war could be in violation Eugene V Debs Ran for president from Atlanta jail Schenck Vs. United States (1919) -clear and present danger test- Man cannot shout fire in a crowded movie theater Govt has the power to restrain speech that could be harmful to the US Sedition acts are repealed in the 1920s Pardons Eugene Debs after War Government is try to restrict opposition to the war effort, wants healthy young men to fight in the War

Battle of Leyte Gulf -

Largest naval battle of World War II Fought in waters near the Philippine islands of Leyte U.S. Navy's Third and Seventh fleets fought IJN IJN suffered heavy losses, and would never go into direct combat again First use of kamikaze pilots

General George S. Patton Jr. -

Led the 3rd Continental Army Was a cavalry man, and preferred to simply go around enemy entrenchments, rather than through them. Simply encircled enemy positions, and let artillery or the air force would take care of them With this strategy, 16,000 Germans were killed, 55,000 Wounded, 65,000 taken prisoner Tried to mold the army into a elite unit Held his men to strict discipline, expected to shave daily, wear ties, and paint their rank on their helmet Patton line of thinking If you look like a soldier, you might feel like a soldier, if you feel like a soldier, you might think like a soldier, and if you think like a soldier, you may act like a soldier Patton would often tour the front line in a jeep, and would always drive towards the front line, and was then airlifted back to base, so he was never seen leaving However, Patton believed every man could be a soldier, and had slapped soldiers in medical tents who had no wounds. These men were shell shocked, or in modern terms, had PTSD Under Patton, the 3rd army raced forward November 1st - 36 days behind schedule September 1st - 3 days ahead of schedule September 29 st - was at projected May, 1945 war goal Germans were forced to retreat enmasse, to avoid being encircled, and went as far back as Aachen, the war goal of May, 1945 Logistics became so strained that from fall 1944, to December 1944, the 3rd army was throttled back Basically, Patton did blitzkrieg against the Germans, specifically called Kesselschlacht

General of the Army Douglas MacArthur

MacArthur was recalled to active duty in 1941 as commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East. A series of disasters followed, starting with the destruction of his air forces on 8 December 1941, and the invasion of the Philippines by the Japanese. MacArthur's forces were soon compelled to withdraw to Bataan, where they held out until May 1942. In March 1942, MacArthur, his family and his staff left nearby Corregidor Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia, where MacArthur became Supreme Commander, Southwest Pacific Area. Upon his arrival in Australia, MacArthur gave a speech in which he famously promised "I shall return" to the Philippines. After more than two years of fighting in the Pacific, he fulfilled that promise. In December 1944, he was promoted to the rank of general of the Army and soon given command of all Army forces in the Pacific. He officially accepted Japan's surrender on 2 September 1945, aboard USS Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay

War Plan Orange

Mahanian-like plan The plan assumed that if there was any war with US, Japan would invade Philippines Bataan Peninsula on Manila Bay would be expected to be a stronghold and in meantime the US would fight its way west to stage battle with Japan and seize control of the sea around Manila islands War planners expected to have to seize a Pacific island or construct bases themselves, so Navy had a fleet trained to sustain itself and have logistics figured out as it moved west across Pacific. To hold Bataan, however, a garrison of 125,000 or more would be needed This was the size of the entire US Army at the time, which couldn't be completely devoted to the Philippines Regardless, such a garrison would have been enough to deter attack from Japan in first place. Such a garrison would have needed serious changes in how US looked at itself Admission that the US is an imperial power with imperial defenses This was a sentiment which was unlikely to be adopted Marines used the plan to create their own specialty as an amphibious landing force. Created standardized doctrine for beach landings.

Battle of the Philippine Sea -

Major decisive battle for the Allies, "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot" Neutralized the Japanese air force, most of the their aircraft had been destroyed and most of their experienced pilots lost Facilitated the conquests of Saipan, Guam and Tinian in the Marianas, Palau in the Southwest, and ultimately the Philippines

Okinawa -

Major island to the southwest of Japan Site of the last major battle of pacific campaign Was to be used as a staging point for the eventual invasion of the Japanese mainland Costly battle for both sides, resulted in eventual american victory Allied planners used casualties here to estimate how bad Operation Downfall would be

Guadalcanal -

Military campaign fought between 7 August 1942 and 9 February 1943 on and around the island of Guadalcanal in the Pacific theater of World War II. First major offensive by Allied forces against the Empire of Japan. On 7 August 1942, Allied forces, predominantly United States Marines, landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida in the southern Solomon Islands Objective of denying their use by the Japanese to threaten Allied supply and communication routes between the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Allies also intended to use Guadalcanal and Tulagi as bases to support a campaign to eventually capture or neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain. Allies overwhelmed the outnumbered Japanese defenders, who had occupied the islands since May 1942, and captured Tulagi and Florida, as well as an airfield (later named Henderson Field) that was under construction on Guadalcanal. Surprised by the Allied offensive, the Japanese made several attempts between August and November to retake Henderson Field. Three major land battles, seven large naval battles (five nighttime surface actions and two carrier battles), and almost daily aerial battles culminated in the decisive Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in early November, in which the last Japanese attempt to bombard Henderson Field from the sea, and land with enough troops to retake it, was defeated. The victories at Milne Bay, Buna-Gona, and Guadalcanal marked the Allied transition from defensive operations to the strategic initiative in the theater, leading to offensive campaigns in the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, and the Central Pacific,

Eighth Air Force

Mission was to bomb German and German occupied targets -Believed they could hit targets with precision -B-17 Flying Fortress and the B-24 Liberator were fitted with advanced targeting scopes -Under ideal conditions, bombers could deliver their payload in a 75 foot radius -When you combine the fact that these bombers could defend themselves along with their accuracy, than you can do daylight bombing targeting key factories and positions -Civilians were acceptable casualties in the factory bombings -Usually US respected civilian immunity but the Germans were putting civilians in the factories in an effort to protect the buildings -In the summer 1943, the 8th Air Force opened a front over Germany proper -They got destroyed, and they were totally ineffective -30% of Aircrews were killed every month, and 1/3rd of all payloads landed within 1,000 feet -Accuracy rates got as low as 10% -German industrial production increased in this time of failure -All of this turned around with the recognition of air superiority -Adding Fighters to bomber wings protected them, allowing for lower bomber mortallity rates -Also was helped by the 15th Air Force from allied occupied Italy -Targeting German petroleum factories added to the bombers' effective impact on German Production

Tokyo Raid -

Night of March 9-10, 1945, 334 B-29s attack Tokyo Destroy ¼ of the entire city Killed approx. 100,000 people Around the same time, 20th AF attacked three other cities, bombing until they ran out of bombs Part of Curtis LeMay's firebombing campaign LeMay basically ended up running out of targets

Treaty of Versailles (WWI) -

Not ratified by congress, US made separate peace Took only one of Wilson's 14 points, the League of Nations, which the US never joined (Not in Notes, all from Online from here) Part I created the Covenant of the New League of Nations, which Germany was not allowed to join until 1926 Part II specified Germany's new boundaries, giving Eupen-Malm[eacute]dy to Belgium, Alsace-Lorraine back to France, substantial eastern districts to Poland, Memel to Lithuania, and large portions of Schleswig to Denmark Part III stipulated a demilitarized zone and separated the Saar from Germany for fifteen years Part IV stripped Germany of all its colonies Part V reduced Germany's armed forces to very low levels and prohibited Germany from possessing certain classes of weapons, while committing the Allies to eventual disarmament as well Part VIII established Germany's liability for reparations without stating a specific figure and began with Article 231, in which Germany accepted the responsibility of itself and its allies for the losses and damages of the Allies "as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." Part IX imposed numerous other financial obligations upon Germany. The German government signed the treaty under protest Right-wing German parties attacked it as a betrayal, and terrorists assassinated several politicians whom they considered responsible. Germany in 1924 and 1929 agreed to pay reparations under the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, but the depression led to the cancellation of reparations in 1932 The Allies evacuated the Rhineland in 1930 Germany violated many disarmament provisions of Part V during the 1920s Hitler denounced the treaty altogether in 1935 From March 1937 through March 1939, Hitler overturned the territorial provisions of the treaty with respect to Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Memel On September 1, 1939, he attacked Poland to alter that frontier, as well.

Washington Naval Conference -

Nov 1921-Feb 1922 in Washington. Attended by the US, GB, Japan, Italy, and France The most successful arms limitation regime of all time Regulated naval powers of all 5 countries involved - they measured by weight the ship displaces in tons and agreed to limitations of total tonnage of battleships in each Navy -US and GB could have 525,000 tons -Jap 315,000 tons -Italy and France 175,000 tons Ratio of 5:3:1.75 Agreed that they would not build new naval bases in Pacific GB could keep base at Singapore, and US could keep Pearl Harbor, but no one could build more Hope was that these limitations would help tamp down wars between great powers at least at sea All Navies could build as many cruisers as they wanted - smaller, swifter boats - but each had to have less than 10,000 tons, and armament less than 8 inches in diameter. No restrictions on destroyers and subs US clearly won the conference The restrictions on tonnage meant that GB could safely undo their Japan alliance, which Jap took as an insult Royal Navy was also significantly overweight - most of RN had been built before 1914, so between money issues and the treaty, GB would be stuck with old ships in the future. The US could enter 5 new battleships into service, and the demilitarized Pacific makes Hawaii and the West Coast safer US ships were more modern and now safer as well

Selective Service Act of 1917 -

Passed May 1917 Central idea was to disturb the social and economic structure of US as little as possible, and to take men who were unmarried and not essential to social and economic structure. All men ages 21-30 had to register, and later, it was expanded to 18-45. 24 million had registered for draft by end of war. 2.8 million of them were drafted and they made up 2/3 of all those who served. Some 367,000 African Americans served during the war, 2 divisions of black troops go to France. The 92nd was run by white southerners and was not impressive. The 93rd on the other hand, was given to the French, who treated it like their own colonial troops and they believed in African American troops - many won French decoration for valor Naval and marine regulations did not restrict women from enlisting - yeomen (f) served clerical and secretarial positions . Marines had about 300 women that they called into duty. Army hired thousands of women to serve as secretaries and clerks.

Selective Training and Service Act (Burke-Wadsworth) - 1940 -

Passed Sept 1940 All men aged 21-36 registered for potential service Each registrant received a number from the local draft board and a lottery system was used to determine who was inducted Draft deferments existed for those who worked in an essential industry, had dependents, or were conscientious objectors Most who weren't classified as fit simply failed the physical - minimum standards were at least five ft tall; 105 pounds; 20/20 vision; no flat feet, hernias, or venereal disease; at least 16 teeth. ½ of pre-war registrants could not meet these standards, which is testament to the terrible poverty and poor nutrition of the 1930s. Prewar draftees were to serve one year, but in 1941, discharges were suspended indefinitely Over 940,000 men were inducted before Pearl Harbor

B-29 Superfortress -

Plane carried 10 tons of bombs to target 1300 miles away, which is 4x the payload of a B-24, with a range of 33% longer. It could deliver from 30,000 feet theoretically. This feat required the first air pressurized cabins. Therefore special electric machine gun controls also had to be invented. May 1934, the first one went into service, after $3 billion had been spent on it. The US didn't want these used on the Philippines or Okinawa. But the program didn't start auspiciously Most expensive defensive program to date. Total cost was $3 billion, $1 billion more than the manhattan project Began with the Twentieth Air Force, which carried out Operation Matterhorn, which was based out of Air bases in India and China Because all the supplies for aircraft had to be used to fly over Himalayas in China, gathering the necessary fuel, ordinance, and other resources was an expensive and time consuming endeavor B-29 weighed 60 tons, despite the fact that designers tried to save weight wherever possible Engine was made of aluminum and magnesium rather than steel. Magnesium catches fire easily when it gets hot When flown at high altitudes, the B-29's engines would catch fire When flown at lower altitudes, engines wouldn't overheat, but then they were vulnerable to enemy fighters and anti aircraft guns Fighter planes couldn't escort B-29s over long distances, making low altitude day operations risky The Jet Stream runs right over Japan, causing B-29s to fly at only 5 miles an hour, or stall and fall out of the sky, and it was difficult to hold and keep a true course - which made bombing with precision difficult. Due to its ineffectiveness, Operation Matterhorn was phased out, and the Twentieth Air Force was merged with the Twenty First Air Force for bombing operations based out of the Marianas chain of islands under the command of Major General LeMay The B-29's operations would culminate in the dropping of nuclear bombs, the fruits of the Manhattan Project, on Hiroshima and Nagasaki

National Defense Act of 1920 -

Re-authorizes the establishment of a new National Guard Attempted to improve Army's general staff Organized staff into 5 sections; Personnel, Intel, Operations, Supply, War Plans Army's educational system undergoes reform

Meuse-Argonne -

September 26, 1918 - November 11, 1918 Pershing's next move after success at St. Mihiel 1.2 million Americans take part 120,000 killed, missing, wounded High casualties due to scattered fierce german resistance and prevalence of rookie divisions Exposed serious flaws in US logistics, planning, and tactics Smaller divisions were more mobile and and easier to reinforce/replace US divisions were large, immobile, and lacked serious firepower 6 divisions had to be broken up because they faced so many casualties But a success nonetheless Germans knew they would be beaten if the war extended to 1919 AEF tipped the scales in the Entente's favor, but mostly due to manpower, not performance It also led to a kick ass Sabaton song called "The Last Battalion"

Daylight Precision Bombing -

Sought to target industry and key infrastructure Inevitably would kill civilians as a result Done because air force officers believed planes could defend themselves even during the day In reality, US planes were highly vulnerable and faced incredible losses 75% of aircrews failed to complete a 25 mission tour Also highly inaccurate during combat conditions Only ⅛ missions flown in ideal conditions

Nighttime Area Bombing -

Strategy of RAF Bomber Command British bombers lacked sufficient defense systems, so they flew at night But they are terribly inaccurate Hence, they turn to area bombing in May 1942 Attacks morale Deliberate targeting of civilian homes and infrastructure Unofficially, Britain understood and accepted the civilian cost as a necessary war measure However, the area bombing proves to be ineffective: Germans improve night training and defenses Results in 33% casualty rate- highly unsustainable Britain forced to pause/resume area bombing multiple times to control losses

War Plan Rainbow

The Joint Board in June 1939 laid down the guide lines for the development of new war plans, aptly designated RAINBOW to distinguish them from the color plans. There were to be five RAINBOW plans in all, each of them based on a different situation. Under RAINBOW 1, a strategic defensive was to be maintained in the Pacific, from behind the line Alaska-Hawaii-Panama, until developments in the Atlantic permitted concentration of the fleet in mid-Pacific for offensive action against Japan. Under RAINBOW 2, the United States would undertake immediate offensive operations across the Pacific to sustain the interests of democratic powers by the defeat of enemy forces. RAINBOW 4 assumed United States Army forces would be sent to the southern part of South America, and a strategic defensive, as in RAINBOW 1, was to be maintained in the Pacific until the situation in the Atlantic permitted transfer of major naval forces for an offensive against Japan. Under RAINBOW 5, there would be early projection of U.S. forces to the eastern Atlantic, and to either or both the African and European Continents; followed by offensive operations conducted to defeat of Germany and Italy. A strategic defensive was to be maintained in the Pacific until success against the European Axis Powers permitted transfer of major forces to the Pacific for an offensive against Japan. or Following the events in Europe in 1938 and 1939 (the Anschluss, Munich Agreement, German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact), American war planners realized that the United States faced the possibility of war on multiple fronts against a coalition of enemies. To that end, the Joint Planning Board developed a new series of war plans, the "Rainbow" plans Rainbow 1 - Plan for a defensive war to protect the United States and the Western Hemisphere north of ten degrees [south] latitude. In such a war, the United States was assumed to be without major allies. Rainbow 2 - Identical to Rainbow 1, except assuming that the United States would be allied with France and the United Kingdom. Rainbow 3 - Repetition of War Plan Orange, with the provision that the hemisphere defense would first be secured, as provided in Rainbow 1. Rainbow 4 -Based on the same assumptions as Rainbow 1, but extended the American mission to include defense of the entire Western hemisphere. Rainbow 5 - The basis for American strategy in World War II, assumed that the United States was allied with Britain and France and provided for offensive operations by American forces in Europe, Africa, or both

Pearl Harbor -

The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7, 1941 Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions that were planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service and went on to fight in the war The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer One hundred eighty-eight U.S. aircraft were destroyed 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded The surprise attack came as a profound shock to the American people and led directly to the American entry into World War II in both the Pacific and European theaters. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan Several days later, on December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. The U.S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, disappeared.

Amalgamation

The proposed integration of American troops into already withstanding Allied divisions. Met strong opposition by many americans and in turn John J. Pershing remained in command of his troops at lower levels but the entire force was under British and French command

Major General Curtis LeMay -

Was brought in to fix the B-29 problem If the planes couldn't fly at high altitude, then they would fly low If in the day at low altitude the bombers were vulnerable to fighters, then they would fly at night If they were not accurate at night, they would area bomb LeMay knew Japanese cities were largely made of wood, so they mostly used incendiaries This attack was deliberately against civilians 3/9-10/45 - Bombers firebombed Tokyo, destroying a quarter of the city, killed 100,000 people By the end of the war, 40% of Japan's 66 largest cities were destroyed, and an estimated 1 million people were killed, and 8.1 million were displaced as refugees LeMay had no problem doing this, as long as it advanced the war effort

Dwight D. Eisenhower -

When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, appointed to the army's war plans division in Washington, D.C., where he prepared strategy for an Allied invasion of Europe. Eisenhower had been made a brigadier general in September 1941 and was promoted to major general in March 1942; he was also named head of the operations division of the War Department. In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower - not Marshall - would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month he was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942-43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944-45 from the Western Front.

Guardian Philosophy

attack the morale of the enemy